Tackling Poverty: A Thesis Being Submitted for the Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements of the Cardiff Metropolitan University in Collaboration with the London College of Commerce (An Associate College) for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy.

© 2016 Ebikinei Stanley Eguruze. All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means without the written permission of the author.

Published by AuthorHouse  04/22/2016

ISBN: 978-1-5049-4280-5 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-5049-4281-2 (e)

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CONTENTS

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

1.2 The Research Problem

1.3 Research Background

1.3.1 Bayelsa State, Niger Delta Region and Nigerian Oil Revenues

1.3.2 Poverty in Bayelsa State

1.4 How does Bayelsa State compare with rest of developing countries?

1.5 Limitations of the Study

1.6 Rationale for Proposing a New Poverty Intervention Model

1.7 Research Aim

1.8 Research Questions

1.9 Research Objectives

1.10 Research Contributions

1.11 Overview of Thesis

CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF LITERATURE

2.1 Introduction

2.2 Definition of Poverty and Implications

2.2.1 Classical Approach

2.2.2 The United Nations Definition (Below-the-poverty-line or Absolute Poverty)

2.2.3 Oxford University’s OPHDI- Multidimensional Poverty Index - MPI

2.2.5 Bayelsa-Based Studies

2.2.6 Relative Poverty

2.2.7 Urban Poverty

2.2.8 Acute Poverty

2.2.9 Chronic Poverty

2.2.10 Persistent Poverty

2.2.11 Rural Poverty

2.2.12. In-Work Poverty

2.2.13 Food Poverty

2.2.14 Table linking different forms of poverty to their causes and impact on society

2.3 Researcher’s Methodology Model for Poverty Intervention

2.3.1 Researcher’s Methodology Model for Poverty Intervention (Fig 1)

2.3.1.1 Step 1 (a) Market Research

2.3.1.2 Step 2 Strategy Conference Model

2.3.1.2.1 The Strategy Conference Process

2.3.1.3 The Relevance of the Strategic Planning Model

2.3.1.3.1 Strategic Planning Process (Fig 3)

2.3.1.3.2 Step 3 Strategic Planning Model

2.3.1.4. Step 4 Implementable Joint Programme of Action (IJPA)

2.4. Implementing changes that might follow the researcher’s SMT-Model

2.4.1 Implications for leadership changes in implementing poverty reduction process

2.4.2 Types of Change Theories Associated with implementing Poverty Reduction Process

2.4.3 Resistance to change during the SMT Model Implementation Process

2.4.4 Overcoming Resistance

2.4.5 Leadership Role in Implementing the Change Process

2.5 Absolute Poverty and Developing Countries

2.6 Theory of Support-Need in Relation to Poverty

2.7 Community Organisations (COs)

2.8 Consequences of Poverty

2.9 Consequences of Poverty in Bayelsa State

2.10 Social Marketing Technique (SMT) Model Establishing the Social Marketing Case

2.11 The Theory of Social Marketing

2.11.1 Definitions

2.11.2 Critics and Concerns over Social Marketing

2.11.3 Strategic Social Marketing Areas

2.12 What is Marketing?

2.13 The Difference Between Marketing and Social Marketing

2.13.1 Fig 4 Basic Difference Between Marketing and Social Marketing

2.14 Summary

2.1.14.1 Attributes or causes:

2.14.2 Overcoming Extreme-Poverty

2.14.3 The Researcher’s SMT

CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

3.2 General discussion of research methods

3.2.1 Research Paradigms

3.2.2 Ontology

3.2.3 Epistemology

3.2.4 Axiology

3.2.5 Realism

3.2.6 Pragmatism

3.3 Methodological Approaches

3.3.1 Positivism

3.3.1.1 Inductive Approach

3.3.1.2 Interpretivism

3.3.2.1 Deductive Approach

3.4 Mixed Method Research

3.4.1 The Benefits of Mixed Method Research

3.4.2 Limitations of Mixed Method Research

