Demystifying the Odyssey

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© 2013 by Zlatko Mandzuka. All rights reserved.

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Published by AuthorHouse 07/11/2014

ISBN: 978-1-4817-9063-5 (sc)

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CONTENTS

FOREWORD

I    INTRODUCTION

1.   Greek lands in the time of the Trojan War

2.    Greek myths and epics

3.    Gods, mortals and fate

4.    Hospitality, insult and retribution

II   ARE THE EVENTS AND CHARACTERS FROM THE ILIAD AND THE ODYSSEY GENUINE OR FICTIONAL?

1.    Did Homer speak the truth?

2.    Troy, the Capital of Priam

3.    Mycenae, Agamemnon’s capital

4.    Pylos, Nestor’s capital

5.    Tiryns, Diomedes’ capital

6.    Sparta, Menelaus’ capital

7.    Ithaca, Odysseus’ capital

8.    Crete, Minos’ capital

9.    The Hittite sources

10.    Egyptian sources

11.    Linear B script

III   NAVIGATION IN THE BRONZE AGE

1.   Seafaring in Odysseus’ Time

2.    Ships of the Bronze Age

3.    The Voyages of Homer’s Heroes

3.1.   Telemachus’ voyage to Pylos

3.2.    Nestor’s return From Troy

3.3.    Menelaus’ return from Troy

IV   ODYSSEUS’ WANDERINGS

1.    Author’s interpretation

1.1.    The Classical Theory—The Theory on wonderings in the Mediterranean

1.1.1.    Ancient Classical Theory

1.1.2.    Contemporary Classical Theory

1.2.    Theory on wandering beyond the Mediterranean—The Extreme theory

1.3.    The Theory of wandering the Adriatic—A New Theory

2.    Characteristics of the Landscapes Wandered by Odysseus

2.1.    Sea

2.2.    Archipelagos

2.3.    People and nations

2.4.    Language

2.5.    Stars

2.6.    Distance and pace of Odysseus’s voyage

V   ODYSSEUS’ GEOGRAPHY

1.    Departure from Troy

2.    The Cyconians

3.    Crossroads and the start of wanderings

4.    The Land of the Lotus Eaters

5.    The Goat Island

6   The Island of the Cyclops

7.   Aeolus, ruler of the winds

8.    The Land of the Laestrygones

9.    The Aeaea, Circe’s island

10.    The Realm of the Dead

11.    Circe, revisited

12.    The Island of the Sirens

13.    Scylla and Charybdis

14.    Thrinacia, the Island of Helios’ cattle

15.    Calypso’s Ogygia

16.    Scheria

17.    Return to Ithaca

VI   CONCLUSION

FOOTNOTES

SELECTED LITERATURE

ABOUT THE AUTHOR

FOREWORD

Homer has inspired myriad scientists, writers, amateurs, experts and academics, persistent, inquisitive people and ordinary readers to explore, analyse, study and compare the various topics he addressed, rhapsodised or concealed in his monumental epics the Iliad and the Odyssey. This inspiration has already lasted for two and a half thousand years. As such, one could presume that very few new insights could remain to be revealed about the Iliad and the Odyssey, simply because almost everything has already been said. However, this is not so. As in the case in other fields—not just literature or history—every new study produces new knowledge and, as it advances and fully matures, carries within itself the seed of future ideas, and thus advances human thought and mankind’s accumulated knowledge.

The aim of this book is to explore and to explain that which remains mysterious and unknown about the Odyssey: two basic mysteries: 1) to discuss and explain the creatures and phenomena, such as the one-eyed Cyclops, the seductive sirens, sea monsters, immortal nymphs or Odysseus’s descent to the underworld; with whom he met and the events he experienced during his wanderings; and 2) to determine the actual region in which Odysseus voyaged for almost ten years, which we could call Odysseus’s geography. If we can unravel these two mysteries, we will be able to fully understand the whole of the Odyssey and comprehend its inaccessible and mystical part, which many authors have dubbed the world of the poet’s imagination, described in Homer’s epic through books V to XII.

With regard to demystifying the first mystery by explaining the unusual creatures Odysseus met and the strange phenomenon he saw, more or less all authors have interpreted this as the poet’s imagination and poetic license. I have not had the opportunity to read a single study of Homer that has set out to explain this, so called, world of Homer’s imagination. This book is the first detailed attempt to explain and understand the first mystery and to uncover this world of poets imagination.

Regarding the second of these two mysteries, prior to this it is first necessary to determine whether the question of where Odysseus wandered for almost ten years even needs to be addressed. There are authors who believe that Odysseus’s geography is irrelevant and should not be investigated at all, arguing that the region of the voyage is evidently no more than the fruit of the poet’s imagination and that even its possible revealing would not alter the quality of the poet’s verses in the slightest. According to them, it is futile to attempt to locate the places mentioned in the Odyssey on a map, as one should not create confusion by linking Odysseus’s narrative to history, except if we don’t believe in gods, giants and monsters. The Odyssey is a work of poetry and not a tourist guide and one must be mindful that geography was not the main focus of the narrator of the Odyssey, who was a poet. The Odyssey, unlike the Iliad, does not refer to historical events. It is a story of pure adventure, written mainly to entertain, despite addressing some philosophical issues. Any attempt to identify the mythical and unusual places that Odysseus visited, according to advocates of this opinion, would reduce the artistic beauty of the epic.

