Why Are These Books in the Bible and Not Others? - Volume One A Translator’s Perspective on the Canon of the Old Testament

Why Are These Books in the Bible and Not Others?: Volume One - A Translator’s Perspective on the Canon of the Old Testament

By Gary F. Zeolla

Copyright © 2016, 2023 by Gary F. Zeolla (www.Zeolla.org).

All rights reserved.

ISBN: 978-1-365-49572-4

This version of this book published in 2023 is a corrected text, not a full new edition. Only minor corrections have been made, plus the cover and appendixes have been updated.

Introductory Pages

Preface

Christians claim the Bible is the Word of God, that it is the final authority in all matters relating to Christian faith and practice, and that it is absolutely reliable in all that it teaches. But to put such confidence in the Bible requires that the correct books are in the Bible. But is there? Why are the 66 books in the Bible in the Bible, and why were other books that could have been included not included?

This subject is very important but also complicated, so complicated that it will take three volumes to fully cover it. This Volume One will study the books included in the Old Testament (OT) and consider other books that could have been included in it but were not. Volume Two will cover the books included in the New Testament (NT). Volume Three will look at the writings of the Apostolic Fathers, some of which were seriously considered for inclusion in the NT. It will also investigate other writings that many wonder why they are not included in the NT.

In this first volume, each of the 39 books included in the OT will be reviewed in detail. Who wrote them and when, their theology, and other pertinent background information will be discussed to explain why they are included in the OT.

Then the Apocryphal/ Deuterocanonical Books will be considered. These are the extra books found in Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles as compared to Protestant and Jewish Bibles. The debate over them will be addressed in detail.

Lastly, other books that some wonder why they are not included in the OT will be addressed. It will be explained why these books were rejected.

The author is the translator of the Analytical-Literal Translation of the Bible. The ALT consists of translations of the Old Testament Greek Septuagint, the Apocryphal/ Deuterocanonical Books, the New Testament Greek Majority Text, and the Apostolic Fathers. He is thus very familiar with all of the books to be discussed in this three volume set, having translated most of them. He is also the author of many other books related to the Bible. Working on this distinct translation of the Bible and these other Bible-based books gives the author a unique perspective on these topics.

Analytical-Literal Translation

Unless otherwise indicated, all Bible verses in this three volume set are quoted from the author’s Analytical-Literal Translation of the Bible (ALT; see Appendixes One and Two). The ALT is published in seven volumes.

Volumes I – IV of the ALT are the Old Testament (OT). The 39 books contained in the OT will discussed in this volume. One unique feature of the ALT: OT is it is translated from the Septuagint (LXX) rather than the Hebrew text. The LXX is a third century B.C. Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. The name and abbreviation comes from the tradition that 70 (or 72) Jewish scholars worked on its translation, six from each of the 12 tribes of Israel.

As such, the wording of some OT verses quoted in this book might differ from Bible versions based upon the Hebrew text, which most versions are. In cases where there is a difference between texts affecting the subject of this book, the verses will also be quoted from version(s) based on the Hebrew text or the author’s own translation.

Volume V of the ALT contains the Apocryphal/ Deuterocanonical (A/D) Books. These are the extra books found in Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Bibles, as compared to Jewish and Protestant Bibles. The debate as to whether these books should be included in the Bible is addressed in this volume.

Volume VI of the ALT is the New Testament (NT). The 27 books contained in the NT will discussed in Volume Two. The ALT: NT is translated from the Majority Text. This Greek text differs slightly from the other two Greek texts used in Bible translation: the Textus Receptus (used by the KJV and NKJV) and the Critical Text (NASB, NIV, and most other modern-day versions). Thus, again, the wording of some verses quoted in this set might differ from the wording in other Bibles. If a textual variant affects the interpretation of a verse, it is mentioned.

However, more often than these textual reasons, the wording of the ALT differs from other versions due to the ALT being a literal translation while many Bible versions use a less than literal translation method. These textual and translation differences are addressed in this writer’s book Differences Between Bible Versions (see Appendix Two).

