Cattle and Sheep - A Practical Manual about Breeds and Breeding, Foods and Feeding and General Management

INTRODUCTORY

A KNOWLEDGE of various preliminary matters, incidental to both cattle and sheep, should always be acquired by every stock-owner, by every shepherd, or by any one interested in the care of cattle and sheep. During the course of his professional career, the author has often been surprised at the large amount of ignorance displayed by those who have the management of farm livestock, and who should, certainly, be acquainted with the elementary facts contained in this introductory notice.

Temperature in Cattle and Sheep

To ascertain the bodily heat of cattle and sheep, both in health and disease, a small instrument, known as the clinical thermometer, should be employed, and the temperature is taken in the rectum. The normal temperature of cattle is 101° Fah., and the normal temperature of sheep 103° Fah. The degrees on the centigrade scale are 38.5 and 39.4 respectively. Age, sex, time of day, feeding, watering, exercise, and external temperature, etc., are all liable to produce slight variations in temperature, but these variations are of no practical importance. The clinical thermometer is marked either on the Fahrenheit scale, or upon the centigrade scale, and sometimes upon both. In the former case, it bears the whole numbers 95, 100, 105, and 110, whilst between these whole numbers we have two kinds of strokes, viz., long and short. The former indicate degrees, and the latter fractions of degrees, each short stroke having the value of two-tenths of a degree. Fractions of degrees are of very little practical importance. The clinical thermometer contains mercury in the bulb, and it registers, by means of a small detached rod of mercury, known as the index, which latter remains in the stem of the thermometer to show the temperature of the body, after the thermometer has been removed. A slight degree of fever is indicated by a temperature of 103°, a moderate degree of fever from 104° to 105°, and a high degree of fever is reached when the thermometer, or, rather, the index in the thermometer, points to a temperature of 107° or thereabout. In sheep a temperature of 105° discloses a slight degree of fever, 107° a moderate degree, whilst higher temperatures, when registered, must be valued accordingly. The time to allow the thermometer to register varies from one to three minutes. The index of the thermometer should always be shaken down to about 95° before the instrument is used. The clinical thermometer is a most valuable appliance, more especially in the diagnosis of such affections as Foot and Mouth Disease, in which trouble, a rise of temperature is one of the first signs of its onset. Supposing that there are only one or two beasts in the herd which are affected, and these are immediately isolated, the owner then proceeds to take the temperatures of the healthy animals daily, or twice daily, and if he observes the slightest rise in temperature, he should at once isolate the animal, as being suspicious that the same trouble is developing. Cattle Plague, Contagious Lung Fever and certain other maladies can be marked in their attack, development, and decline, through the use of the clinical thermometer. Discriminately employed, it is a most valuable instrument, but when improperly used, it is perfectly useless.

Pulse

This is of very little service as a guide for the amateur in disease; in fact, it is not of much use even to the expert. In cattle it is usually taken at the artery on the lower jaw, just where it winds round the bone. The normal pulsations of the ox are about fifty-five per minute.

Breathing

The reader should note whether this is quick or slow, whether apparently painful or otherwise; also if accompanied by any abnormal sound, when the chest is auscultated. In sheep the respirations are always very rapid, therefore, of no value in the elucidation of disease.

Coat and Skin

The coat and the skin ought always to be examined. In sheep scab the coat is broken, the wool matted, and the skin itchy. In cattle the skin should be very supple and mellow. A hide-bound coat is a sign of unthriftiness. In bilious affections, the skin becomes yellow, dry and scurvy. In liver rot in sheep the belly becomes pendulous, the skin yellow, whilst the fleece easily falls out.

Muzzle and Eyes

When cattle are in perfect health beads of perspiration will always be found upon the muzzle, whilst if the animal is out of health, the latter becomes dry and the eyes drowsy looking. Sometimes the white portions of the eyes have a yellowish tint, showing that the liver is at fault.