On the other side, there are those who believe that Homer always sang the truth, whether he was referring to historical events or geographical concepts. His epics, according to supporters of this view, are not written merely to amuse and entertain. They are authentic testimonies of a bygone time and two actual events of that time. Without this belief in the truth of the Homeric poems, there would not have been the great archaeological revelations of the late 19th and throughout 20th centuries that served to confirm to us the authenticity of Homer’s singing. Even back in ancient times, the greatest minds, such as Herodotus, Thucydides, Aristotle, Apollonius Rhodous, Virgil, Ovid, Strabo, Cicero, Horace, Plutarch and others, attempted to fathom the mystery of Homer’s so-called world of imagination. And to modern days there are still many authors seeking the same, like William Ewart Gladstone, who was four times Prime minister of Great Britain or Victor Berard, French diplomat and polititian. Uncovering the mysteries of Odyssey, in my considered opinion, would enable us fully to understand Homer.

Opposite to the first mystery, on which none wrote anything so fare, on the second one the situation is completely reversed. Based on my research, I can safely say that there exist around 80 different literary attempts and theories to determine where Odysseus’s wandering voyage back from Troy to Ithaca took him. All of these theories basically concentrate on the Mediterranean, with a small pa rt covering the Atlantic and other remote seas, as the area of Odysseus’s geography. In contrast, as I personally interpreted Homer’s poem, Odysseus was not wandering in waters far from his homeland, simply because the level of navigation and the maritime characteristics of the ships of the period did not enable distant voyages. If we supplement this with the fact that Odysseus wandered in what was to him a completely unknown world; a world of barbarians and cannibals, though a world from which he headed south to return to the Ionian Sea, then one area that has never seriously been taken into consideration as a possible area of his wandering—the Adriatic Sea—gains potential significance. Furthermore, the prevailing opinion among authors for the past 2,500 years that Homer’s hero wandered the sea between the shores of Italy and Africa, on the one hand, or between Sicily and Gibraltar, on the other, has many contradictions and discrepancies with the poet’s verse. After all, Homer’s verses offer us grounds to quite precisely define distances and, on that basis, the pace of Odysseus’s voyage, which no other author has ever attempted to fully comprehend, and on the basis of those findings determine where he could possibly have wandered and where he could not. When I made quantification of the verses that are describing Odysseus wondering, I came to a very surprising conclusion that Homer’s hero during his ten years voyage was actually sailing in unknown world only 65 days or less than 2% of all that time. Out of these 65 days, during 12 he was sailing only by the day, or only by the night. During these days sailing on the boat or on the raft or floating on the board, Odysseys was able to make not more that 2.200 nautical miles. Only this proof casts serous doubt on the Classical theory of Odyssey’s wondering in the Mediterranean, established two and half millennia ago by Herodotus and Tuchidides, which is even nowadays predominant theory.

If at first glance there appear to be strong indications that the area of the eastern Adriatic could be the region of Odysseus’s journey, but that same region has never been seriously considered by anybody as a possible site of Odysseus’s geography, a question arises as to whether that was an oversight or a mistake in the interpretation of Homer’s epic. Is it at all possible to make any sort of mistake in research carried out by the vast number of Homer’s followers who have studied his work over the centuries, practically since the appearance of the Odyssey? Yes, it is possible.

Oversights and mistakes are entirely possible. It is even possible for them to be repeated for centuries without ever being noticed. Consider one example.

We do not have to look far at all. Let’s take the Odyssey. The topic under discussion is the wandering of ancient hero Odysseus, which was sang of in Homer’s epic the Odyssey. The main hero of this epic is Odysseus. The Romans gave Odysseus, as indeed they did all Greek gods and heroes, a Latin name: Ulixes or, more commonly, Ulysses. Odysseus’s new Roman name was later also adopted by the Anglo-Saxon-speaking world. However, both the Latin and Anglo-Saxon interpretations of the epic wandering of Ulysses continued to refer to the story by its original Greek name—the Odyssey. So Ulysses continues to wander his Odyssey and not his Ulyssey. If the name of the hero of the epic poem is changed from Odysseus to Ulysses, then it is only logical that the name of the epic itself be changed from the Odyssey to the Ulyssey. There is no reason to the epic retaining its Greek name with a Latin character name in Latin, English or French. This is one illogical and linguistic error that has existed since Roman times, more than two millennia, and has yet to be removed.

Of course, one should be realistic and clear on the fact that some mistakes of this kind could hardly be corrected now, after many years of use and general acceptance. It is particularly difficult to correct errors formed and rooted in antiquity by classical ancient writers. In the end, these errors are benign.