Volume VII of the ALT is the Apostolic Fathers (APF). These are the writings of the Church leaders of the late first through mid-second centuries AD. Some of these books were seriously considered for inclusion in the NT. These writings will be discussed in Volume Three.

These seven ALT volumes contain most of the writings discussed in this three volume set, so the writer is very familiar with them.

Old Testament Texts

The Old Testament (OT) was originally written in Hebrew, with a few small sections in Aramaic. The primary Hebrew text used today to translate the OT from is the Masoretic Text. It is this text that is meant by Hebrew text in this book. This text was begun in the sixth century AD and finished in the tenth. Much care was used in transcribing it, counting every verse, letter, and word to ensure accuracy.

The accuracy of this text is demonstrated by the Dead Sea Scrolls (DSS). These are ancient, mostly Hebrew, manuscripts (of leather, papyrus, and copper), first found in 1947 on the northwestern shore of the Dead Sea. This was near the ruins of Qumram (Encyclopedia Britannica; Masoretic Text and Dead Sea Scrolls).

… the archaeological and linguistic data provide scholars with reasonable confidence that the scrolls date from 250 B.C. to A.D. 70. … every book of the traditional Hebrew canon, except Esther, is represented (to some degree) among the materials at Qumran. … A comparison of the Masoretic Text to this earlier text revealed the remarkable accuracy with which scribes copied the sacred texts (Apologetics Press; The Dead Sea Scrolls and Biblical Integrity).

Another poof is the Greek Septuagint (LXX). Fragments of this text date to the second century BC and complete manuscripts to the fourth century AD. (Theopedia. Septuagint). Having translated the LXX, I can attest that in the Torah and Historical Books it is very similar to the Hebrew Text, most often word for word identical. In the Poetic and Prophetic Books, there is some variability, but even when the exact wording differs, the meaning almost always remains the same.

Other sources for comparison are the Targums. These are Aramaic translations of the Hebrew text that date to as early as the third century AD. Next is the Vulgate, a Latin translation of the LXX by Jerome in 382 AD (Encyclopedia Britannica; Targum and Vulgate). Plus, Other ancient Hebrew manuscripts have been discovered. And there is the Syriac Peshitta: Dated to the 1st century A.D. (Truthnet. What are the Old Testament (Tanakh) Manuscripts?").

God willing, I will elaborate on this information in my proposed book Texts and Translations of the Bible (see Appendix Three). But here, significant differences between these texts are indicated in many Bibles, as will be done in this book. But overall, the text of the OT is well attested and can be read with confidence.

Hebrews, Israelites, Jews

The terms Hebrews, Israelites, and Jews are generally used interchangeably for the descendants of Abraham through Isaac and Jacob. But some try to make a distinction between these terms. Each term emphasizes some aspect of this people’s origin or background (Timberlake Church). But how do the Scriptures use these terms?

The term Hebrew or Hebrews is used 52 times in the Bible (NKJV), with 22 of these occurrences being in the Torah. It is first used of Abraham (Gen 14:13). Thus, Hebrew is the oldest and original term for this people and their language.

Jacob was renamed Israel by the LORD in Genesis 32:28. The term Israel is then used of his descendants collectively throughout Scripture, first in Genesis 47:27.      It is used of all of Jacob’s descendants throughout the Torah and through 1Samuel. But in 2Samuel it begins to be used specifically for the nation composed of the ten northern tribes, as compared to the nation composed of the two southern tribes, which is named Judah. This is first seen in 2Samuel 2:10. The split between these two nations became permanent after Solomon’s death, when his son Rehoboam refused to lighten the load on the ten northern tribes (1Kings 12:1-19).

It is for this reason that some make a distinction between Israelites and Jews. They claim the former term only refers to descendants of Jacob from the northern kingdom and the later term only to those of this people from the southern kingdom.

However, the phrase sons [and daughters] of Israel (or children of Israel) is first used of all of Jacob’s descendants in Genesis 32:32 and is used 631 times throughout Scripture and always for all of Jacob’s descendants. The term Israelite or Israelites is first used in Exodus 9:7 and is used 22 times in Scripture and is also used for all of Jacob’s descendants.

