Making or Breaking Nonviolent Discipline in Civil Resistance Movements

ICNC MONOGRAPH SERIES

SERIES EDITOR: Maciej Bartkowski

CONTACT: [email protected]

VOLUME EDITORS: Amber French

DESIGNED BY: David Reinbold

CONTACT: [email protected]

Other volumes in this series:

The Power of Staying Put: Nonviolent Resistance against Armed Groups in Colombia, Juan Masullo (2015)

The Tibetan Nonviolent Struggle: A Strategic and Historical Analysis, Tenzin Dorjee (2015)

Published by ICNC Press

International Center on Nonviolent Conflict

1775 Pennsylvania Ave. NW. Ste. 1200

Washington, D.C. 20006 USA

© 2016 International Center on Nonviolent Conflict, Jonathan Pinckney

All rights reserved. ISBN: 978-1-943271-06-1

ISBN: 978-1-943271-52-8 (e-book)

Cover Photos: (l) Ukraine Revolution blog, via Wikimedia Commons (r and Title Page) A Force More Powerful documentary.

A protester in Kyiv inserts roses into riot police shields in 2004 during the Orange Revolution.

In October 2010, protesters in West Papua demonstrate remarkable nonviolent discipline in their call for a referendum to grant independence from Indonesia.

African-American college students sit in at a downtown Nashville, Tennessee, lunch counter in 1960 to defy racial segregation.

Peer Review: This ICNC monograph underwent three blind peer reviews to be considered for publication. Scholarly experts in the field of civil resistance and related disciplines, as well as practitioners of nonviolent actions, serve as independent reviewers of the ICNC monograph manuscripts.

Publication Disclaimer: The designations used and material presented in this publication do not indicate the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of ICNC. The author holds responsibility for the selection and presentation of facts contained in this work, as well as for any and all opinions expressed therein, which are not necessarily those of ICNC and do not commit the organization in any way.

Summary

A central question in the study and practice of civil resistance is how nonviolent movements can maintain nonviolent discipline among their members. What factors encourage and sustain nonviolent discipline, particularly in the face of violent repression? While several scholars have suggested answers to these questions to date, the answers have largely remained ad hoc and have not been systematically tested. This monograph addresses these deficits in the literature by offering a unified theory of nonviolent discipline. This theory provides a helpful tool for better understanding how nonviolent discipline is created, sustained and shaped by repression. Following the theory, the monograph presents two tests of the effects of several influences on nonviolent discipline. The first is on the impact of patterns of repression, history of civil resistance, and campaign leadership and structure on nonviolent discipline. The second is a comparison of three civil resistance campaigns from the post-Communist Color Revolutions in Serbia, Georgia and Kyrgyzstan. Some of the central findings of these two tests include:

• Repression consistently lowers nonviolent discipline, reinforcing the need for campaigns to carefully strategize their responses to it.

• Nonviolent discipline also falls significantly following government concessions offered to resisters, possibly due to campaign over-confidence or movement splits.

• Non-hierarchical campaigns with observable internal debates, opposing schools of thoughts, and even conflicts are better at maintaining nonviolent discipline, suggesting that campaigns should be decentralized and work on building participant ownership over the campaign if they want to instill greater nonviolent discipline.

The study concludes with general and specific recommendations that inform further research, civil resistance practice and policy-making. The main recommendations include:

• For academics, greater research into the individual-level factors that sustain nonviolent discipline, particularly the quality of training, gender and the influence of peers.

• For civil resistance practitioners, building campaigns that do not necessarily rely on hierarchical structures but rather focus on consistent nonviolent messaging and building campaign ownership at an individual level.

• For policy-makers and members of civil society, supporting civil resistance through advocacy against repression, and providing support to civil resistance early in the campaign life cycle.