However, it is a different matter when it comes to the interpretation of certain literary works that are describing the geography of historical events. In these cases we are obliged, if we notice that an error has been made, to respond by providing arguments aimed at eliminating errors of all kinds.

My motivation for writing this book is precisely to attempt to offer evidences and arguments that will highlight serious mistakes which, in my opinion, exist in the interpretation of the most interesting part of the Odyssey and Odysseus’s entire geography. In this way I hope to be able to convince the professional public, firstly, that mistakes exist and, secondly, how and in which direction they can be corrected.

Is that realistic? I certainly think so, regardless of the fact that practice shows us, as a rule, that it is extremely difficult to penetrate with a new idea that would lead to a change of any widely accepted opinion. One should be persistent and persuasive, and one should offer numerous and strong arguments in describing mistakes, as well as in describing new evidences that are offered to replace mistake.

If we know that the Iliad and the Odyssey depict events that historians and archaeologists have assessed as having taken place around three thousand two hundred and fifty years ago, during the Bronze Age development of human society; at a time when Greece had no writing or literacy and, thus, there is no written evidence, then questions arise that continue to prompt myriad vastly contrasting views and opinions among scholars and authors today: what level of social development had Greece attained during the Trojan War, particularly compared to the nations around it? Did the Trojan War actually take place as an historical event or is it just a tale of myth and legend? And, subsequently, were Homer’s heroes (Achilles, Agamemnon, Hector, Odysseus, the beautiful Helen and others) historical figures that participated in the events described in the Iliad and the Odyssey or were they simply figments of the author’s poetic imagination?

The Odyssey does not provide much information with which to answer these questions. There are no historical and archaeological resources or other evidence regarding Odysseus’s return from Troy to Ithaca, nor with regard to the events described in the Odyssey as taking place in Ithaca upon Odysseus’s return. As such, we must rely on the Iliad and rely on archaeological evidence, particularly in relation to Troy and Mycenae; we must rely on the works of ancient Greek poets, historians, tragedians and philosophers, as well as the numerous works of later authors written around the world until the present day.

The first step to be made is to understand the time of Odysseus, the time of the Trojan War, as well as understanding the man and the way he thought during the period of the late Bronze Age in Greek history. We can only believe in the veracity and historical merits of Odysseus’s return if we can determine that Homer portrayed actual historical events in the Iliad and the Odyssey; only then could we say that Odysseus actually existed and spent years wandering the seas; then we could try to discover the actual itinerary of that epic journey. The first two chapters of this book deals precisely with this issue, whilst also laying the foundations for understanding subsequent chapters, which unravels mysterious phenomena and events, determining Odysseus’s geography on the basis of precise interpretations of the poet’s verses, and doing so, on a completely new part of the map of the Mediterranean Sea.

We can only believe in the veracity and historical merits of Odysseus’s return if we can determine that Homer portrayed actual historical events in the Iliad and the Odyssey; only then could we say that Odysseus actually existed and spent years wandering the seas; only then we could try to discover the actual itinerary of that epic journey. This is the subject of chapters three, four and five of this book, which sheds light on sailing and maritime navigation in the Mediterranean during the Bronze Age period both preceding and following the Trojan War. It analyses the distance and speed of Odysseus’s voyage, considering all existing theoretical knowledge of authors addressing Odysseus’s geography, analysing characteristics and interpreting specific features of the area wandered in order to determine the sites of the locations Odysseus experienced his Odyssey. Perhaps for the first time in literature, natural explanations are provided to explain phenomena and events that have thus far only and explicitly been interpreted as the fanciful imaginings of the poet or the prehistoric people of Odysseus’s time. Thus, this book provides explanations of the sea monsters Scylla and Charybdis, the identity of the Sirens, why Aeolus’s island had around it the wall of bronze and why it floated, how Odysseus descended to the underworld, whether or not the Cyclops Polyphemus was actually one-eyed, how the witch-goddess Circe turned sailors into pigs and others. In short, through this book I have sought to accurately determine the truth and reality of Odysseus’s existence and wandering, and I have attempted to explain in a contemporary way of thinking about what was actually seen and experienced by Odysseus and his crew more than three thousand two hundred years ago.

In order to help me reach these conclusions, in the summer of 2008 and 2009 I set out—as have authors before me, like Britons Ernle Bradford and Tim Severin—to follow the trails of Odysseys oars and to sail all the areas that I believe to have been visited by Odysseus in the Adriatic and Ionian seas. This personal insight proved so precious that, without it, I would not have been able to comprehend, let alone provide answers to, some crucial questions that we, as readers, would pose Homer about the Iliad and the Odyssey.

In this book verses from the Iliad and the Odyssey are quoted as translated into English by Richmond Lattimore. Below each verses quotation is abbreviation (Od.III/23-25), meaning that the quotation is from the Odyssey, book 3, lines 23 to 25.