Meanwhile, the term Jews is not used until 2Kings. It is used twice in that book of only those from the southern tribes (16:6; 25:25). But it is used 239 times in the post-exilic books of Ezra, Nehemiah and Esther and in the New Testament for all of Jacob’s descendants.

The conclusion is Hebrews is the oldest term and Jews the newest. This minor distinction is maintained in this book. But otherwise these terms are used synonymously in Scripture and thus in this book.

Terminology Notes

This three volume set will use the era markers of BC and AD (or B.C. and A.D.). The former means before Christ while the latter means Anno Domino, which is Latin for In the year of the Lord. These are the traditional markers for the turn of eras, with the eras being separated by birth of Jesus. This writer is fully aware that Jesus most likely was not born in 1 AD but in about 4 BC. But that does not negate that His birth has traditionally been used to separate the eras.

The markers of BCE and CE (or B.C.E., C.E., meaning Before Common Era and Common Era, respectively) are now often used. But these markers make no sense. The only reason to separate the eras at this point in history is the birth of Christ, as nothing else of sufficient significance happened at that time to cause a change of eras.

Otherwise, the term conservative will be used in this set to refer to the traditional beliefs and those who ascribe to them as to the authors and the dates of the writing of Bible books. These will generally be the beliefs that have been held by Jews and Christians from the earliest times down to the 1800s. The terms liberal and critics (or critical) will be used for the opinions that originated in the 1800s and for those who ascribe to them which deny these traditional beliefs.

The term orthodox will be used to refer to the historic doctrines of the Judeo-Christian tradition and those who ascribe to them, while the term heresy and heretics will be used of doctrines both ancient and modern that are contrary to these orthodox doctrines and for those who subscribe to these heretical doctrines, respectively. It is recognized these are strong terms, but they best express the concept.

The terms Babylonian Captivity or exile refers to the about 70 years the Jews spent in exile in Babylon, from 605 to 537 BC.

The term early Church will be used of the Christian movement of the first through fourth centuries AD.

The term Apostolic Fathers refers to Christian leaders and writers immediately after the apostles, who were direct disciples of the apostles and who lived in the late first through mid-second centuries. The term Church Fathers refers to Christian writers and leaders after the Apostolic Fathers from the mid-second through fourth centuries, though the Apostolic Fathers are sometime also included in this term.

Biblical Chronology

This chronology is based on Biblical statements and correlation of Biblical events with the known dates for secular historical events. It also includes other important events for this study. Some dates are approximate.

B.C.

2166 – Birth of Abram/ Abraham

2066 – Birth of Isaac

2006 – Birth of Jacob/ Israel and Esau

1991 – Death of Abraham

1916 – Birth of Joseph

1899 – Joseph sold into slavery into Egypt

1876 – Jacob/ Israel and his family migrate to Egypt

1806 – Death of Joseph

1526 – Birth of Moses

1446 – The Exodus of the Hebrews out of Egypt

1406 – Entrance of the Hebrews into the Promised Land

1400-1100 – Period of the Judges

1100 – Beginning of Samuel’s ministry

1052 – Reign of Saul begins

1010 – Reign of David begins

970 – Reign of Solomon begins

931 – Split into Northern and Southern Kingdoms

722 – Fall of Israel to Assyria

605 – Daniel and other Jews taken captive to Babylon

597 – Zedekiah and other Jews taken captive to Babylon

586 – Destruction of the temple and Jerusalem

537 – Cyrus’ decree for Jews for return to Jerusalem

430 – End of Nehemiah and thus of the OT narrative

420 – Malachi; last book of the Old Testament

336-323 – Reign of Alexander the Great

300-200 – Translation of the Septuagint

250 BC to 70 AD – Dead Sea Scrolls written

175-134 – Maccabean period

146 – Greece made into a province of the Roman Empire

63 – Romans under Pompey conquer Jerusalem/ occupy Judea

4 – Birth of Jesus

Abbreviations and Other Notes

Following are the meanings of abbreviations seen in this book.

Abbreviations in the ALT

[the] – Words added for clarity are bracketed (e.g., Gen 1:1). But note: very often the definite article (the) is not used in the LXX with the word kurios (LORD or Lord). But the added article is not bracketed in this case as its frequency made it prohibitive to do so.