3.5 Multiple Research Method

3.6 Dominant approach

3.7 Mono Research Method

3.8 Research Design

3.8.1 Experimental Research Design

3.8.1.1 Advantages of Experimental Design

3.8.1.2 Disadvantages of Experimental Research Design

3.8.2 Case Study Research Design

3.8.2.1 Advantages of case-study research design

3.8.2.2 Disadvantages of case study research design

3.8.3 Descriptive Research Design (descriptive study)

3.8.4 Survey Research Design

3.8.4.1 Advantages of Survey Research Design

3.8.4.2 Disadvantages of Survey Research Design

3.8.5 Longitudinal Research Design

3.8.5.1 Advantages Longitudinal Research Design

3.8.5.2 Disadvantages of longitudinal research design

3.8.6 Cross Sectional Research Design

3.8.7 Explanatory Research Design

3.9 Data Collection Methods

3.9.1 Questionnaires

3.9.2 Interviews

3.10 Data Analysis

3.11 Justifications for Research Methods

3.12 Study Population

3.13 Sampling/ Sample

3.14 Probability Sampling

3.15 Non Probability Sampling

3.16 Sample Size/Selection of Participants

3.17 Criteria for Selection

3.18 Selection of Participants

3.19 How were Participants informed of their right to withdraw without Penalty?

3.20 Bias

3.21 Response Rate

3.22 Administration of the survey

3.23 Reliability and Validity

3.24 Interpretation of Reliability Test Using SPSS (4)

3.25 Ethical Considerations

3.25.1 Informed Consent (voluntary participation)

3.25.2 Confidentiality, Privacy, Anonymity and Risk of Harm

3.25.3 Personal Benefit

3.26 Pilot Study

3.27 Strategy Conference in Bayelsa State of Nigeria (Action Research)

3.28 Summary

CHAPTER FOUR: DATA ANALYSIS

4.1 Introduction

4.2 REPONSES TO QUESTIONNAIRE - PART 1

4.1.1 PT Q1: Are you a Bayelsa citizen? (Figure 5)

4.1.2 PT1 Q2 Bayelsa Local Government Areas

4.1.3 PT1 Q3: How many of the participants were female and how many were male?

4.1.4 PT1Q4: Your Age Group

4.1.5 PT1Q 5: Are you currently studying? (Figure 9)

4.1.6 PT1Q 6 Which is the highest qualification you currently have?

4.1.7 PT1Q7: Are you Currently Employed? (Figure 11)

4.1.8 PT1Q8. How often are you paid __ Weekly __ Monthly?

4.1.9 PT1Q9: How Many Jobs do you Do?

4.1.10 PT1Q10: How would you describe yourself?

4.1.11 PT1Q11 How much money do you have for spending on a daily basis?

4.1.12 PT1Q12: How Would you Describe your Experience of Poverty?

4.1.13 PT1Q13: I can afford to eat

PT1Q14: Which of these are the most significant Causes of Poverty in Bayelsa State?

PT1Q14: Worksheet 14: Causes of Poverty

PT1Q15: Perceive Bayelsa as a poor State?

This question PT1Q15: Worksheet15: Bayelsa is a poor State?

PT1Q16 What support would you expect Bayelsa State government to provide for young people and community organisations? _____

PT1Q17: How can we end poverty?

PT1Q18: Are current poverty tackling-schemes effective?

PT1Q19: By 2020, The Nigerian Millennium Development (MDG) aims to become the world’s 20th largest economy by reducing poverty and inequality. With the current socio-politico-economic constraints, do you consider this goal to be achievable?

4.2 QUESTIONNAIRE - PART 2

4.2.1 PT2 Q1: It is important to ask the government to end poverty?

4.2.2 PT2Q2: Ways of Communicating with Government to help end poverty

4.2.2.1 PT2Q2: Ways of Communicating to Government to help end poverty

4.2.3.1 PT2Q3 When you want to ask something from policy-makers to meet your wish to get their help in ending poverty, which methods might work?

4.2.4 PT2Q4: How often would you think is appropriate to use these methods to persuade policy-makers and policy-implementers to end poverty?

4.2.5 PT2Q5: Is it important to involve young people and community organisations in policy-making and policy-implementation?