Author

I

INTRODUCTION

1.   GREEK LANDS IN THE TIME OF THE TROJAN WAR

In order to grasp and interpret the events that preceded the Trojan War and those taking place immediately afterwards, we must first remind ourselves of the nations that inhabited the territory of today’s Greece. How they lived and what they did for a living; what kind of social organization they had. The answers to these questions gain even greater significance when we consider that it was precisely during the period in question that the birth of European civilisation took place in the region of modern Greece. The foundations of that civilisation, laid at that time, left an indelible mark on the direction of its subsequent development.

It is commonplace in science to group the earlier periods of human history, often called prehistory, into longer period of time determined by the materials used to make tools and weapons. Firstly they utilised stone, thus the period of its use is known as the Stone Age, then came copper, bronze and finally iron. Over the course of the changing of these materials, some forty thousand years passed.

At the turn of the second millennium B.C., the area now occupied by modern Greece was conquered and settled by warrior tribes who came from the East and spoke, as it is believed, the ancient Greek language. A civilisation comprising small kingdoms developed in the area over the course of the following few centuries, the most important of these nations being the Mycenaean, Theban, Tirynthian and Pylian. This was known as the Mycenaean civilisation. Greek states occupied the area known as the broader Aegean area, which also included the mainland of Greece and islands, together with Crete and Cyprus and, later, the western, Anatolian, coast of Asia Minor. From a broader perspective, the parts of this region enjoyed the same climate, similar soil quality and resources, thus leading a similar material lifestyle. Thanks to its location, the Aegean world represented a bridge between Egypt and Asia Minor, on the one side, and Eastern and Central Europe, on the other.¹ The Aegean Sea was a human transport route as far back as the Stone Age.

We are primarily interested in the period of the Late Bronze Age, which is when the Trojan War is believed to have taken place. The Bronze Age began some time around 3000 B.C., when smiths began to melt a tenth part of tin into molten copper, creating a revolutionary product that became known as bronze. Thanks to its superior strength, bronze was much more suitable for the production of weapons and various other objects than pure copper. The Greek Bronze Age lasted from around 3000 B.C. to around 1000 B.C. and is divided between the Early Bronze Age (from c. 3000 to c. 2100 B.C.), the Middle Bronze Age (from c. 2100 to c. 1600 B.C.) and the Late Bronze Age (from c. 1600 to c. 1000 B.C.).

Homer himself can best provide the answer to the question how people lived and what their vocations were during the time of the Trojan War. In book XVIII of the Iliad Homer describes the Shield of Achilles, forged by the god Hephaestus at the request of Achilles’ mother, the goddess Thetis. The shield is adorned with images that offer an extraordinarily accurate description of life at the time of the Trojan War. Information about the Mycenaean way of life will not only help us to know them better, but also to recognise differences between the way of life of other nations that Odysseus encountered during his wanderings. Here is everything the god Hephaestus carved on the Shield of Achilles:

On the shield Hephaestus presented the Earth, sky and sea, the sun, the moon and the constellations. Of the stars, he painted the star clusters Pleiades and Hyades, as well as the constellations Orion and the Great Bear.

He presented life in two cities.

In one city a wedding is taking place and feasts are being organised. A wedding procession is on the streets, with young men singing wedding songs and dancing while curious women watch from the thresholds of their homes. The square is occupied by many people, because two citizens are disputing a blood tax-compensation for murder that the defendant must pay to the family of the deceased. One of them announces to the court that he made the payment in full, the other announces receipt of nothing. The population is divided and cheering loudly for one or other side. The Court consists of the oldest citizens, sitting with sceptres in their hands and pronouncing their decision on the dispute. Between them two talents² of gold are lying, as a prize to whoever best serves justice in the dispute.

The other city is at war, besieged by enemies. The walls of the city are defended by women, children and the elderly. The men, led by Ares, the god of war, and Athena, the goddess of wisdom, are outside setting a trap for their enemies. A herd of cattle appears to drink from water troughs. The enemy seizes the herdsman’s cattle. A great battle begins. Bronze spears fly in every direction. The goddess of evil and god of death get involved. A lot of people from both sides are killed in the battle.

Hephaestus also depicted rural life on the Shield of Achilles.

Many ploughmen cultivate the land from behind ploughs. When they reach the end of the furrow, servants offer them a cup of honeyed wine to drink. Beside is a field where scythe-wielding harvesters hold cropped wheat aloft. Others bind the wheat, while children gather the bundles. On the edge of the field stands its owner, joyous of heart because of the rich harvest; born well. Under an oak tree a roast ox is being prepared for a feast, while women mix flour and prepare lunch for the harvesters. There, next to this scene, is also a vintage, nurtured and orderly vineyard. Young men and girls pick ripe red grapes and collect them in woven baskets. A boy sings and everybody is merry.

Pastoral life is also presented.

A herd of straight-horned cattle cross the pasture. They are followed by herdsmen with dogs. Two lions attack a bull and begin to tear at it savagely. The dogs bark, but dare not approach. The herdsmen try to chase off the lions. Beside this scene is that of a flock of sheep grazing in the valley. There are also stables, huts and shacks. Young men and girls hold hands and dance, which Homer describes with incredible comparisons:

And the renowned smith of the strong arms made elaborate on it

a dancing floor, like that which once in the wide spaces of Knosos

Daidalos built for Ariadne of the lovely tresses.