[1Cor 15:45] – Reference for when the OT is quoted in the NT (e.g., Gen 2:7).

father of a multitude – Meaning of a proper name, placed in quotation marks (e.g., Gen 17:5).

About – Modern-day equivalent for measurements and monetary units (e.g., Gen 6:15).

cp. – Compare. A cross reference (e.g., Gen 1:27).

fig. – Figurative. Possible figurative meaning or paraphrase of preceding literal translation (e.g., Gen 1:2).

Gr. – Greek. The Greek word previously translated, with the Greek letters transliterated (changed) into English letters (e.g., Gen 3:20).

Heb. – Hebrew. Indicates the reading of the Hebrew OT when there is a notable difference between it and the LXX. But note, no attempt is made to indicate all differences between these two texts (e.g., Gen 2:6). Also used for when the LXX omits a verse, but it is included by the translator translating it from the Hebrew text.

i.e.  – Explanatory note (that is or in explanation) (e.g., Gen 2:23). Also Note for longer notes.

lit. – Literal. Indicates the literal rendering when the text uses a less than literal rendering (e.g., Gen 1:6).

LXX – Septuagint. Third century B.C. Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. Very often, the spelling of proper names in the LXX differs from how the name is commonly spelled. For notable names, the common spelling is used in the text, but the first time it appears in a book, the LXX spelling is also given (e.g., Gen 2:8). But note: no attempt is made to give the common spelling for all names.

omits –The LXX being used is Codex Vaticanus. If it omits a verse, the translator’s rendering of the Hebrew is given (e.g., 1Kings 12:2).

NT – New Testament.

OT – Old Testament.

or – Alternative, traditional, or slightly less literal translation (e.g., Gen 1:8).

see – Cross reference (e.g., Gen 25:34).

Notations in the ALT

But – Indicates the use of the Greek strong adversative (alla – e.g., Gen 15:4) instead of the weak adversative (de, translated as but when used in an adversative sense – e.g., Gen 1:2).

LORD – Lord – The former indicates the Hebrew OT has Yahweh (the Hebrew proper name for God – Gen 2:8). The latter indicates the Hebrew OT has adonai (the general word for lord) or that there is no equivalent in the Hebrew OT for the LXX’s use of Lord (Gr., kurios – e.g., Gen 6:22). When the LXX has God (Gr., theos) where the Hebrew has Yahweh, GOD is used (e.g., Exod 4:11).

you – Indicates the pronoun is emphasized in the Greek text (also, he, she, etc. – e.g., Gen 4:7).

you* – Indicates the original is plural (also, your* – e.g., Gen 1:22). With no asterisk the second person pronoun is singular (e.g., Gen 3:9).

{…} – Encloses extra passages found in the LXX but not in the Hebrew text (e.g., Gen 46:20).

Additional Abbreviations

a – Only the first half of the verse is being quoted or referred to (e.g., Exodus 15:22-25a, only the first half of verse 25 is quoted or referred to).

b – Only the second half of the verse is being quoted or referred to (e.g., Exodus 15:25b-26, only the second half of verse 25 is quoted or referred to).

c – Circa. About. Used with approximate dates.

f – And the following verse (e.g. Psalm 22:9f means verses 9 and 10 are quoted or referred to).

ff – And the following verses (e.g., 22:9ff means verse 9 and several following verses are quoted or referred to).

Abbreviations for Bible Versions

ALT – Analytical-Literal Translation.

ESV – English Standard Version.

HCSB - Holman Christian Standard Bible.

KJV – King James Version.

NAB – New American Bible.

NASB – New American Standard Bible.

NET – New English Translation.

NIRV - New International Reader’s Version.

NIV – New International Version.

NLT – New Living Translation.

NKJV – New King James Version.

NRSV – New Revised Standard Version.

Quotations Notes

Much of this book consists of extended Scripture quotations. These have not been put in block quotes (indented) as is normally done for extended quotes due to the length and number of them, as to do so would have made this book even longer than it already is in hardcopy formats and difficult to read in electronic formats. But the superscript verse numbers are retained, so Scripture quotes are easily identified.