4.2.6 PT2Q6: Is it important to remind Government how many young people are in poverty for effective policy-making and policy-implementation?

4.2.7 PT2 Q7: It is important to know where these poor young people are living for effective policy-making and policy-implementing

4.2.9 PT2 Q9 Are current poverty tackling intervention-schemes: such as

4.2.10 PT2Q10: Effectiveness of Previous Poverty Eradication schemes

4.2.11 PT2Q11: Are any poverty tackling measures that were in place that were not implemented?

CHAPTER FIVE: STRATEGY CONFERENCE: RECORD OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH RESULTS

5.1 Introduction

5.2 Responses to interview

5.3 Coding (Appendix 8)

5.4 Empowerment

5.5 Enabling Environment

5.6 Social Exclusion

5.7 Money, Greed and Mismanagement

5.8 Corrupt Culture, Attitudes and Behaviours

5.9 Self-Help and the Positive Attitude

5.10 Farming as an Enterprise

5.11 Familial support in Entrepreneurship

5.12 Summary

CHAPTER SIX: INTERPRETATION AND DISCUSSION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS

6.1 Introduction

6.1.1 Access to Free Quality Education

6.1.2 Job Opportunities

6.1.3 Infrastructural Facilities

6.1.4 Participation

6.1.5 Psychological Effect

6.1.6 Broken Down Traditional Social Relationship or Networks

6.1.7 Access to Free Quality Health Care

6.1.8. Microfinance

6.1.9 Boosting Agricultural Capacities and Capabilities

6.2 PART 2 HOW TO PERSUADE POLICY MAKERS

6.2.1 Social Marketing Techniques

6.2.1.1 Good Governance & Strategic Leadership

6.2.1.2 Collaborative Working Together, using Multidimensional Measures

6.2.1.3 Inclusivity, Continuity and Targeted Approach

6.2.1.4 Effective Leadership &Organisational Change Management

6.2.1.5 Better Performance Management through Transparency and Accountability

6.2.1.6 Segmentation, Effective Targeting & Positioning

6.2.1.7 Methods of Communicating with Government and Policy Makers

6.2.1.8 Way Forward and lessons from previous Poverty Intervention Measures

6.2.1.9 Lack of Confidence and/or Trust in Government

6.2.6.10 Contradictions and Paradoxes

6.2.6.11 A solution to these paradoxes might be the application of the current SMT Model

6.3 Summary

CHAPTER SEVEN: CONCLUSION, FUTURE RESEARCH, CONTRIBUTIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

7.1 Introduction

7.1.1 Overview

7.2 Summary of findings

7.3 How the objectives have been met?

7.3.1 Research objective 1:

7.3.2 Research objective 2

7.3.3 Research objective 3

7.3.4 Research objective 4

7.4 Contribution to knowledge

7.5 Contribution to theory

7.6 Contribution to practice

7.7 Unique PhD contribution

7.8 Suggestions for further research

7.9 The Gap

LIST OF FIGURES

2.3.1.2.1 The Strategy Conference Process

4.1.1 PT Q1: Are you a Bayelsa citizen? (Figure 5)

4.1.2 PT1 Q2 Bayelsa Local Government Areas

4.1.3 PT1 Q3: How many of the participants were female and how many were male?

4.1.4 PT1Q4: Your Age Group

4.1.5 PT1Q 5: Are you currently studying? (Figure 9)

4.1.6 PT1Q 6 Which is the highest qualification you currently have?

4.1.7 PT1Q7: Are you Currently Employed? (Figure 11)

4.1.8 PT1Q8. How often are you paid __ Weekly __ Monthly?

4.1.9 PT1Q9: How Many Jobs do you Do?

4.1.10 PT1Q10: How would you describe yourself?

4.1.12 PT1Q12: How Would you Describe your Experience of Poverty?

4.1.13 PT1Q13: I can afford to eat

PT1Q14: Which of these are the most significant Causes of Poverty in Bayelsa State?

PT1Q14: Worksheet 14: Causes of Poverty

PT1Q15: Perceive Bayelsa as a poor State?