Excretory Organs

The excretory organs comprise the kidneys, the skin and the bowels, all of which, in cattle, under normal circumstances, are extremely active, as a large amount of water and waste products has to be eliminated from the body. Whenever an ox is ailing anything it is of the utmost importance to get these organs into proper working order. Suspended rumination (cessation of cudding) is a sign that the animal is off colour, and the re-establishment of this act is certainly one of the earliest indications of returning health. Disturbed digestive functions are further denoted by boven or distension of the stomach with gas—the product of fermentative changes. Grinding the teeth is a common sign that the beast is not well. Both cattle and sheep are endowed with a certain degree of disease-resisting power, but, when attacked by certain diseases—diseases of a very virulent kind—they are not long in succumbing to the attack. Apparently trifling ailments sometimes develop into most serious complaints, consequently, the author’s advice is, in all ailments, no matter how slight, to obtain professional advice, the best that can be obtained in the neighbourhood. The country veterinary practitioner—qualified practitioner we mean—is specially trained in the diseases of horses, cattle and sheep, and it is, in virtue of this special training that we recommend—very confidently recommend—that his advice be sought at the earliest opportunity.

CHAPTER I

GENERAL MANAGEMENT

Housing of Cattle

FOR the general welfare of cattle it is necessary that the animals should be comfortably housed, and by comfortable housing we mean one that is dry and well ventilated, and not in a dark, overheated house, where there is little or no ventilation, a condition of fairly frequent occurrence on many farms. The smallholder has usually to make the most of what has been provided for him, and it rests with him to do what he can towards the comfort of any cattle he contemplates keeping. In the construction of a modern cattle-house one would, of course, endeavour to select, as a site, a gravel soil, a south or south-west aspect for the doors and windows to face, whilst the walls of the house should be formed of either bricks, concrete or stone, the floor of concrete: the drainage surface, and the roof of either slates or tiles. Temporary buildings constructed out of corrugated iron or of wood are only satisfactory for the time being, but expense may necessitate the construction of one or more cattle-houses of this kind. We have seen a lodging of this sort made out of green timber, with the result that in a very short time the building became as draughty as it is possible to conceive. If wood is employed, it should be thoroughly seasoned. The interior of the building ought to be lined with matchboarding. A draughty cattle-shed, more especially for dairy cows, is extremely detrimental to the welfare of the occupants, and various troubles commonly arise under these circumstances. Overheating of the cattle-house or byre is as bad as overcrowding, but the former is bound to occur if the ventilation is insufficient. There should be a constant stream of pure air passing through the windows, and a continuous outlet of the foul air, either at the ridge, or by means of an extractor in the roof. The best safeguard against the development of lung trouble (tuberculosis, etc.) is found in purity of atmosphere, and there is no reason why cattle should have their systems vitiated by the inhalation of impure air. A corrugated iron building has two chief drawbacks, viz., that it is too hot in summer, and too cold in winter. Wherever cattle are kept, it is very necessary to have a plentiful supply of pure water; in fact, in some model dairies a constant supply of water is kept in front of the animals, so that they can drink whenever they feel disposed. One or more loose-boxes ought to be arranged for cows which are about to calve, as they are, at this particular period, very much better by themselves. As a rule, however, a hurdle is merely put at the foot of a stall, the cow then untethered and left to calve when the time arrives. Some cows, of course, require assistance, but this is a matter which is dealt with elsewhere in the present work.

The Open-Air Treatment of Cattle

In various parts of the present work we have referred to the open-air treatment of cattle, by which we mean keeping these animals as much as possible in the open air throughout the spring, summer, autumn and winter. The reader will immediately say that the adoption of this system in the British Isles is quite out of the question, a statement with which the author does not agree. Cattle can be kept out of doors for nine months in the year, from March till November, excepting when land is flooded. This system is specially advocated for dairy cattle, as nothing tends more towards the elimination of tuberculosis than fresh air, or fresh air plus sunlight. A warm cattle-house and comfortable quarters may favour milk supply, but it is destructive to the constitution of the animal; therefore, what extra is gained by the increased supply of milk is not economical, because the animal prematurely declines in value, through impairment of its constitutional vigour. The dairyman’s cattle-house can be adequately ventilated and the air constantly changed by means of electric fans, and this is the best substitute for an open-air existence. The open-air cattle-house should preferably be constructed of concrete, have a roof over it, a cemented floor, side and end walls. These walls should be 5 feet in height and the roof constructed so as to lie on a plane 3 feet above the level of the tops or the walls. A cattle-house of this description is an open-air one and the best for all dairy cattle. Details as to the construction of a cattle-house of this kind can easily be worked out to scale by any intelligent stockowner. The health of the community and the efficiency of a nation is largely dependent upon the health of its cattle, much more so than the majority of people realize, and the surest method towards an improvement in the standard of health of cattle can only be obtained by the adoption of the system advocated.