However, extended quotes from sources other than the Bible are indented for easy identification.       The sources are cited after the quote in parentheses by the first word or two of the main title of the source, followed by an article title in quotation marks if applicable. The full biographical data is then given in Appendix One.

The LORD

Throughout the ALT, I use LORD (written in all capital letters) to indicate when the Greek word kurios is a translation of the Hebrew Divine Name (YHWH; traditionally pronounced Jehovah but more likely pronounced Yahweh). As a result, I have gotten in the habit of using LORD in all my writings. That is why LORD is used throughout this book. But whether LORD, Lord, or God, the reference is to the one true God, the God of the Bible.

Abbreviations for Bible Books

The Old Testament:

Gen – Genesis

Exod – Exodus

Lev – Leviticus

Numb – Numbers

Deut – Deuteronomy

Josh – Joshua

Judg – Judges

Ruth – Ruth

1Sam – 1Samuel

2Sam – 2Samuel

1Ki – 1Kings

2Ki – 2Kings

1Chr – 1Chronicles

2Chr – 2Chronicles

Ezra – Ezra

Neh – Nehemiah

Est – Esther

Job – Job

Ps – Psalms

Prov – Proverbs

Eccl – Ecclesiastes

Song – Song of Solomon

Isa – Isaiah

Jer – Jeremiah

Lam – Lamentations

Ezek – Ezekiel

Dan – Daniel

Hos – Hosea

Joel – Joel

Amos – Amos

Obad – Obadiah

Jon – Jonah

Mic – Micah

Nah – Nahum

Hab – Habakkuk

Zeph – Zephaniah

Hag – Haggai

Zech – Zechariah

Mal – Malachi

The New Testament:

Matt – Matthew

Mk – Mark

Lk – Luke

Jn – John

Ac – Acts

Rom – Romans

1Cor – 1Corinthians

2Cor – 2Corinthians

Gal – Galatians

Eph – Ephesians

Phil – Philippians

Col – Colossians

1Th – 1Thessalonians

2Th – 2Thessalonians

1Tim – 1Timothy

2Tim – 2Timothy

Tit – Titus

Phlm – Philemon

Heb – Hebrews

Jam – James

1Pet – 1Peter

2Pet – 2Peter

1Jn – 1John

2Jn – 2John

3Jn – 3John

Jd – Jude

Rev – Revelation

Books in the Old Testament

Ch. 1 – Overview of the OT Canon

The Bible consists of 66 books, 39 in the Old Testament (OT) and 27 in the New Testament (NT). This first volume of this three volume set will discuss the OT and why these 39 books were included in the OT and not others. We will begin by overviewing the canon of the OT.

Note: In general, the word canon means a general law, rule, principle, or criterion by which something is judged. In reference to the Bible, it means, a collection or list of sacred books accepted as genuine (Oxford). More specifically, it means The books of the Bible officially accepted as Holy Scripture (YourDictionary).

As used in this book, the canon of Scripture is the list of books considered to be inspired by God and thus authoritative. As such, they are fully reliable, so doctrine, spiritual practice, and ethics can be based upon them.

Overview of the Old Testament

The Old Testament books are as follows. They are listed in their traditional order and with their traditional groupings.

The Torah:

Genesis

Exodus

Leviticus

Numbers

Deuteronomy

The Historical Books:

Joshua

Judges

Ruth

1Samuel

2Samuel

1Kings

2Kings

1Chronicles

2Chronicles

Ezra

Nehemiah

Esther

The Poetic Books:

Job

Psalm

Proverbs

Ecclesiastes

Song of Solomon

The Major Prophets:

Isaiah

Jeremiah

Lamentations

Ezekiel

Daniel

The Minor Prophets:

Hosea

Joel

Amos

Obadiah

Jonah

Micah

Nahum

Habakkuk

Zephaniah

Haggai

Zechariah

Malachi

There is a consensus among Jews and all major Christian groups (Protestant, Roman Catholic, and Eastern Orthodox) that these 39 books belong in the Bible. They are called the protocanonical (first canon) books, meaning they are considered to be inspired by God and a part of the canon of Scripture. They are thus considered trustworthy to develop doctrine, ethics, and spiritual practices from by all of these groups.

