Cultural Analysis in an Age of Globalization
By Benjamin Lee
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Benjamin Lee
American scholar Benjamin Lee holds a PhD in Anthropology an MA in Human Development from the University of Chicago, and a BA in Psychology from Johns Hopkins University. He was the founding director of the Center for Transcultural Studies in Chicago and was recently a recipient of a Guggenheim Fellowship. Lee has written extensively on the anthropology and philosophy of language, literary theory, and global cultural studies.
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Cultural Analysis in an Age of Globalization - Benjamin Lee
P r e f a c e
I w o u l d l i k e t o t h a n k m y h o s t, P r o f e s s o r L i u D o n g o f B e i j i n g U n i v e r s i t y, f o r m a k i n g i t p o s s i b l e f o r m e t o s h a r e s o m e t h o u g h t s a b o u t t h e r o l e t h a t c u l t u r a l a n d l i t e r a r y a n a l y s i s c a n p l a y i n a n a g e o f g l o b a l i z a t i o n. I t w o u l d n o t b e e x a g g e r a t i n g t o s a y t h a t l i t e r a r y a n d c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s a r e n o w i n a c r i s i s i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s. F r o m t h e t i m e i n t h e s e v e n t i e s a n d e i g h t i e s w h e n c o m p a r a t i v e l i t e r a t u r e d e p a r t m e n t s w e r e a t t h e c u t t i n g e d g e o f t h e h u m a n i t i e s, w e n o w s e e t h e m s h u t t i n g d o w n. T h e m a j o r r e a s o n f o r t h i s ‘ c r i s i s i n t h e h u m a n i t i e s’ i s g l o b a l i z a t i o n. T h e s e i s s u e s s h o u l d n o t b e u n f a m i l i a r t o C h i n e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l s w h o s e d e b a t e s o v e r a s i m i l a r c r i s i s a d e c a d e a g o ( r e n w e n j i n g s h e n w e i j i) f o r e s h a d o w e d c u r r e n t d e v e l o p m e n t s. T h a t s h o u l d n o t b e s u r p r i s i n g, s i n c e C h i n a h a s b e e n a p l a c e t h a t h a s m o s t i n t e n s e l y f e l t t h e f o r c e s o f g l o b a l i z a t i o n. T h e g o a l o f t h e s e l e c t u r e s i s t o s h o w h o w w e c a n u s e s o m e o f t h e i n s i g h t s o f w h a t h a s b e e n c a l l e d t h e ‘ l i n g u i s t i c t u r n’ i n c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s t o a n a l y z e a n d u n d e r s t a n d t h e g l o b a l t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a f f e c t i n g a l l o f u s.
I f i r s t v i s i t e d B e i j i n g i n 1 9 8 7 a n d h a v e c o m e b a c k r e g u l a r l y o v e r t h e l a s t f i f t e e n y e a r s. I ' m t h e p r o d u c t o f a n e a r l i e r g e n e r a t i o n o f g l o b a l c i r c u l a t i o n s. M y f a t h e r w a s a g r a d u a t e o f T s i n g h u a a n d X i n a n L i a n d a, m y m a t e r n a l g r a n d f a t h e r t h e c o n t r o l l e r f o r Y e n c h i n g U n i v e r s i t y, n o w B e i d a. T h e h o u s e m y m o t h e r g r e w u p i n s t i l l s t a n d s o n c a m p u s. W h e n I w a s a c h i l d, w e t r a v e l e d r e g u l a r l y t o J a p a n, T a i w a n, a n d H o n g K o n g, a n d I w a t c h e d t h e m t r a n s f o r m t h e m s e l v e s f r o m g l o b a l b a c k w a t e r s i n t o g l o b a l l e a d e r s. I r e m e m b e r a s a c h i l d l o o k i n g f o r C o c a C o l a t o d r i n k b e c a u s e w e w e r e n ' t s u r e a b o u t t h e l o c a l d r i n k i n g w a t e r, a n d w o n d e r i n g w h y t h e r e w a s n ' t