DEVON COW

DAIRY SHORTHORN COW.

Photos: Parsons.] [To face p. 17.

The Straw-Yard

Attached to the majority of farm-steadings there is one or more straw-yards, which very often are more of the nature of a manure heap than an exercising and feeding ground for the stock of the farm. It is in the winter time that the straw-yard becomes such an invaluable asset to every farm-steading. The chief drawback to it is the dirty condition in which it is so often kept. Apart from this, the writer regards the straw-yard as an invaluable open-air system for keeping cattle, and it is a good shelter for them at all seasons of the year and they certainly thrive where it is available.

Grazing Cattle

In the British Isles the grazing season may be said to extend (with slight variations according to prevailing climatic conditions) from the beginning of April to the end of September. The spring grass is much more valuable than that of August and September, and cattle should look their best when at pasture during the months of June and July. It makes very little difference whether the pasture is temporary or permanent, but it may be accepted as a fairly safe dictum that cattle always thrive better on a good permanent pasture than on a temporary one. Allowance has to be made for differences in season, but cattle must be kept growing and the grass so fed off as to avoid waste and ensure a continuous herbage. Pastures consisting mainly of early strong growing grasses, such as Cock’s Foot, should be grazed before others which have finer and later grasses. Spring frosts sometimes upset the grazier’s calculations through damage to the pasture. Cattle should be kept off pastures in the spring until the grass has started to grow properly, whilst sheep should never be put on to land early in the spring, as these animals destroy the growth of the finer grasses. It is worthy of note the different methods adopted by horses, cattle and sheep when grazing. Sheep are by far the best grazers, as horses graze in patches, whilst for cattle the grass must be long enough to be easily gathered; nevertheless, a horse can get its living where a bullock would starve, and sheep can outlive them both on a scant pasturage. The economics of cattle grazing comprise, proportioning and changing the stock so as to eat down the crop evenly and so benefit the pasture. Changing animals from one pasture to another is distinctly beneficial, as the herbage on the pastures must always be slightly different. Calves should be put on the best pastures, and they do better alone than when in company with other animals. Dairy cattle and sheep do better together than fat bullocks and sheep. When beasts become nearly ready for the butcher they are dainty feeders, and unless the grass is quickly grazed, by store stock and sheep, a large proportion of it will be wasted, hence it is always advisable, when fat bullocks are grazing, to turn store stock and sheep on to the land with the bullocks. As the supply of grass is eaten off, cabbage, mangels, swedes and turnips may be given to the beasts and sheep to make up for deficiency of pasture. When cattle are grazing the stockowner should always see that there is a plentiful supply of water, and if there is no natural shade for them, to protect them against the heat of the sun. It is quite an easy matter to rig up a temporary form of shelter, and any man who values his stock will not hesitate to do so. Cattle are liable to sun-stroke and also especially during hay-time, to attack by the warble fly, which is less likely to annoy them when they are in the shade than out of it.

Cattle Foods and Cattle Feeding

The feeding of cattle and the selection of suitable foods is one of the most important branches in the raising of these animals, and one that may either lead to success or failure. Cattle feeders may be classified as good, bad and indifferent, exactly as the stock which has to be fed may be placed under these several categories. A good cattle feeder can make stock which are thriving indifferently into thrifty animals, whereas one less skilled in his work would be unable to effect the same degree of improvement. There is a well-known saying that the master’s eye fattens his cattle, which transposed implies that the owner, by reason of his diligence and powers of