And there were young men on it and young girls,

sought for their beauty

with gifts of oxen, dancing, and holding hands at the wrist. These

wore, the maidens long light robes, but the men wore tunics

of finespun work and shining softly, touched with olive oil.

And the girls wore fair garlands on their heads, while the young men

carried golden knives that hung from sword-belts of silver.

(Il. 18/590-598)

From the description of the Shield of Achilles we learn what life was like in the Bronze Age. And here Homer speaks, as indeed he does throughout the Iliad, of the misery war brings to the residents of one city, compared to the tranquil, orderly and happy life of the residents of another town. Disputes and trials were held in public, with judges well paid for a job well done. Agriculture and animal husbandry were the main occupations and their methods would remain almost unchanged from that Bronze Age period until just a few decades before our era, when the machine age arrived. Men have always been ready for war, even when dancing, because they danced with a sword by the belt. Homer also tells us that he knew of the Minoan court at Knossos on Crete; that he knew Daedalus had been the Labyrinth court’s architect. He knew how the interior of the palace looked and that the inner walls were adorned with many pictures. One of these pictures, painted on the wall in Ariadne’s chamber, was renowned for the beauty of the depicted dance, and so Hephaestus’s dance was like Daedalus’s.

It was previously thought that the end of prehistory came with the completion of this Dark Age in the middle of the eighth century B.C. The 750s B.C. proved to be very important years for the history of Greece, as it was then that three independent and significant events took place that, according to theories of many historians, marked the end of the Dark Age and prehistory, and the start of the period of history. The three events were the appearance of Homer, the first Olympic Games and the beginning of Greek literacy.

Homer is believed to have lived during the mid 8th century B.C., thus many scholars mark the divide between prehistory and history as being the time pre and post Homer. The second common event marking the division of prehistory and history is the staging of the first Olympic Games in 776 B.C. The period prior to the Olympic Games is marked as prehistory, or the period about which we have no genuine knowledge or historical documents because everything was based on myths and legends, while the period from 776 B.C. onwards is marked as history, or the period about which we have reliable knowledge. However, the most valuable event of the 8th century B.C. in Greece was the emergence of literacy and the Greek alphabet.

New scientific discoveries have moved this classical boundary marking prehistoric Greece’s entry into the period of history to a point significantly earlier. Archaeological finds made during the last hundred and fifty years have enabled the modern world to acquire previously unknown knowledge that has served to push back the boundaries as far as the 16th century B.C. Based on his findings and the results of excavations at Mycenae, German Heinrich Schliemann considered the history of Greece to have been pushed back by around 400 years. However, in establishing the precise age of the Mycenaean digs, his successors believed that these findings pushed back the end of the unknown prehistoric period and the start of history by as much as 800 years. And we must certainly agree that this could not have been a period of barbarism and prehistory. When we add to this Englishman Arthur Evans’ discoveries during his dig in the Cretan city of Knossos, that the 800-plus rooms of the palace he uncovered had all used a perfect water supply and sewage network, with toilets that had a water rinsing system. Let us not forget that up until the mid 20th century, just sixty years ago, residents of urban apartment buildings in major European cities, like Vienna, Paris or London, had to share a single toilet and bathroom per floor.

It is said that we owe the Greeks the world’s most valuable treasures: freedom, knowledge and brilliance of mind, unity in a small state and, we should not forget, the notion of happiness. Meanwhile, the Greeks felt a huge sense of fear towards the world of the East.³ The ancient Greeks became the teachers of modern European nations, because it was they who first revealed the secrets of man and placed a humanitarian ideal at the centre of their cultural creativity. Prior to the Greeks, there was no culture in the sense that it now exists, thanks to their genius. The nations of the old east had not known what real culture was, though many of them outperformed the Greeks in the sense of professional, technical knowledge and skills, and perhaps even more so in the field of religious experience.⁴ The Greeks created a culture that was new compared to that of the East, in the sense that they determined that man’s essence was within his spiritual being and that, as an individual, he was connected to other people in a human community that was inextricably linked to individual existence and the common life of individuals. That is why politics was vitally important for every free person, because it represented the highest form of social association and use of freedom. Man is at the centre of Greek philosophy, which was why a special relationship existed towards goodness and there was a special relationship towards beauty. Likewise, a special relationship towards freedom also existed. Freedom only made sense if it was in the function of a life full of virtues and ideals, which was why the ancient Greeks despised manual labour. Work was considered as something that did not belong to a free man, because it only served to humble his existence. That is precisely why there were slaves and physical labour was their domain, because they were not considered people. The contribution of the ancient Greeks to the history of mankind is so vast and so exceptional that their deeds, without any exaggeration, can only be compared to the deeds of nature itself.⁵

However, the Greeks did not become Greeks quickly or easily. It required many centuries, blood and wars to achieve the almost ideal level of development of the Greek states and society in the archaic and classical periods. Greek history is simultaneously a series of brutal and bloody events. Homer’s Iliad describes just a section of that series.