a n y i c e c r e a m a n y w h e r e. N o w w h e n I a m i n B e i j i n g, I a m r e m i n d e d o f t h e s e c h a n g e s, o n l y t h e y s e e m t o b e m u c h l a r g e r a n d m u c h, m u c h f a s t e r. I ' v e b e e n g o i n g o n l o n g d a i l y w a l k s t h r o u g h B e i j i n g a n d I s e e n e i g h b o r h o o d s t r a n s f o r m e d n o t o n l y b y n e w s h o p p i n g c e n t e r s w i t h t h e i r S t a r b u c k s a n d M c D o n a l d s b u t a p a r t m e n t b u i l d i n g s w i t h n a m e s l i k e P a l m S p r i n g s, M a n h a t t a n, a n d W i n d s o r A v e n u e. L o c a l c o n v e r s a t i o n s s e e m v e r y s i m i l a r t o o n e s I h e a r i n H o n g K o n g a n d N e w Y o r k; e v e r y o n e i s t a l k i n g a b o u t r e a l e s t a t e. Y e t m o s t o f t h i s d i d n o t e x i s t f i v e y e a r s a g o. A m e r i c a n s l i k e t o t h i n k t h a t t h e y a r e a t t h e c u t t i n g e d g e o f g l o b a l i z a t i o n, b u t I d o n ' t t h i n k t h e y u n d e r s t a n d a t a l l t h e t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s g r i p p i n g C h i n a, I n d i a a n d o t h e r p a r t s o f A s i a. S o i t p e r h a p s i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t t o d a y I w i l l t a l k a b o u t s o m e t h i n g t h a t C h i n e s e i n t e l l e c t u a l s f i r s t t a l k e d a b o u t a l m o s t a d e c a d e a g o: t h e c r i s i s i n t h e h u m a n i t i e s a n d c u l t u r a l s c i e n c e s i n t h e f a c e o f g l o b a l i z a t i o n.
T h e s e l e c t u r e s a r e d r a w n f r o m a c o l l a b o r a t i v e r e s e a r c h a n d w r i t i n g p r o j e c t w i t h P r o f e s s o r E d w a r d L i p u m a o f t h e D e p a r t m e n t o f A n t h r o p o l o g y, U n i v e r s i t y o f M i a m i. T h e i n t r o d u c t i o n h a s b e e n a d d e d t o t h e o r i g i n a l l e c t u r e s g i v e n a t B e i j i n g U n i v e r s i t y i n t h e f a l l o f 2 0 0 3; L e c t u r e F o u r h a s b e e n h e a v i l y r e v i s e d.
I n t r o d u c t i o n
A t t h e b e g i n n i n g o f t h e n e w m i l l e n n i u m, e v e r y t h i n g a n d n o t h i n g h a s c h a n g e d. T h e c i r c u l a t i o n s o f c o n v e r s a t i o n s a n d c u r r e n c i e s, i d e o l o g i e s a n d i m a g e s, c o m p u t e r t e c h n o l o g i e s a n d r e l i g i o u s f u n d a m e n t a l i s m s a r e d e f i n i n g t h e c o u r s e o f h u m a n e v e n t s. I n d e e d, t h e r e i s a g r o w i n g r e a l i z a t i o n t h a t w e c a n g r a s p t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y m o m e n t, t h e m o m e n t o f a s c e n d a n t g l o b a l i z a t i o n, o n l y b y a r t i c u l a t i n g a c o h e r e n t t h e o r y o f c i r c u l a t i o n ( s)— w h a t I w i l l r e f e r t o a s ‘ c u l t u r e s o f c i r c u l a t i o n’. T h e t e r m s i g n i f i e s t h a t t h e m o s t c r u c i a l f o r m s o f c u l t u r e n o w c i r c u l a t e g l o b a l l y a n d t h a t c i r c u l a t i o n i s m u t u a l l y i n s e p a r a b l e f r o m t h e c u l t u r a l f o r m s t h a t f l o w t h r o u g h i t. T h e t e r m e q u a l l y s i g n i f i e s t h a t t h e m o s t d e f i n i t i v e f o r m s o f c a p i t a l a r e t h o s e t h a t c i r c u l a t e g l o b a l l y, t h a t a r e m o s t n o m a d i c, a n d t h a t a r e l e a s t a t t a c h e d t o t h e s o c i a l r e p r o d u c t i o n o f a n y n a t i o n a l e c o n o m y o r c u l t u r e.