PT1Q16 What support would you expect Bayelsa State government to provide for

young people and community organisations?

PT1Q17: How can we end poverty?

PT1Q18: Are current poverty tackling-schemes effective?

PT1Q19: By 2020, The Nigerian Millennium Development (MDG) aims to become the

world’s 20th largest economy by reducing poverty and inequality. With the current

socio-politico-economic constraints, do you consider this goal to be achievable?

4.2.1 PT2 Q1: It is important to ask the government to end poverty?

4.2.2 PT2Q2: Ways of Communicating with Government to help end poverty

4.2.3.1 PT2Q3 When you want to ask something from policy-makers to meet your wish to

get their help in ending poverty, which methods might work?

4.2.4 PT2Q4: How often would you think is appropriate to use these methods to persuade policy-makers and policy-implementers to end poverty?

4.2.5 PT2Q5: Is it important to involve young people and community organisations in

policy-making and policy-implementation?

4.2.6 PT2Q6: Is it important to remind Government how many young people are in

poverty for effective policy-making and policy-implementation?

4.2.7 PT2 Q7: It is important to know where these poor young people are living for

effective policy-making and policy-implementing

4.2.9 PT2 Q9 Are current poverty tackling intervention-schemes: such as

4.2.10 PT2Q10: Effectiveness of Previous Poverty Eradication schemes

4.2.11 PT2Q11: Are any poverty tackling measures that were in place that were not implemented?

LIST OF TABLES

Table 1.1 How does Bayelsa State compare with rest of developing countries?

PT1 Q17: Worksheet also relates to the question: How can we end poverty?

4.2.2 PT2Q2: Ways of Communicating with Government to help end poverty

4.2.3.1 PT2Q3 When you want to ask something from policy-makers to meet your wish to

get their help in ending poverty, which methods might work?

4.2.8. PT2Q8: Overcoming poverty requires policy-makers: to reset their priorities and

set their goals higher than the current emphasis on economic growth by creating job opportunities, and real jobs, not just opportunities, as below:

Image37272.JPG Image37279.PNG

A Study of What Young people and Community Organisations perceive as their as their support needs in Bayelsa State of Nigeria in "Tackling Poverty" and "How to Sway Policy Makers, Using Social Marketing Techniques?"

By

Ebikinei Stanley Eguruze

(Bsc(Marketing); LLB(Hons, Law); MA(Marketing); MA(Youth & Community Studies)

(DipM(CIM, Marketing); Adv.DipM(ABE, Marketing,), S.DipM(MAMSA, Marketing).

A thesis being submitted for the partial fulfilment of the requirements of the Cardiff Metropolitan University in collaboration with the London School of Commerce (an associate college) for the degree of philosophy.

Supervised by:

Professor Malcolm Bennison (Supervisor), Emeritus Professor Bruce Lloyd (current Director of Studies) 01 June 2013 to date and Emeritus Professor Peter Abell (former Director of Studies) 01 June 2011 to March 2013.

This thesis is a massive development from my previous two MA dissertations: one in marketing, the other in youth and community work. These provided the basis for the initial PhD thoughts. Based on this thesis a book is already due for immediate publication. In addition, parts of this thesis have been previously presented in seminars and conferences, whereas three articles have been successfully published. One was desk rejected. Other than any express acknowledgments, references and/or bibliographies cited in the thesis, I hereby affirm that the intelligent substance of the content of this thesis is the outcome of my personal endeavours.

Accordingly, the right of Ebikinei Stanley Eguruze to be noted as author of this work is submitted as per ss.78 of the Copyright, Designs, and Patents Act 1988. At this date, copyright is owned by the author.

Signature…………………………….

Date …………………………………

March 2016

ABSTRACT

This study investigates what young people and community organisations see as their support needs in Bayelsa State of Nigeria in "tackling poverty. It also examines the process of influencing policy makers, using social marketing techniques. It seeks to expand understanding of the poverty elimination processes: not only within a developing country’s rural environmental context, but also endeavours to generalize the findings more broadly. It seeks an inclusive approach to policy determination driven by involving grassroots levels.