However, different groups might arrange these books differently and might even have different names for them. For example, 1,2Samuel are called 1,2Kings in some Christian Bibles, and thus 1,2Kings are called 3,4Kings. But the contents of the books are the same.

But more dramatically, Jewish Bibles contain these 39 books, but they group them differently. The six books of 1,2Samuel, 1,2Kings, and 1,2Chronicles are only three books in Jewish Bibles (Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles). Three books was the original format, but each was split into two parts when translating the Hebrew text into Greek for the Septuagint (LXX). Since Greek takes up more space than Hebrew, each book did not fit on one scroll and needed to be split up into two scrolls.

Also, Ezra and Nehemiah are only one book in Jewish Bibles, while the twelve Minor Prophets are also only one book, called the Book of the Twelve. Hence Jewish Bibles only have 24 books, even though they have the same amount of content as Protestant OTs.

Meanwhile, the names and order of the books in Christian Bibles are taken from the LXX, while the names and order of the books in Jewish Bibles are taken from the Hebrew text. The name in Jewish Bibles is usually the first Hebrew word of the book. Thus, for instance, Genesis is called B'reishít (or, Bereshit), the Hebrew word for In the beginning.

Finally, the order and arrangement of books is different in Jewish Bibles than in Christian Bibles. There are only three major categories: The Torah, the Prophets, and The Writings. They are as follows:

The Torah: The Five Books of Moses (Chumash):

Genesis

Exodus

Leviticus

Numbers

Deuteronomy

The Eight Books of the Prophets (Neviim):

Joshua

Judges

Samuel

Kings

Isaiah

Jeremiah

Ezekiel

The Twelve (minor prophets)

The Eleven Books of the Writings (Kesuvim):

Psalms

Proverbs

Job

Song of Songs

Ruth

Lamentations

Ecclesiastes

Esther

Daniel

Ezra/Nehemiah

Chronicles (Torah.org).

This order is important given the following statement by Jesus.

⁵⁰so that the blood of all the prophets, the [blood] being shed from [the] laying of the foundation of [the] world, shall be charged against this generation, ⁵¹from the blood of Abel to the blood of Zacharias, the one having perished between the altar and the house [of God]" (Luke 11:50,51a).

The murder of Cain is recorded in Genesis 4:8 and the murder of Zacharias in 2Chronicles 36:16. These are thus the first and last murders recorded in the OT, according to the Hebrew book order. A such, Jesus is saying from the first murder in the Bible to the last. In doing so, He is putting His seal of approval to this canon of books. At the very least, this shows this canon of books was already accepted in the first century AD.

Reading the Old Testament

Before proceeding, it would be good to mention that this book will assume the reader is familiar with the contents of the OT books. If you are not, I would strongly encourage you to read the OT. In today’s world, there are many ways to do so.

The Bible (OT and NT) is widely available in traditional hardcopy formats, either paperback, hardback, or leather-bound. These can be purchased at brick and mortal bookstores and via online bookstores, both Christian and secular.

The text of the Bible is also available in various software programs for desktop and notebook computers. The one I utilize is BibleWorks. It is an excellent program and the one I use in working on my translation of the Bible and in writing this three volume set. But it is rather pricy and geared towards the serious Bible student. Less expensive or even free software programs are also readily available.

The Bible can also be read in various eBook formats, such as Acrobat Reader, Kindle, and ePUB formats for iPad and Nook readers. The Bible is also available in various apps for smart phones and tablets. The ones I use are Blue Letter Bible and Olive Tree’s Bible+. Both of these are free, excellent, and easy to use apps. For the latter, additional study aids can be purchased. There are also various websites that offer the text of the Bible freely online.

There is a myriad of different translations of the Bible. Mine is the Analytical-Literal Translation (ALT). It is available in both hardcopy and eBook formats (see Appendix Two). Other versions are available in all of the above formats. My favorite of the popularly available versions is the New King James Version (NKJV). My reasons for preferring it are detailed in my book Differences Between Bible Versions (see Appendix Two). But many of the other available versions would also be worthwhile.

