Learning of the Way (Daoxue):: Self-Cultivation Through Neo-Confucian Learning, Kungfu, and Martial Arts

Copyright © 2016 John E. Young.

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ISBN: 978-1-4808-3048-6 (sc)

ISBN: 978-1-4808-3049-3 (e)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2016906178

Archway Publishing rev. date: 6/13/2016

CONTENTS

Part I Confucian and Neo-Confucian Theory and Concepts

Chapter 1 Confucian Self-Cultivation

What Is Confucian Self-Cultivation?

The classical perspective

The Goal of Self-Cultivation

Self-realization

Learning to be human

Neo-Confucian influence

Characteristics of Confucian Self-Cultivation

Self-cultivation is holistic

Self-cultivation is continuous

Self-cultivation is cyclical

Chapter 2 Self-Cultivation as a Communal Act

Vertical and Horizontal Aspects of Self-Cultivation

Ren (jen)

Li

Ren and li

Chapter 3 Confucian Learning

Motivation for Learning

Confucian knowledge

Neo-Confucian Impact on Learning

The aim of Neo-Confucian learning

The attainability of sagehood

The examination of li

Coherence (li) and a mental state of unity

Finding the lost mind

The Principal Teachings of the Great Learning

Chapter 4 The Investigation of Things

Cheng Yi and Learning of the Way (Daoxue or Tao-hsueh)

Cheng Yi and qi (chi)

The Learning of the Way and qi

Cheng Yi, gewu, and li

Internal cultivation

External cultivation

Zhu Xi’s mentor

Similarities between Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming

Chapter 5 The Approaches of Zhu Xi and Wang Yangming

Zhu Xi (Chu Hsi) (1130–1200)

Weifa and yifa consciousness

Gewu (ko-wu) means the investigation of things

Moral awakening

Seeking principles

Wang Yangming (Wang Yang-ming) (1472–1529)

Principles exist in the heart-mind

Gewu (ko-wu) means to rectify things

Follow the guidance of our innate knowledge

Chapter 6 Neo-Confucian Li

Li—Principle or Coherence

Exploring li

Learning and li

The Unity of Li

The li of Heaven (tianli)

Seeking tianli

Chapter 7 Selecting a Vehicle or Path for Self-Cultivation

The Arts as Vehicles for Self-Cultivation

Evolution of the arts

Studying the arts

Chapter 8 The Process of Kungfu

Kungfu (Gongfu) Defined and Described

Gongfu defined

Gongfu described

Commitment to gongfu

Studying the microcosmic, understanding the macrocosmic

Gongfu and li

Inner Mental Attentiveness

Describing Jing

Classical and Neo-Confucian perspectives

Inner mental attentiveness and li

Jing and probing li

Gongfu, gewu, and jing

Lesser Learning

Greater Learning

Part II Applications for Traditional Chinese Martial Arts

Chapter 9 Principles of Traditional Chinese Martial Arts

Principles and Characteristics

Yin-yang theory

Wushu techniques

Additional Principles and Characteristics

Basic principles (li) in all movements

The role of equilibrium and harmony

The role of balance

Perfection through Refinements

Refinements in practice

Continuous refinements

Continual refinement of forms

Continual refinement of martial principles (li)

Chapter 10 Learning of the Way (Daoxue) through Wushu

Internal Cultivation

External Cultivation

Lesser learning

Greater learning

Studying the microcosmic, understanding the macrocosmic

The Role of Discussion

The Role of Inquiry

Exhaustive inquiry

Processes and methods of inquiry

Chapter 11 Confucian Practices and Legacy

Qigong and Quiet Sitting

Confucian qigong meditation

Confucian quiet sitting meditation, or jingzuo (ching-tso)

Qing (Ch’ing) Dynasty (1644 –1912)

New Confucianism (1912–Present)

Chapter 12 Conclusion

Raising Consciousness through Wushu

Guantong

Raising, or expanding, consciousness

Gongfu and wushu

New Confucianism

Future Research

Single-case studies

Cross-case studies

Outcome variables

Final Thoughts

Glossary

References

PREFACE

This book was written in an attempt to understand some of the historic and cultural motivations that encouraged individuals to engage in the practice of traditional wushu (martial arts) in China. Aside from the self-defense considerations for learning and practicing martial arts, historically there appear to have been other, more fundamental and philosophical considerations for studying martial arts, as well as other arts, in traditional China. These motivations are unknown to most Westerners and were unfamiliar to me when I first began studying wushu. In 2009, members of a tai chi discussion group, which was formed in our city, decided to conduct research on several topics related to martial arts, health, and philosophy. At the time, I was aware of the historical importance of Zhu Xi and the topic of Confucian learning.¹ However, I had not specifically researched and written about Confucian learning as it concerns the art and practice of wushu. It was at that time that I began investigating what has amounted to a case study of Neo-Confucian concepts and their application to the practice of wushu.

When I began my exploration, I found it puzzling that I was unable to locate many previous in-depth case studies, or research, directly relating Neo-Confucian learning principles to wushu, or to various other traditional Chinese art forms. I was, however, able to locate some articles and small sections of books on these topics. Nonetheless, I had expected to find a large number of studies linking Neo-Confucian learning principles to specific art forms. Now, after having conducted this study, I am still somewhat puzzled as to why so few contemporary in-depth analyses on this topic are available. This remains one of my primary questions at the conclusion of my inquiry. I will rely on the expertise of traditional Confucian scholars to enlighten me as to the reason for the scarcity of such research. Perhaps such studies and dissertations exist in the Chinese language.