The process that preceded the formation of the Greek city states was linked to the development of trade, agriculture and construction. The utilisation of metal for making tools and weapons, the use of precious metals for jewellery and the development of other artistic crafts, the production of olive oil and wine, grain for food, trade expansion, development of shipping and shipbuilding, the building of forts, palaces and the expansion of architecture, creating records through the use of Linear B, the development of mythology and the strengthening of religious and political power—all these elements served to allow the people living on the territory of modern Greece to take the historic step out of barbarism and into civilisation.

This process took place first on Crete, during the so-called Minoan civilisation At that time the Cretans traded with the Phoenicians, developing shipping and trade, with goods bringing them into contact with the Egyptian and Babylonian civilisation and having a knock-on effect on their development and progress.

So, civilisation came to the Greek lands from the south, from Egypt, Phoenicia and Babylon—initially to the islands of Crete and the Cyclades, then onwards to the mainland to the north. Meanwhile, barbarian tribes occupied the lands beyond Greece’s northern borders and invaded Greek lands from that direction. Thus, to the Bronze Age Greeks the civilised world was situated to the south and the barbarians were in the north.

2.    GREEK MYTHS AND EPICS

Greek myths, like those of other nations, appeared in primitive times during a particular stage of social development, when the community in question found itself unable to provide convincing explanations for certain events that occurred in nature and in life and, thus, interpreted them as being linked to the will of good and evil gods or monsters. Nature was a mystery that could not be understood, predicted or controlled. Primitive man felt the need to explain terrifying natural phenomena like thunder, lightning, earthquakes, flooding, drought, storms or volcanic eruptions. This was aimed at quelling the fear caused by such occurences. The number of questions raised by man only increased during the extremely protracted development of human consciousness, which mainly related to familiarisation with self. It was then that myths began to appear in primitive societies, as a response to troubling unanswerable questions. This is why Greek myths seek to bring order to issues essential to the importance of human existence, such as the struggle between good and evil, the question of life, death and the underworld, heroism, glory and honor, abduction, the return of abductees and reprisal, hospitality and animosity, love, jealousy and hatred, friendship and camaraderie, et cetera. Greek myths tell of the origins of natural phenomena, the world and the gods who rule it; they tell of the origins of human suffering and the appearance of sacrificial practices.

Greek myths describe experiences, most commonly the accomplishments and heroic deeds of champions endowed with strength, courage and wit. They tell of the heroic deeds and feats of intrepid, wise and strong heroes who were god-like or were the favourites of gods; quite often first or second-generation descendants of gods (as were Hercules, Achilles etc.). Greek myths and legends were later adopted by the Romans, with the gods and heroes given Latin names. The collective total of Greek and Roman myths and legends comprise what we now know as ancient mythology. These characters were typically the descendants of deities, while gods were used to describe various natural phenomena and forces active in the ordinary world of the time.

Mythology has existed in all countries and we could conclude that it emerged as a necessity during the initial phase of the development of social consciousness. It was adopted at the root of all nations, reinforcing their origins, strengthening their community and confirming their identity. This process saw each nation use pecularities that were inherent to them, but concealed something alien from others.⁶ Euhemerus’s interesting 315 B.C. definition of mythology claims that myths are simply exaggerated and distorted accounts of actual events.⁷

Myths explained that which was otherwise inexplicable. The subsequent development of human consciousness, thought, science and culture saw many mythological interpretations receive scientific support. These myths’ immediacy, humanity, descriptive strength and powerful portrait of emotions in various situations are the characteristics that have ensured they remained appealing and popular later, throughout every epoch of history to this day. Mythology is an important and irreplaceable element of European cultural heritage that massively influenced the development of European culture, art and literature. Thus the Greek myth helped to turn the wheels of progress. Similarly, studies of mythology lead to enlightenment regarding the level of development and organisation of ancient Greek society, the development of political relations within that world and the importance of religion. In short, mythology provides us with knowledge of the civilisation of that period.

Once these myths had emerged, they spread and were related orally, only to be recorded in writing centuries later. We now know of them thanks to Greek literature, primarily epic poems and tragedies.

An epic is an extensive, deeply respected narrative poem, usually covering a serious actual event and containing details of heroic deeds and happenings of significance to a nation’s culture. An epic is a narrative poem that contains gods and heroes and is often associated with war or adventure.⁸

The first recorded ancient epics are Homer’s poems the Iliad and the Odyssey, which describe events related to the Trojan War. Homer’s works were followed by the epics of the second great Greek poet, Hesiod: Theogony and Works and Days. Theogony covers the origins of the world, the gods, Titans and Giants. Works and Days is an instructive poem about the agricultural arts, which records the myth of Prometheus, Pandora and the Five Ages. The five ages of man are: Golden, Silver, Bronze, Heroic and Iron, the latter of which was the period in which Hesiod lived and was also the worst, according to the poet himself, because of the evils of mankind that had been released as a consequence of actions in the myth of Pandora. The poet offered advice on how to succeed in that cruel world, where the gods were even harsher.