T h e m o s t c r i t i c a l a n d d e f i n i t i v e f e a t u r e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y g l o b a l i z a t i o n i s t h e e m e r g e n c e o f i n c r e a s i n g l y p o w e r f u l c u l t u r e s o f c i r c u l a t i o n. T h e s e c i r c u l a t o r y p r o c e s s e s r e d e f i n e t h e p r o d u c t i o n a n d p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f v a l u e i t s e l f, e p i t o m i z e d b y t h e r e v o l u t i o n a r y d e s i g n a n d i m p l i c a t i o n s o f t e c h n o l o g i c a l l y a m p l i f i e d f i n a n c i a l i n s t r u m e n t s. T h e s e f o r m s o f c o n n e c t i v i t y a r e i n s t r u m e n t s a n d e x p r e s s i o n s o f t h e r e p r o d u c t i o n o f g l o b a l a s y m m e t r i e s o n t e r m s s o n e w, s o d i f f e r e n t f r o m a n y t h i n g t h a t h a s g o n e b e f o r e, t h a t p e o p l e, s t a t e s, a n d s o c i a l m o v e m e n t s t h e w o r l d o v e r a r e s e a r c h i n g f o r t h e s i t e s o f p o w e r a n d f o r t h e i d e n t i t i e s o f t h o s e w h o h a v e c o n t r o l. C o n t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r e s o f c i r c u l a t i o n a r e g i v i n g r i s e t o n e w s t r a i n s o f s u b j e c t i v e f r e e d o m ( e. g., a d i s c o u r s e o f p e r s o n a l e n t i t l e m e n t a n d r i g h t s) e v e n a s t h e y h e i g h t e n t h e f o r m s o f o b j e c t i v e d e p e n d e n c e, i n t h e p r o c e s s r e c o n f i g u r i n g t h e g r o u n d r u l e s o f g o v e r n a n c e a n d t h e p a r a m e t e r s o f p o l i t i c a l p o w e r. T h e a s c e n s i o n o f c i r c u l a t i o n a s a q u a s i - a u t o n o m o u s s p h e r e, g r a c e d w i t h i t s o w n o r g a n i z i n g p r i n c i p l e s, t e c h n o l o g i e s o f p o w e r, a n d r e g i m e s o f i n t e r p r e t a t i o n, i s s i m u l t a n e o u s l y t h e e l a b o r a t i o n o f a d y n a m i c t h a t b e g i n s w e l l b e f o r e t h e d a w n o f c a p i t a l a n d o f a n e w s t a g e i n t h e h i s t o r y o f c a p i t a l i s m.
Y e t i t i s e x a c t l y t h e r i s e o f c i r c u l a t i o n t h a t h a s p r o d u c e d a c r i s i s f o r c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s. A l m o s t a l l t h e c o n t e m p o r a r y f o r m s o f c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s s u c h a s c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s, n e w h i s t o r i c i s m, a n d d e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s m a r e p r o d u c t s o f w h a t h a s b e c o m e k n o w n a s t h e ‘ l i n g u i s t i c t u r n’. T h e t e r m w a s o r i g i n a l l y t h e t i t l e o f a c o l l e c t i o n o f e s s a y s o n t h e p h i l o s o p h y o f l a n g u a g e e d i t e d b y t h e A m e r i c a n p h i l o s o p h e r R i c h a r d R o r t y i n 1 9 6 7; i t b e c a m e t h e h a l l m a r k f o r t h e t r e m e n d o u s i n t e r d i s c i p l i n a r y i n t e r e s t i n l a n g u a g e a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n t h a t h a d s t a r t e d w i t h s t r u c t u r a l a n t h r o p o l o g y i n t h e s i x t i e s, b u t s o o n s p r e a d i n t o l i t e r a r y, l i n g u i s t i c, a n d p h i l o s o p h i c a l s t u d i e s a n d c o n t i n u e s t o t h i s d a y i n l i t e r a r y a n d c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s. T h e d e b a t e s b e t w e e n s t r u c t u r a l i s t s a n d p o s t - s t r u c t u r a l i s t s, d e c o n s t r u c t i o n i s t s a n d u n i v e r s a l i s t s, c o n s t r u c t i v i s t s a n d f o u n d a t i o n a l i s t s, a l l h a v e a t l e a s t o n e t h i n g i n c o m m o n: a s h a r e d b e l i e f i n t h e i m p o r t a n c e o f l a n g u a g e f o r s o c i a l a n d c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s.