A mixed-methods research design was adopted engaging a quantitative approach in which 300 young people were surveyed using self-completion questionnaires. In addition, a qualitative study in which policy-makers as well as young people and community organisations were interviewed. A discussion group methodology was adopted. Following the data-analysis, a strategy conference was organized in Nigeria, in which the major findings were presented and debated. This research has improved on the previous Multi-dimensional Poverty Index by enlarging it and combining it with a current Social Marketing Technique model. The new Multi-dimensional Poverty Index - Implementable Joint Programme of Action model is user friendly and retains the multidimensional paradigm. This extension was achieved through the literature research, the development of methodology, adopting mixed-methods approach and the strategy conference.

The main findings of the research show that young people and community organisations’ support-needs in Bayelsa State of Nigeria are far from being met. A great deal of additional support is required. The most significant causes of poverty amongst young people and community organisations are corruption of government officials, absence of jobs, low wages, oil pollution and IMF/World Bank conditionalities. It was also found that the main experiences of poverty include a high youth unemployment rate, lack of money to go to school, lack of money to start small businesses, less food to eat, no money to treat sickness, no money to buy clothes, no money to afford decent homes, prostitution, and absence of a public transportation system. The research considers the ways in which this additional support might be provided. Importantly, the research also revealed how extreme poverty could be alleviated, and by persuading policy-makers to create real jobs and job opportunities as well as developing employability skills and improving agriculture. In addition, there is a need to attract investors/oil companies to Bayelsa State and to increase investment spending. The lack of social infrastructure and access to free education, steady electricity and free healthcare are also seen as problems. Finally, the research revealed that actively involving young people and community organisations in policy-decision making and policy-implementation processes, including setting new priorities, or re-directing, is likely to enhance the probability of ending extreme poverty.

Keywords: Youth Poverty; Community Marketing; Multi-dimensional Poverty Index; Social Marketing Techniques; Bayelsa Nigeria

TABLE OF ABBREVIATIONS

APPENDICES

DECLARATION

I hereby confirm that I am the sole author of this thesis. During the course of this current PhD study I have not been registered for any other academic award or qualification, nor has any of the material been submitted wholly or partly for any other PhD award, except that as already stated earlier above, that this thesis is a massive development and/or progression from my previous two MA-dissertation works which provided the basis for the initial thoughts and materials.

I personally carried out all of the work of which this thesis is the evidence. The programme of study of which this is a part has been delivered by the London School Commerce (an associate college of Cardiff Metropolitan University), in Wales, United Kingdom.

Signed……………………………

Date:……………………………..

DEDICATION

Dedicated to Almighty God and my beloved family: with love and apologies for all the sacrifices over all these long years.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

First and foremost, I would like to appreciate that this thesis would not have been completed without the support of a good number of persons involved one way or another.

My appreciation goes to my supervisory team namely Emeritus Professor Peter Abell (of London School of Economics and Political Science, University of London, my former Director of Studies), Professor Malcolm Bennison of LSC (an associate college of Cardiff Metropolitan University(my Supervisor) and Emeritus Professor Bruce Lloyd (my current Director of Studies). I am indeed grateful for their kind and relentless support. They have been supportive in a number of ways: not only were they providing invaluable intellectual guidance and constructive feedback, but also offered moral support and inspirational encouragement, particularly in most challenging times. To all of them, I am indebted.

To my own family: wife and five lovely children - Izonebi Alicia Eguruze, Woyengi-Tari Ebikinei Eguruze, Timinipre Jemima Eguruze, Waripamowei Ebikinei Eguruze and Woyengi-Priye Eboni Eguruze. I am forever grateful for all of their sacrifices, over all these long years. I actually lack the right words to describe how grateful I feel to them. They are all special to me. I am indeed indebted.

To my two great institutions for their immense support that they enabled me complete the PhD: Niger Delta University, for the long study leave or fellowship opportunity and funding, the Head of Department of Business Administration and the Dean of Faculty of Management Sciences for their support during the course of the strategy conference. And for LSC/Cardiff Metropolitan University, for the admission offer. Most importantly, I was greatly inspired by Professor Eleri Jones’s and Professor Don Harpers’ businesslike and professional leadership approaches to the PhD programme which was unique. It enabled so many of us.