Significant Greek myths were recorded in the collection of epic poems collectively referred to as the Epic Cycle. The Epic Cycle covers events relating to the Trojan War and comprises the poems Cypria, Aethiopis, the Little Iliad, the Iliupersis (The Sack of Troy), Nostoi (Returns) and Telegony. Unfortunately, the poems of the Epic Cycle were not preserved. All that remains are individual fragments recorded at a later date by the writer Proclus.

The extant tragic dramas of the tragedians Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides, from the 5th century B.C., represent a special source of recorded mythical themes. Unfortunately, as is the case with myths and most of Greek drama, it was not preserved. This best illustrates the fact that more than four thousand dramatic works were authored in Athens alone, but only around fifty survived. Sophocles alone authored around 120 tragedies, but only seven survived to the modern age.

Another important source of information about myths that support literary hypotheses are paintings on vases, which were used as a way of preserving certain sequences or images of rich mythology, especially regarding events of the Trojan War and Heracles’ heroism.

Three distinct periods in the development of mythology can be observed: in the first period myths were created to deal with the origins of the world and the gods and the emergence of the human race (The myths of origin); next came stories of a time when gods and mortals coexisted, depicting the interactions of gods, demigods and mortals (myths of the age when gods and mortals mingled freely); and third period saw myths portray the heroic feats of mortals, when divine activity to the benefit of man became more limited. The legend of the Trojan War is included in this third period (myths of the Age of Heroes).

The Myths of Origin. In Theogony, Hesiod describes the birth of the planet and the genealogy of the gods, insisting that initially there was boundless chaos that became the source of life. The goddess of the earth, Gaia, emerged from this chaos and gave life to all that was in the world. Then chaos gave way to love, darkness, night, light and day. Gaia gave birth to the sky, mountains and sea. Light ruled the sky under the name of Uranus. Uranus married the earth goddess, Gaia and together they had six sons and six daughters, the terrible Titans. The Titans bore the sun, moon, dawn, rivers, stars and winds. Along with the Titans and Uranus, Gaia bore three giants who Uranus grew to loath. He later imprisoned them in darkness so they may not see the light of day. Gaia was pained by this act and summoned her children, the Titans, to overthrow Uranus. Only the youngest, the cunning Cronus, had the courage to castrate and otherthrow his father. Then, as an act of vengeance, Cronus and the goddess of the night bore terrible gods who brought disaster, struggle and strife to the world. Cronus feared that he would be dethroned by his own children, just as he had ousted his father, and so he devoured each of his five children mercilessly as son as they were sired. His wife, Rhea, sougth advice from mother Gaia to save her offspring and, subsequently, gave birth in secret on the island of Crete to their sixth child, Zeus. Once he’d grown, Zeus did indeed overthrow his father, forcing Cronus to disgorge all of the children he’d devoured. Then began a great battle between father and son for power over the Earth. On one side were Cronus and the Titans; while on the other was Zeus, his siblings and the Gigantes, the Hecatonchires and the Cyclopes. After ten years of conflict, Zeus and the Olympian gods were triumphant. Zeus ruled the heavens, while his brother Poseidon held sway over the seas and his brother Hades reigned over the underworld, where the souls of the dead resided. Zeus ruled from atop Mount Olympus, surrounded by his wife Hera and Artemis, goddess of the hunt. With him were Apollo, god of light, Aphrodite, goddess of love and beauty, Athena, goddess of wisdom and knowledge, Hermes, a god and messenger of the gods, Ares, god of war, Hephaestus, god of fire and technology, and Demeter, goddess of the harvest. Besides the Olympians, the Greeks worshiped other gods, such as Dionysus, god of wine and ecstasy, Pan, the goat-legged god of shepherds and flocks, nymphs—nubile minor goddesses of nature, Naiads—nymphs of land water, Dryads—tree nymphs, Nereids—sea nymphs, river gods and the like. They knew demons as followers of Dionysus and other divine forces, such as the Erinyes, who punished those giving false oaths and embodied curses for crimes against the gods.

The myths on gods and mortals. These myths emerged when the gods of mythical tales ceased existing in isolation and began mingling with mortals. This occurred when Zeus and his fellow Olympian gods consolidated their power and were able to devote themselves to the existence of mankind. Then they began to interfere in the lives of ordinary mortals, participating in various events alongside mortals. Many of these tales and legends were recorded in Ovid’s Metamorphoses.

Two basic topics are associated with this group of myths: tales of love and stories of punishment.

One characteristic of ancient mythology is the emotion of love occurring between gods and between humans. Love is a natural, happy, romantic and captivating experience, lacking any mysticism. It was enough for Eros to fire his bow for love to appear. Love in the mythology, as in life, can be sublime, filled with joy and happiness, but also sometimes unrequited, full of suffering and pain. The importance of love to the lives of ancient Greeks ensured that the goddess Aphrodite enjoyed a high divine rank, alongside Zeus himself.