T h e p r o b l e m i s t h a t i n t h e w o r k i n s p i r e d b y t h e l i n g u i s t i c t u r n, t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y t o i d e n t i f y c u l t u r e w i t h l a n g u a g e; c u l t u r e, l i k e l a n g u a g e, i s t h o u g h t o f a s s h a r e d, l o c a l, a n d i m m e d i a t e, t h e s i t e o f c o n f r o n t a t i o n a n d r e s i s t a n c e t o m o r e g e n e r a l i z e d a n d a b s t r a c t g l o b a l e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s e s. T h i s h a s l e d t o t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t w h a t d i f f e r e n t s o c i e t i e s n o w s h a r e i s t h a t t h e y a r e a l l r e a c t i n g t o a g l o b a l c a p i t a l i s t ‘ h o m o g e n i z a t i o n’ i n t e n t o n r e m a k i n g t h e w o r l d i n i t s o w n i m a g e. T h e c u t t i n g e d g e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y t r a n s f o r m a t i o n s a p p e a r s t o b e e c o n o m i c f o r c e s; t h e y a r e s e e n a s t h e r e a l g o d s b e h i n d t h e a c c e l e r a t i n g c i r c u l a t i o n o f p e o p l e, i d e a s, a n d c o m m o d i t i e s. I m p l i c i t i n t h i s p i c t u r e i s t h e p r e s u p p o s i t i o n t h a t c u l t u r e i s s t a t i c w h e r e a s t h e e c o n o m y i s d y n a m i c; c u l t u r e s t a y s p u t w h i l e m o n e y a n d c o m m o d i t i e s m o v e e v e r m o r e r a p i d l y a c r o s s t h e g l o b e. T h e p r e s e n t E u r o - A m e r i c a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g o f g l o b a l i z a t i o n a s s u m e s t h a t e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s e s o b e y t h e i r o w n l a w s a n d t h a t e c o n o m i e s a r e s e l f - r e g u l a t i n g, a s, f o r e x a m p l e, i n f r e e m a r k e t m o d e l s; t h e r e s u l t i s t h a t t h e s e p a r a t i o n o f c u l t u r e a n d e c o n o m y h a s b e c o m e a b a s i c p r e s u p p o s i t i o n o f m u c h o f c o n t e m p o r a r y r e s e a r c h o n g l o b a l i z a t i o n.
Y e t i t i s n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t s u c h a t e n s i o n b e t w e e n c u l t u r a l a n d e c o n o m i c a p p r o a c h e s s h o u l d a r i s e. M u c h o f t h e c u t t i n g e d g e o f c u l t u r a l t h e o r y i n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s r e v o l v e s a r o u n d p r o b l e m s o f i d e n t i t y a n d s u b j e c t i v i t y, o f t e n i n t h e f o r m o f w h a t h a s b e c o m e k n o w n a s ‘ i d e n t i t y p o l i t i c s’. A k e y c o n c e p t h a s b e e n t h a t o f ‘ p e r f o r m a t i v i t y’, i n w h i c h a n u t t e r a n c e s e e m s t o c r e a t e w h a t i t r e f e r s. T h e p e r f o r m a t i v i t y o f l a n g u a g e b e c a m e t h e m o d e l f o r t h e p e r f o r m a t i v i t y o f c u l t u r e; f o r e x a m p l e, t h e a s s e r t i o n o f a n i d e n t i t y w o u l d b e t h e c r e a t i o n o f t h a t i d e n t i t y, a s m i g h t b e t h e c a s e f o r a h o m o s e x u a l ‘ c o m i n g o u t o f t h e c l o s e t’.