The approach I used in this book is set forth in the table of contents. First, I examine the concept of Confucian learning in general, one of the primary objectives of which is self-cultivation, and explore the major benefits of such self-cultivation. Then I introduce from a historical perspective the era of Neo-Confucianism, which blossomed during the Song (960–1279) and Ming (1368–1644) dynasties. Since Neo-Confucian practice represents the tradition that has had the most significant impact on traditional wushu, I investigate these practices (particularly jing and gewu) in detail. I examine in some depth the approach advocated by the famous Neo-Confucian synthesizer Zhu Xi (1130–1200) because his approach, promoted by the Cheng-Zhu School, became the orthodox perspective in China until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912. The second part of the study applies Confucian and Neo-Confucian concepts introduced in part one, specifically to the art and practice of wushu. Part two examines the traditional aspects of wushu as they were understood and practiced by many Chinese grandmasters.

Finally, the study attempts to touch upon the potential benefits that the practice of gongfu (methodical learning over time, which requires effort) can have on modern, twenty-first-century society. The concept of guantong is given special attention since this level of consciousness, recognized historically by Neo-Confucian practitioners, seems particularly relevant in our twenty-first-century world. Guantong, a state of consciousness that could be achieved after a long practice of gongfu, is described as a comprehensive understanding of one’s situational context. It represents a state of integral consciousness. This level of consciousness, in which individuals achieve a sense of impartiality, a sort of aperspective worldview, allowed Neo-Confucians to engage in problem-solving and decision-making in a calm, practical, and effective manner. Guantong entails a deep sense of empathy for others. It seems apparent that in our contemporary world, achieving—through sustained effort—a psychological state of empathic impartiality is both urgently needed and more attainable than at any previous time. This research sees the practice of gongfu, in this case through traditional wushu, as one way or method of raising the consciousness of humankind.

A committed practice of gongfu, aimed at revealing and enhancing the humanness or goodness (ren/jen) within individual practitioners, could benefit the interconnected web of all beings. Gongfu practice, with the intent of augmenting one’s own moral development, need not be limited to any geographic region; nor is it dependent on a religious creed. Raising consciousness, and in turn enhancing our humanity and goodness, benefits all living things. A recognition, awareness, and understanding of the basic levels of individual and group consciousness are imperative if humankind is to meet the challenges of an increasingly complex and rapidly changing world. This book suggests that traditional philosophical concepts, drawn from Chinese culture, can help in meeting these challenges. It is my hope that others will continue conducting research along these lines, as the need for consciousness-raising practices is always an imperative.

Finally, I would like to make a few comments regarding some technical aspects of this book. The text is intended to assist in the development of those who are unfamiliar with the academic field of Neo-Confucianism and Confucianism in general. I have attempted to explain and define all terms. Regarding Chinese spellings of names and concepts, I endeavored to present the Pinyin transliteration followed by the Wade-Giles spellings. The Pinyin system of transcribing Mandarin into the Latin alphabet was first adopted by the Chinese government in 1958. The government of Taiwan adopted this system in 2009. The spellings are confusing because most of the early translations of Chinese to English were made using the Wade-Giles system. Since I neither speak nor read Chinese, I imagine that despite my best efforts to ensure the correctness of terms, names, and concepts, some errors may still be present for which I accept full responsibility.

J. E. Y.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Fate indeed takes very interesting turns. I had studied the art of taijiquan (also known as tai chi chuan) for approximately four years when I met a young student in my class who had recently graduated from Columbia University’s Asian Humanities Program. He was so enthusiastic about his recently completed coursework that we met one afternoon to discuss traditional Chinese culture. It was during that single conversation with Gabe Palley, now Dr. Gabriel Palley, M.D., that I first became aware of Neo-Confucianism as an academic field of study. Dr. Palley had taken several classes from Professor Irene Bloom of Columbia, who was also chair of the Department of Asian and Middle Eastern Cultures at Barnard College. Additionally, he had taken seminars from Professor William Theodore de Bary, who had essentially built Columbia’s East Asian Studies Program and is credited with creating the specific academic field that is now known as Neo-Confucian Studies. The future Dr. Palley also referred me to the work of the eminent Professor Tu Weiming, professor of philosophy and founding dean of the Institute for Advanced Humanistic Studies at Peking University and senior fellow of the Asia Center at Harvard University. Since I had previously conducted research in the area of entrepreneurial learning, which I feel can serve as a transformational process for successful growth-oriented entrepreneurs, I found the investigation of Confucian learning to be especially interesting.

I would also like to acknowledge the influence of my first teacher of authentic taijiquan, Sifu Dug Corpolongo of Albuquerque, New Mexico. My four years of study with Sifu Corpolongo pointed me in the right direction and gave me an appreciation of the dedication that is necessary in order to pursue a path of gongfu through wushu.

The teacher who has had the most significant influence on the contents of this book has never specifically discussed Neo-Confucian philosophy, as such, with me but has demonstrated in her character and interaction with others the results of gongfu and Confucian learning over a lifetime. My primary teacher, with whom I have studied for nearly twenty years, is Master Grace (Xiaogao) Wu-Monnat, founder of the Grace Wu Kung Fu School in Wichita, Kansas. Master Wu has been able to study and learn wushu from close family members throughout her life. She is the granddaughter of the famous Chinese Grandmaster Wang Zi-ping (1881–1973). Grandmaster Wang was considered a master of chaquan, huaquan, pao chuan, baijiquan, and taijiquan. He also served as head of the Shaolin Kung Fu division of the Martial Arts Institute in Shanghai. Master Grace Wu-Monnat is a fifth-generation wushu practitioner who began studying with her grandfather at the age of three.² In the classic Neo-Confucian tradition of gewu (the investigation of things), she has published numerous articles and books detailing the wushu techniques of her grandfather