Homer often describes the relations of gods and men. In the Iliad, the gods were divided between those sympathetic to the Achaeans and those favouring the Trojans. They even directly assisted their favourites, influencing the outcomes of individual battles, which brought them into conflict with one another. They even resorted to trickery and betrayal, just to ensure they succeeded in their intentions. As was often quoted from the Iliad even back in ancient times, Hera seduced Zeus in order to assist the Achaeans in their war, against the will of her husband.⁹ Hera decided to bewitch Zeus and use the situation to her advantage. With the help of Aphrodite, who gifted her desire and love, Hera seduced her husband. They made love, hidden in a golden cloud at the peak of Mount Ida, above the Trojan field. Then Hypnos helped Hera by putting Zeus to sleep and Poseidon relayed Hera’s message to help the Achaeans in their battle to keep the Trojans away from their ships. Homer was later criticised for this episode with the gods by Greek philosophers, who believed that the poet had no right to devalue the morality of the gods in his verses.

Tales of love often related to the gods’ rape of mortal women, who would then bear semidivine heroes characterised by their great strength and courage. These stories generally had unhappy endings; mortal women often fell victim to lofty deities that other mortals could not protect them from. Incest was also a theme of these stories.

Tales of punishment are intended to educate and warn, to intimidate and threaten; they impart what happens to those who tempt the wrath of the gods. In the tragedy Prometheus Bound, Aeschylus writes of how Zeus cruelly punished the Titan Prometheus for stealing fire from Mount Olympus and giving it to men. He also taught men to read and write, work the land, engage in crafts and build ships. In short, he trained them to succeed in life and thereby weakened the influence of the gods over mortals. However, his greatest sin was his unwillingness to reveal to Zeus the prophecy that his wife would bear a son who would grow to expel Zeus from Olympus. At Zeus’s behest, Prometheus was taken to the ends of the earth, where human foot had never stepped, and there chained to the top of a rock, bound with unbreakable chains and secured with a steel spike that was nailed through his chest with such power that he would never again be able to move.

Zeus also condemned his son Tantalus to the gravest fate for a number of crimes, including theft of the gods’ ambrosia and nectar, revealing divine secrets to humans, lying and attempting to trick the gods. Tantalus was ruler of the city of Sipylus on the mountain of the same name. Mount Sipylus contained gold mines and was surrounded by fertile land and vineyards. Nobody was richer or happier than Tantalus. On top of all of this, he was also a favourite of the gods, particularly his father Zeus, who often invited him to his table—something no mortal could do. However, he first annoyed the gods when he started stealing their ambrosia and nectar, taking it back to his court to share with his mortal friends. He also began recounting the gods’ agreements to these mortals. Then the gods took great offence when he lied, swearing that he had not seen Zeus’s golden dog, though the dog was beside him. However, Tantalus surpassed all his other crimes when—in an attempt to see if the gods really see all and know all—he slaughtered his son Pelops, cutting and serving him up as food for the gods. The gods immediately saw through Tantalus’s intentions. Hermes used magic to bring the young Pelops back to life and Tantalus received his severe punishment. Zeus banished him to Tartarus, the deepest portion of the underworld, and condemned him to an eternity of what we now know as being ‘tantalised’. He was made to stand in a clear pool of drinking water beneath a fruit tree with low branches laden with ripe fruit. Whenever he bowed to quench his thirst, the water would recede; whenever he reached to pluck fruit from the tree, the branches would rise beyond his grasp. And so Tantalus, the former happy king of Sipylus, was punished to a fearful eternity in the underworld, eternally thirsty and hungry.

Ovid also wrote on the topic of divine punishment in Metamorphoses, noting, for example, how Dionysus punished King Lycurgus of Thrace, then later Minyas’s daughters and after that Tyrrhenian pirates—all for failing to respect him.

The myths of the Age of Heroes comprise the third group. The period when heroes lived is known as the Heroic Age. Heroes gained cult following and their exploits and heroism were subjects of universal admiration. Heracles’ (Hercules) experiences mark the beginning of the Heroic Age, followed by three tales of military campaigns: the quest of Jason and the Argonauts for the Golden Fleece, the Trojan War and the Theban War.

Heracles, known in ancient Rome and the modern West as Hercules, was the son of Zeus and Alcamene, daughter of Mycenaean king Electryon. Heracles was the greatest of Greek heroes, the epitome of Greek heroism, human strength and courage. He saved the world from numerous monsters and evil creatures, carrying out his famous Twelve Labours. Art and literature portray him as a man of enormous strength, a paragon of masculinity. When he married Megara at 18 years of age, his wedding gifts included a sword from Hermes, a bow and arrows from Apollo, golden armour from Hephaestus, a shield from Athena and he made his own mace. According to legend, he was the founder of the Olympic Games. After his death, the Olympian gods decided to take Heracles for themselves and grant him divine immortality. A number of researchers believe that the character of Heracles is an historical figure from the kingdom of Argos, where he served as vassal. Heracles’ many descendants are known collectively as Heracleidae or Heraclids, and they