P e r f o r m a t i v i t y w a s a c o n c e p t t h a t s e e m e d d e s t i n e d t o c i r c u l a t e. T h e n o t i o n o f p e r f o r m a t i v i t y w a s g i v e n p h i l o s o p h i c a l p r o m i n e n c e b y t h e O x f o r d p h i l o s o p h e r J o h n A u s t i n i n h i s J o h n L o c k L e c t u r e s a t H a r v a r d U n i v e r s i t y, b u t h e d e r i v e d h i s i d e a s f r o m t h e G e r m a n l o g i c i a n G o t t l i e b F r e g e, w h o s e w o r k h e h a d t r a n s l a t e d i n t o E n g l i s h. T h e F r e n c h l i n g u i s t E m i l e B e n v e n i s t e m e t A u s t i n a t a c o n f e r e n c e i n R o y a u m o n t, F r a n c e a n d i n t r o d u c e d t h e s e i d e a s t o F r e n c h i n t e l l e c t u a l a u d i e n c e s w h e r e t h r o u g h t h e w o r k o f P i e r r e B o u r d i e u a n d J a c q u e s D e r r i d a t h e y b e c o m e a c r u c i a l p a r t o f s t r u c t u r a l i s t a n d p o s t - s t r u c t u r a l i s t d e b a t e s. I n t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s, t h e p h i l o s o p h e r J o h n S e a r l e, w h o w a s a s t u d e n t o f A u s t i n ' s a t O x f o r d, w o u l d d e v e l o p a t h e o r y o f s p e e c h a c t s t h a t J u r g e n H a b e r m a s w o u l d u s e t o c r e a t e h i s u n i v e r s a l p r a g m a t i c s; a t t h e s a m e t i m e, s p e e c h a c t t h e o r y w o u l d b e c o m e p o p u l a r i n l i t e r a r y s t u d i e s a n d c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s, i n s p i r i n g t h i n k e r s a s d i f f e r e n t a s P a u l d e M a n, J a c q u e s D e r r i d a, J u d i t h B u t l e r, a n d S l a v o j Z i z e k.
A u s t i n u s e d p e r f o r m a t i v i t y t o c r i t i c i z e t h e p h i l o s o p h i c a l f o c u s o n d e s c r i p t i v e o r ‘ c o n s t a t i v e’ u s e s o f l a n g u a g e. R e i n f o r c e d b y d e v e l o p m e n t s i n m a t h e m a t i c s a n d l o g i c s u c h a s G o t t l i e b F r e g e ' s d e v e l o p m e n t o f m o d e r n s y m b o l i c l o g i c, l a n g u a g e w a s s e e n a s e x p r e s s i n g p r o p o s i t i o n s w h o s e t r u t h v a l u e d e p e n d e d o n c o m p a r i n g d e s c r i p t i o n s w i t h a n i n d e p e n d e n t r e a l i t y. A u s t i n a n a l y z e d c e r t a i n l i n g u i s t i c f o r m s t h a t l o o k e d l i k e d e s c r i p t i o n s b u t a c t u a l l y c r e a t e d w h a t t h e y r e f e r r e d t o: ‘ I p r o m i s e t o b e t h e r e’ i s a n a c t o f p r o m i s i n g, w h i l e ‘ h e p r o m i s e s t o b e t h e r e’ i s s i m p l y a r e p o r t. P e r f o r m a t i v e s c r e a t e w h a t t h e y d e s c r i b e, t h e r e b y u n d e r m i n i n g t h e p r e m i s e o f i n d e p e n d e n t c o r r e s p o n d e n c e. A u s t i n a r g u e d t h a t p e r f o r m a t i v i t y w a s n o t a s u p p l e m e n t a l f e a t u r e o f l a n g u a g e b u t r a t h e r f u n d a m e n t a l t o i t. B e n v e n i s t e t i g h t e n e d u p A u s t i n ' s a n a l y s i s b y p o i n t i n g o u t t h a t t h e p e r s o n a l p r o n o u n s ‘ I’ a n d ‘ w e’ w e r e a l s o p e r f o r m a t i v e: u n l i k e a c o m m o n n o u n s u c h a s ‘ c a t’, u t t e r i n g t h e w o r d ‘ I’ r e f e r s t o t h e p e r s o n w h o u t t e r s t h e w o r d ‘ I’ a n d d e s i g n a t e s t h a t p e r s o n a s t h e s u b j e c t o f d i s c o u r s e. B e n v e n i s t e a l s o s u g g e s t e d t h a t p e r f o r m a t i v i t y w a s a f u n d a m e n t a l s t r u c t u r i n g p r i n c i p l e o f l a n g u a g e i t s e l f.