But however you read the Bible, please do so. The rest of this book will make much more sense if you do so before proceeding.

Start with the Nature of God

Why these 39 books? It all starts with Genesis and its portrayal of the nature of God. The most important points are the following:

¹In [the] beginning God made the heaven and the earth…. And God saw all, as many [things] as He made, and behold, [it was] very good (Genesis 1:1,31).

These verses are teaching one God directly created the material universe and that universe was very good at its creation. This might not sound that profound today, but it was earthshaking at the time. The idea of there being only one God was not very common in ancient times. Most people at that time believed in many gods (polytheism). But the Hebrew religion has at its root the belief that there is only one true God (monotheism).

Now some will point out that the Hebrew word for God is elohim, and the im ending indicates this is a plural word. It is thus claimed this should be translated as In the beginning gods created …. However, such a claim shows a lack of knowledge of Hebrew.

Yes, elohim is plural. But that is probably due to the word being taken from a culture that believed in many gods. But the writer is clear he is only talking about one God by using the singular from of the Hebrew word for create (bara). By Hebrew grammar, the number of the verb controls the number of the noun. Thus, In the beginning God created is the correct translation. This is confirmed by the LXX. The Greek word for God (theos) is singular, as is the Greek word for create (poieo).

The second important point is the idea that this one true God directly created the material universe. Again, this might not sound profound today, but many in the ancient world believed that God or the gods created the universe through a long series of intermediaries. This then would lead to the belief that God or the gods were not intimately involved with creation or with people. But Genesis teaches God is intimately involved with His creation and with people. This can be seen throughout the book, starting with the following passages:

⁸And the LORD God planted a Paradise [or, garden] down from [the] east in Eden [LXX, Edem] and placed there the man whom He had formed. ⁹And GOD made to spring up also out of the earth every tree beautiful in appearance and good for food, and the tree of the life in [the] middle of the Paradise, and the tree to know [the] knowing of good and of evil (Genesis 2:8-9).

⁸And they heard the voice of the LORD God walking about in the Paradise in the afternoon (Genesis 3:8a).

The third important point is the universe as it was created was good. Again, this might not sound profound today, but many in the ancient world believed the universe was intrinsically evil, thus the good God could not directly commune with it. This belief was the reason for the series of intermediaries in creation and for the lack of direct involvement of God in His creation and in people’s lives. But the first chapter of Genesis says over and over again that the original creation was good and even very good (bolding added):

⁸And God called the firmament Heaven [or, Sky], and God saw that [it was] good, and there became evening and there became morning, [the] second day.

¹⁰And God called the dry [land] Earth, and the systems [fig., collections] of the waters he called Seas, and God saw that [it was] good.

¹²And the earth brought forth vegetation, grass sowing [fig., bearing] seed according to [its] kind and according to [its] likeness, and the fruit-bearing tree made fruit whose seed [is] in it, according to [its] kind upon the earth, and God saw that [it was] good.

¹⁷And God placed them in the firmament of the heaven, so as to be shining upon the earth, ¹⁸and to rule the day and the night, and to separate between the light and between the darkness. And God saw that [it was] good.

²⁵And God made the wild beasts of the earth according to [their] kind, and livestock according to [their] kind, and all the reptiles of the earth according to [their] kind, and God saw that [it was] good.

³¹And God saw all, as many [things] as He made, and behold, [it was] very good. And there became evening and there became morning, [the] sixth day.

However, to account for evil in the world, Genesis says this world is fallen, that sin entered it through our first parents. This happened by Adam and Eve breaking the one commandment God had given to them:

¹⁶And the LORD God commanded Adam, saying, From every tree in the Paradise you will eat [for] food, ¹⁷but from the tree to be knowing good and evil you* will not eat from it, but in which day you* shall eat from it, you* will die by death [fig., will certainly die] (Genesis 2:16).