Finally, my special thanks to Messrs: J.E.J Tiebiri, Tamuno Ebizimo and Pereowei Presely Eguruze, for assisting me in the empirical work in Nigeria; to Pere Abinabo for ensuring the safe transportation of the bulky data collected from Nigeria. Mrs Eva Odoniere Ungbuku and Sunday Ebikinei Opiah Peter for their moral support, encouragements, prayers and computer logistical support. To the proof reader, Mrs Alison Bennison (for overcoming my English inadequacies), I am grateful. To all those who provided support one way or another, many thanks.

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

This thesis examines what young people and community organisations see as their support needs in Bayelsa State in the Niger Delta area of Nigeria in Tackling Poverty and how to sway policy-makers, using Social Marketing Techniques (SMT)? The term young people refers to people between ages 18 and 25 (NSPCC, 2015; UNCRC, 2014). While the term community organisations in this study is used in a broad sense towards groups whose activities are aimed at achieving public good or for public benefit (Annan, 2004; Wandsworth Voluntary Sector Fact File, 2006; Elson, 2010; Charity Commission, 2011,2014; ReachSkills, 2015). These includes community-based groups, communities, civil society organisations (CSOs), non-governmental organisations (NGOs), youth and community projects (YCPs), voluntary and community organisations (CCOs), community centres. The third sector of the economy or the third sector, not-for-profit or non-profit making organisations, social enterprises, charitable organizations). Furthermore, social marketing is an approach to planned social change or a designed implementation and control of programmes calculated to influence the acceptability of social ideas and involving considerations of product planning, communications and marketing research (Zaltman, 1971:3).

1.2 The Research Problem

The research problem focused on reasons Bayelsa State a leading oil and gas producing state of Nigeria and its people (particularly young people and community organisations) still experience extreme poverty? (Okoko, 2011; Tamuno, 2011; Beyelsa.gov.org., 2012, Kingdom and Alfred-Ockiya, 2009; Appah et al., 2012; Sibiri, 2013). It is disappointing that the people and the communities that produce over 99% of the Nigerian oil revenue should remain impoverished (Boro 1982; Ken Sarowiwa, 1995; IYC, 1998; Asari-Dokubo, 2005, 2008; Evilewuru, 2006, 2008; Seibiri, 2013; Egbe, 2013; Eguruze, 2014). The implications of this poverty have led to high unemployment rate or absence of real jobs and employment, low wages/living wages, lack of access to quality education or affordable, decent low-cost housing. Lack of access to quality healthcare or infrastructural facilities (such as electricity, portable drinking water, micro-finances, access to finance for business, pollution, recreational centres, and economic growth).

This study follows the lessons gained from the experiences of Vietnam which were devastated by war, internationally isolated but has in the past few decades seen significant economic growth and poverty reduction (Tran, 2013:8). Thus, Vietnam presents an ideal case of reference when it comes to tackling poverty from the perspective of emerging nations (Steer and Sen, 2010; Tran, 2013). Although there have been a wide range of similar studies on poverty reduction both in the region in question (Kingdom and Alfred-Ockiya, 2009; Appah et al., 2012; Ibaba, 2012 Egbe, 2013; Sebiri, 2013) and elsewhere around the world (UNDP, 1979; Pernia, 2003; Roelen, 2010; Broadberry et al., 2014). Nevertheless, predomonantly single dimensional approach has been adopted so far in prevous atempts, to tackle the problem in Bayelsa, whilst it requires a mutli-dimensional methodology. Equally, there have been numerous previous, well-meaning interventionists poverty alleviations efforts both around the world (UNDP 1979; MDGs, 2005; World Bank,2008; Oxford Univerity’s OPHDI, 2010, Oxfarm, 2010;) and in the region in question (Ekineh,1995; Anyanwu, 1997; Olayinwola and Adeleye, 2005; Ayadi, 2008; Maduagwu, 2009). Some of these interventionists attempts have been mismanaged or abandoned (Anyanwu, 1997; Olayinwola and Adeleye, 2005; Evilewuru, 2006, 2008; Maduagwu,2009; Okoko, 2011, Tamunu, 2011; Broadberry et al., 2014). However, unfortunately, the problem of poverty persists and has had severe effects on young people and community organisations. The researcher, therefore, believes that a new approach is necessary.