B u t w h y a l l t h e f u s s a b o u t p e r f o r m a t i v i t y? W h y i s i t s o i m p o r t a n t t h a t i t c o n t i n u e s t o b e a f u n d a m e n t a l i s s u e f o r p h i l o s o p h y, l i t e r a t u r e, l i n g u i s t i c s, a n d c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s? P e r f o r m a t i v i t y s e e m s t o c r o s s t h e b o u n d a r i e s b e t w e e n o b j e c t i v i t y a n d s u b j e c t i v i t y; i f l a n g u a g e d o e s n ' t m e r e l y d e s c r i b e t h e w o r l d, b u t c a n c r e a t e i t, t h e n o n e o f t h e b a s i c p r e s u p p o s i t i o n s o f m a t h e m a t i c s, l o g i c, a n d n a t u r a l s c i e n c e i s v i o l a t e d: t h e i n d e p e n d e n c e o f l a n g u a g e a n d w h a t l a n g u a g e r e f e r s t o, b e t w e e n w o r d s a n d r e a l i t y. W h e n w o r d s c r e a t e w h a t t h e y r e f e r, y o u h a v e l i n g u i s t i c m a g i c; i n t h e o p e n i n g o f t h e O l d T e s t a m e n t, G o d c r e a t e s t h e w o r l d b y n a m i n g t h i n g s. I t i s t h e r e f o r e n o t s u r p r i s i n g t h a t A u s t i n s u g g e s t e d t h a t i f h i s i n s i g h t s a b o u t p e r f o r m a t i v i t y w e r e c o r r e c t, t h e n a l l o f W e s t e r n p h i l o s o p h y f r o m t h e G r e e k s o n w a r d w o u l d h a v e t o b e r e t h o u g h t. A u s t i n ' s r a d i c a l i s m w a s n o t a l o n e; h i s c o n t e m p o r a r y, L u d w i g W i t t g e n s t e i n, w o u l d r e a c h s i m i l a r c o n c l u s i o n s a b o u t t h e f o u n d a t i o n s o f l o g i c a n d m a t h e m a t i c s. I f w e p u r s u e t h e a n a l o g y b e t w e e n l a n g u a g e a n d c u l t u r e t h a t h a s a l w a y s b e e n a t t h e h e a r t o f t h e l i n g u i s t i c t u r n, t h e p e r f o r m a t i v e a n d c o n s t r u c t i v i s t t e n d e n c i e s i n c o n t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s c l a s h w i t h t h o s e o f m a n y e c o n o m i s t s w h o s e e e c o n o m i c l a w s a s p u r e l y o b j e c t i v e a n d s i m i l a r t o t h o s e i n n a t u r a l s c i e n c e; t h i s s h o u l d n o t b e s u r p r i s i n g, a s c l a s s i c a l e c o n o m i c s w a s b u i l t a r o u n d e n e r g y m e t a p h o r s t a k e n f r o m n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u r y p h y s i c s. W h i l e t h e p e r f o r m a t i v i t y o f c u l t u r e m i g h t k e e p e c o n o m i s t s f r o m b e i n g i n t e r e s t e d i n c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s, t h e f o r m a l a n d m a t h e m a t i c a l n a t u r e o f c o n t e m p o r a r y e c o n o m i c s a l s o k e p t c u l t u r a l a n a l y s t s a w a y f r o m c o n t e m p o r a r y f i n a n c e. T h e r e s u l t h a s b e e n t h a t w h i l e c u l t u r a l s t u d i e s h a s f o c u s e d o n t h e a n a l y s i s o f c o n t e m p o r a r y c u l t u r a l p h e n o m e n a s u c h a s t h e m e d i a o r p o p u l a r c u l t u r e, t h e r e h a s b e e n a r e l a t i v e a b s e n c e o f a n y s e r i o u s a t t e m p t s t o e x t e n d t h e c u l t u r a l t o o l s o f t h e l i n g u i s t i c t u r n t o t h e a n a l y s i s o f f i n a n c e a n d n e w f o r m s o f c a p i t a l i s m.
T h e c h i e f g o a l o f t h e s e l e c t u r e s i s t o d e v e l o p f o r m s o f c u l t u r a l a n a l y s i s t h a t c a n d e a l w i t h c o n t