Table of Contents

Summary

Introduction

Chapter 1: Literature Review and Theory

Violence, Nonviolence, and Nonviolent Discipline

Sources of Nonviolent Discipline: Ethical and Strategic

Other Sources of Nonviolent Discipline

A Theory of Nonviolent Discipline

Expected Influences on Nonviolent Discipline

Chapter 2: Statistical Analysis and Results

Results of Statistical Tests

Chapter 3: Comparing the Color Revolutions

Serbia: Bulldozers Not Bullets

Georgia: Roses in Parliament

Kyrgyzstan: The Bloody Tulip

Chapter 4: Case Study Discussion

Historical Experience

Training and Information on Past Civil Resistance Campaigns

Wide Range of Past Civil Resistance Tactics

Previous Political Concessions

Appeals from Movement Leaders for Nonviolent Discipline

Strong, Cohesive Campaign Leadership

Moderate Strategic Goals

Tactical Choices to Avoid Confrontation

Membership Criteria Excluding Violent Actors

High Levels of Diversity

Campaign Punishment for Violent Actions

Repression of Nonviolent Action

Conclusion: Applied Learning on Nonviolent Discipline

Scholar-Relevant Findings

Activist-Relevant Findings

Findings for Civil Society and Policymakers

Appendix A: Statistical Annex

Results and Discussion

Cited Literature

Case Study References

List of Tables and Figures

Introduction

¹

In 1930 Mahatma Gandhi called on the people of India to engage in a massive campaign of civil disobedience against British rule. In particular the campaign targeted the colonial monopoly on the production of salt. Across the country, individuals broke the law against home production of salt, challenging the rightfulness of British rule. Yet perhaps one of the most powerful moments of the campaign took place not through salt production, but through the violent repression of peaceful activists. At the Dharasana Salt Works, followers of Gandhi attempted to peacefully occupy the facilities and shut down production. Soldiers at the facility refused to allow them to enter and brutally beat the nonviolent protesters as they marched towards the facility.

Yet, as powerfully recorded by the newspapers of the day and later depicted in Richard Attenborough’s film Gandhi, despite these brutal attacks the protesters responded neither with violence nor with fear. Instead, peacefully yet determinedly, they continued to march forward, line after line, to be beaten. They refused to give in, yet they did not meet violence with violence. This violent repression became one of the most powerful moments of Gandhi’s campaign for Indian independence, as the nonviolent discipline of the satyagrahis revealed the brutality of colonial rule and spoke powerfully to the justice of the Indian cause.

Thirty years later in Nashville, Tennessee, USA, a group of African-American students sat down at several Whites Only lunch counters and politely asked to be served lunch. Upon being denied, they quietly sat at the counter with their books and studied, not responding with anger or violence, but with a quiet determination to not give up the fight. Trained in earlier workshops to not respond to provocation, these students and many others continued this nonviolent occupation of lunch counters in Nashville and across the South. White patrons sought again and again to drive them out through violence and intimidation, hurling insults and epithets, and sometimes even engaging in direct physical violence such as aggressively pulling activists from the chairs down to the ground or putting lit cigarettes out on the lunch counter occupiers’ bodies. Yet they remained calm, peaceful and nonviolent, never giving the authorities an excuse to expel them. Their quiet discipline and determination eventually led to the desegregation of lunch counters in Nashville, and was a crucial turning point in the larger Civil Rights Campaign against the racist oppression of the Jim Crow South.

In these well-known campaigns and many others across the globe, dedicated practitioners of nonviolent action have achieved transformative changes from fighting corruption (Beyerle 2014) to achieving national liberation (Bartkowski 2013), to overthrowing oppressive dictatorships (Chenoweth and Stephan 2011). Waves of primarily nonviolent movements such as those that overthrew the Communist regimes of Eastern Europe, the Color Revolutions of the early 2000s, or the Arab Spring movements of 2011 have demonstrated to the world the power of nonviolent resistance to successfully challenge entrenched autocratic rulers even in the most forbidding of environments.

Academic research has confirmed the effectiveness of nonviolent action. A long tradition beginning in the early 20th century pointed to the potential for nonviolent action to solve critical problems such as fighting injustice (Martin 2007), and even protecting countries against invasion (Roberts 1967, Boserup and Mack 1974).