1.3 Research Background

Bayelsa is one of the newest and smallest States of Nigeria. Created out of the old Rivers state, on 1st October 1996 under Abacha’s administration, after 36 years of Nigeria’s independence from Britain. The name Bayelsa is an acronym derived from ‘Balga’, ‘Yelga’ and ‘Salga’. These were the former three local government areas (LGAs) of the old River state - Brass LGA (Balga), Yenagoa LGA (Yelga) and Sagbama LGA (Salga) (Alagoa, 1999). Currently, Bayelsa State has a total of eight LGAs. Other local government areas added to the above include Kolokuma/Opokuma LGA(Kolga), Southern Ijaw LGA(SALGA), Ekeremo LGA(Kelga), Ogbia LGA(Olga), Nembe LGA (Nelga), (Alagoa, 1999; Bayelsa State Investment & Tourism Guide, 2000; Bayelsa State.gov.2015).

Various attempts have been made in tackling poverty in the Nigerian polity in the past. For instance, in the past, State creation was traditionally perceived as a panacea when dealing with poverty, as it has the potential to bring government and development closer to the minority or less developed communities (Akinyele, 1996; 2014; Alapiki, 2005; Ikporikpo, 2006). Unfortunately, it did not resolve the poverty challenges in Bayelsa. More broadly, 37% of the entire population of Bayelsa, or 38% of Bayelsa young men and women remained unemployed, the highest in the country (Vanguard, 2011). Note that lots of factors account for the current development. For instance, the industrial sector is nearly non-existent within the state. A good example is that all oil and gas multinational companies have their headquarters stationed outside Bayelsa State. Also, the private sector size in the state is limited. The only private sector operators are banks and self-employed traders and contractor that do not create much employment opportunities for the citizens of Bayelsa. Employees in these sectors are often sent from their headquarters that are located outside the Bayelsa state (Boro,1982; Alagoa,1999; Azaiki, 2005; Okaba, 2005, 2008; Okoko, 2011; Tamuno, 2011).

1.3.1 Bayelsa State, Niger Delta Region and Nigerian Oil Revenues

Nigeria is not only Africa’s leading oil producer and exporter; but it is also by far Africa’s largest economy with an estimated Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of $510 billion (2013 figures) compared to South Africa’s $370 billion (The Economist, 2014; ThisDay Newspaper, 2014). Nigeria also is the 12th world’s largest producer of petroleum and has the 10th world’s largest petroleum reserves and petroleum accounting for 40% of her GDP and over 80% of Nigerian’s Federal Government revenue (World Bank, 2011). Also, Nigeria manifests a robust mixed economy emerging market with a lower income status (World Bank, 2011), with a projected economy growth of 9% in 2008; and 8.3% in 2009 (IMF, 2008). Constitutionally, Nigeria is a federal a republic with 36 states with Abuja, as her capital. Unfortunately, despite all of these positive indicators, the country may be a giant, but it is still poor, Nigeria ranks 152nd of the 187 countries in the UN’s Human Development Index (2015). Despite the rapid growth in recent years, unemployment remains high and the number of people with the revised ($510 billion GDP) figures, GDP per head is only (at) $2,700, compared to South Africa’s $7,096 (The Economist, 2014; This Day Newspaper, 2014). So, despite the abundance of wealth and resources in Nigeria, Nigeria still has huge incidences of poverty. Nigeria derives over 80% of its national revenue and over 98% of its foreign earnings from oil exploration (Khan, 2001; Forrester, 1995). However, Nigerian oil revenue derivation substantially increased from 80% to over 90% (Okoko, 2011; Nna and Ibaba, 2011).