⁶And the woman saw that the tree [was] good for food and that [it was] pleasing to the eyes to see [or, to look upon], and beautiful is the [fruit] to contemplate, and having taken of its fruit she ate, and she gave to her husband with her, and they ate (Genesis 3:6).

This sin caused reverberations throughout the creation:

¹³And the LORD God said to the woman, Why have you done this? And the woman said, The serpent deceived me, and I ate. ¹⁴And the LORD God said to the serpent, Because you have done this, you [are] cursed away from all livestock and away from all the wild beasts of the earth; upon your breast and belly you will go, and you will eat earth all the days of your life. ¹⁵And I will put enmity [or, hostility] between you and between the woman and between your seed and between her Seed. He will keep [Heb., bruise] your head, and you will keep [Heb., bruise] His heel.

¹⁶And to the woman He said, Multiplying I will multiply [fig., I will greatly multiply] your pains and your groaning; in pain you will give birth to children. And your turning back [fig., submission] [will be] to your husband, and he will lord over you.

¹⁷Then to Adam He said, Because you have listened to the voice of your wife and ate from the tree which I commanded to you, this only not to eat from it, cursed [is] the ground in your works; in pain you will eat of it all the days of your life. ¹⁸Thorns and thistles will it rise [fig., grow] to you, and you will eat the vegetation of the field. ¹⁹In sweat of your face you will eat your bread until you return to the earth out of which you were taken; for earth you are and to earth you will depart [or, return] (Genesis 3:13-19).

As a result of Adam and Eve’s sin, the world was changed, and suffering and death entered into it. Thus, the Hebrew concept is the universe is good but fallen. However, in verse 15 is mention of the Seed of the woman bruising the head of the serpent (Satan), so there was given hope of a coming Redeemer and thus of a better world.

This Redeemer is referred to again in Genesis 49:10, A ruler shall not fail from Judah nor a prince from his thighs, until there shall come the things stored up for him [Heb., until Shiloh comes]; and He [is the] expectation of nations.

The Greek text differs from the Hebrew as it is uncertain what the Hebrew word Shiloh refers to. The only other place this word in this form occurs in the OT is in Joshua 21:22, where it is the name of a town. The NKJV thus renders this verse. The scepter shall not depart from Judah, Nor a lawgiver from between his feet, Until Shiloh comes; And to Him shall be the obedience of the people.

Despite the translation difficulties, what is clear in this verse is that the coming Redeemer will come from the tribe of Judah and will be a ruler, but He will not be for just Judah or Israel but for all peoples (the expectation of nations).

That this Ruler will redeem the creation and the people in it is a well-founded hope as, despite sin now being in the world, God is still sovereign over His creation and over people. This is in contradiction to the conception of at that time that the gods were less than sovereign beings, struggling against the natural order, people, and each other.

The sovereignty of the God of the Bible is detailed at length in my book The LORD Has It Under Control: What the Bible Teaches About the Sovereignty of God (See Appendix Two). That book shows the sovereignty of God over creation and people is a concept that pervades the Scriptures; here one example will be given, that of God’s sovereignty over human conception. This concept is seen throughout the Book of Genesis, starting with Adam and Eve:

¹Now Adam knew [sexually] Eve his wife, and having conceived, she gave birth to Cain [possession] and said, I have acquired a man through GOD (Gen 4:1).

This concept continues with all of the principals of Genesis on through Joseph:

⁸Then Israel having seen the sons of Joseph, said, Who [are] these to you?  ⁹Then Joseph said to his father, They are my sons, whom God gave to me here (Gen 48:8,9b).

Finally, there were some in the ancient world who believed God was an impersonal being and that creation was an emulation or extension of His being; thus all is God and God is all (pantheism). As such, there is not a distinction between God, nature, and people. But all of the preceding passages show that God is a personal Being distinct from His creation. And the following passage shows that human beings are different from and superior to the rest of creation.

²⁶And God said, Let Us make humanity according to Our image and according to [Our] likeness, and let them be ruling [over] the fish of the sea and [over] the birds [or, flying creatures] of heaven and over the livestock and all the earth, and [over] all the reptiles [or, quadrupeds], the ones walking upon the earth. ²⁷And God made humanity, according to [the] image of God, He