Bayelsa State is also one of the leading oil producing States of Nigeria (Azaiki, 2005,2008; Okaba, 2005, 2008;) consistently producing over 30%-40% of Nigerian oil revenue (Bayelsa.gov.org; 31/07/12). Bayelsa is also the place where oil was first discovered (in Oloibiri) in 1956 (Okoko, 2011; Nna and Ibaba, 2011; Bayelsa.gov.org., 2012). Bayelsa was also the place where oil was first discovered in commercial quantities since 1957 (Alaibe, 2007; Bayelsa.gov.org.,2012). Although Bayelsa State oil production contributes substantially to the national wealth, young people and community organisations of the State experience severe poverty. Thus, a constructive policy change with a foresighted leadership will be useful (Jonathan, 2005) in ensuring an outcome of successful and sustained development to change from ‘low-productivity and low-income’ generating jobs to ‘high-productivity and high-income’ generating jobs (Broadberry et al., 2014).

1.3.2 Poverty in Bayelsa State

The impact of rural poverty in Bayelsa is widespread. This is reflected by the massive movements or migrations of people from the rural areas or villages to Yenagoa, the capital city. Until 1st October 1996 when Bayelsa State was created, the entire Bayelsa State could be regarded as a 100% rural area (Alagoa, 1999; Eguruze, 2011). Bayelsa could still be seen as a largely rural state with a predominantly riverside terrain: surrounded by marshland of streams, lakes, canals, creeks, rivers, seas, ocean and thick rain-forest that is heavily polluted by oil/gas exploration. This suggests that the entire Bayelsa population of 1.7 million people (Nigerian Population Census, 2006, 2015) were rural dwellers with small-scale farming and trading as their main occupations. Even Yenagoa, the capital itself, was a village at the time of the state-creation. There was less commercial or industrial activity. The Government is still the only primary source of employment in Bayelsa. This means that the limited opportunities exist solely in the public sector and informal business sector.

That means traditionally Bayelsans are mainly rural farmers engaged in small-scale farming for subsistence due to lack of funds and technological know-how. These farmers are predominantly women. Women also assume responsibility for the welfare of their children. The men are more involved in fishing and hunting. Most of these farmers are landless or tenants, without access to large land ownership that makes it, even more, challenging for them to prosper through farming. Small farmlands have limited scopes and capacity. Inevitably, their productivity is low due to the lack of use of modern technology and chemical substances and accessibility to financial support (Allison-Oguru et al.,1999; cited in Alagoa, 1999: 282-300; Broadberry, 2014). As a result, these farmers sometimes have to look for a second job or resort to petty trading to raise additional income, to meet their family needs, (Khan, 2001; Alagoa,1999; Broadberry et al., 2014). Thus, as earlier stated, "an outcome of successful development must be to change these (low-productivity, low-income generating jobs) for high-productivity, high-income jobs (Broadberyy et al., 2014).

Bayelsa land owners have equally been adversely affected by inappropriate property rights or unfair enforcement of existing laws governing rights to agricultural land and other natural resources. Particularly, the Land Use Decree Act 1972 imposed by the Federal Government of Nigeria is widely perceived as disproportionate ownership arrangements, which is rather detrimental to the oil/gas producing states, including Bayelsa (Ogionwo, 1995; Zuofa, 1995). The 1972 Act neither worked positively for the benefit of national interest nor made significant contributions to rural poverty reduction and indeed, it particularly worked against the people of Bayelsa and the neighbouring Niger Delta states (Zuofa, 1995). Taking this into context in relation to this research, the 1972 legislation, by implication, is consistent with the approach that development planning and policy making in Nigeria often reflects the views, needs and perceptions of the elite (policy- makers and policy implementers) and not those of the people at the grassroots such as young people and community organisations. This approach is unacceptable to Bayelsa young people and community organisations. To end poverty, development planning in Bayelsa State ought to reflect the visions, aspirations and perceptions of young people and community organisations (Pernia, 2003; Ibomo et al., (1999) cited in Alaogoa, 1999).

1.4 How does Bayelsa State compare with rest of developing countries?

Table 1.1 How does Bayelsa State compare with rest of developing countries?