Social Research Methods: For Students and Scholars of Theology and Religious Studies

This volume fills an important gap in the field by bringing social scientific methods into theology and religious studies. All parties in this conversation have much to gain from a sustained dialogue, and this book moves us in that direction.

JOHN BARTKOWSKI, Professor - Sociology, University of Texas at San Antonio

The highly readable, yet exhaustive and authoritative text covers all aspects of the variety of methods available to contemporary scientists who either produce or evaluate empirical research. The text is intended for students and scholars of theology and religious studies, but anyone interested in how religion is practiced in different cultural contexts and want to understand individual lived experiences and interpretations will find this text an invaluable guide.

RALPH W. HOOD Jr., Professor of Psychology, University of Tennessee, co-editor of Research in the Social Scientific Study of Religion series

Compared to other approaches to theology and religious studies, missiology has the propensity to use social science methods. This clearly written introduction to complex terrain will enable students to navigate it and develop tools for their own project; also students are more likely to recognize their research interests in its examples. Especially useful features include the glossary and the section on student supervisors/mentors and examiners. This volume is authoritative and cognisant of other leading texts.

KIRSTEEN KIM, Pierson Professor of World Christianity, Fuller Theological Seminary, co-editor of The Oxford Handbook of Mission Studies

Here is a fascinating and engaging handbook every researcher in theology and religious studies should read and assimilate. It fulfils a felt need by pooling the wealth of sociological methodologies and applying them to the scientific study of lived religion. The author has done a unique service, and his work will remain a point of reference for years.

FELIX WILFRED, Founder and Director of Asian Centre for Cross Cultural Studies, Chennai, editor of The Oxford Handbook of Christianity in Asia

This is a valuable resource written in a way that theological students will understand, and supervisors will appreciate! It takes the student by the hand from the formulation of the research topic through methodological positioning and choices and closes with a chapter on supervision expectations. I look forward to prescribing it to my own postgraduate students.

NADINE BOWERS DU TOIT, Professor - Theology and Development, University of Stellenbosch, editor of Race, Faith and Inequality amongst Young Adults in South Africa

It is very good to see the use of social science methods being developed to aid religious studies and theological research. My hope is that this very practical book, using up-to-date resources, will help to develop this important form of study further.

ROBIN GILL, Emeritus Professor of Applied Theology, University of Kent, author of the trilogy on Sociological Theology

Upon launching out on research, students and scholars are always on the lookout for good books on research methodology. In Dr Iyadurai’s book, they will find an excellent manual spanning the length and breadth of what they are looking for. I strongly recommend this book to all those engaged in research.

FRANCIS GONSALVES SJ, President, Jnana Deepa: Pontifical Athenaeum of Philosophy & Theology, author of God of Our Soil: Towards Subaltern Trinitarian Theology

Joshua Iyadurai has been teaching research methods to PhD students in Christian Studies for over a decade. He is an expert facilitator in this hybrid field, helping both theology and religious studies students use social research methods more rigorously and effectively. This book will be immensely helpful to anyone wanting to do research in the field of religion, as well as to those in classes focused on research methods. I highly recommend it.

ROBERT K. JOHNSTON, Professor of Theology and Culture, Fuller Theological Seminary, co-author of Deep Focus: Film and Theology in Dialogue

"Social Research Methods for Students and Scholars of Theology and Religious Studies is a masterpiece that draws from Joshua’s experience of teaching social research for two decades. The book aims to catalyze theological scholarship using social research methods with scientific precision. Scholars, educators, and graduate students will find this text a welcome resource. I highly recommend it!"

David Tarus, Executive Director, Association for Christian Theological Education in Africa (ACTEA), author of A Different Way of Being

This textbook fills an important niche for postgraduate researchers embarking on empirical research in Practical Theology or Religious Studies. Those who have little or no background in the social sciences will find this a clear and well-structured introduction on how to conceive a research project and what methods are available to answer their research questions. Reading this before they embark on their journey could save a lot of problems further down the road.

ANDREW VILLAGE, Professor of Practical and Empirical Theology, York St John University, author of The Church of England in the First Decade of the 21st Century

SOCIAL RESEARCH METHODS

For Students and Scholars of Theology and Religious Studies

Copyright ©2023 Joshua Iyadurai.

All rights reserved. Except for brief quotations in critical publications or reviews, no part of this book may be reproduced in any manner without prior written permission from the publisher.

Published by

Joshua Iyadurai

Marina Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies in Religion

Chennai India

https://mcisr.org

ISBN 978-93-5620-482-9 (paper)

ISBN 978-93-5627-844-8 (eBook)

Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

Author: Iyadurai, Joshua

Social research methods: for students and scholars of theology and religious studies / Joshua Iyadurai.

Includes bibliographical references and index.

1. Social sciences–Research–Methodology 2. Religion–Methodology–Research 3. Theology–Research

The website URLs mentioned in this book are offered as resources for research. The author and publisher do not vouch for the contents of those sites and are not intended in any way to be or imply an endorsement by them.

Book Cover and Interior Design by Jerusha Joshem

https://jerushajoshem.com

To

3Js

Brief Contents

Acknowledgement

Preface

About the Author

1 Choosing a Topic

2 Reviewing the Literature

3 Research Strategies and Paradigms of Social Research

4 Qualitative Research

5 Quantitative Research

6 Mixed Methods Research

7 Writing a Research Proposal

8 Writing a Research Report

9 The Role of Supervisors and Examiners

Glossary

References

Detailed Contents

Acknowledgement

Preface

About the Author

1. CHOOSING A TOPIC

Research

Social Research

Starting with Research Interest

Narrowing Down Research Interest

Formulating Research Questions

Hypothesis

Defining a Research Problem

Knowledge Gap

Disciplinary Gap

Theoretical Gap

Relationship Gap

Methodological Gap

Analytical Gap

Sampling Gap

Contextual Gap

Theory-Praxis Gap

Developing a Title

Considering the Feasibility of a Study

Research Ethics

Principles of Research Ethics

Ethical Parameters for Collecting Data

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Further Help

2. REVIEWING THE LITERATURE

Literature in Academic Research

Definition of Literature Review

Purposes of Literature Review

Steps in Reviewing Literature

Searching the Literature

Reading for Research: the SQ4R Method

S: Survey

Q: Question

R1: Read

R2: Recall

R3: Relate

R4: Review

Analyzing Literature

Taking Notes

Synthesizing Literature

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Further Help

3. RESEARCH STRATEGIES AND PARADIGMS OF SOCIAL RESEARCH

Social Research—Interdisciplinary Perspective

Research Strategies

Qualitative Research

Quantitative Research

Mixed Methods Research

Research Designs

Paradigms of Social Research

Postpositivist Paradigm

Constructivist Paradigm

Transformative Paradigm

Pragmatic Paradigm

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Further Help

4. QUALITATIVE RESEARCH

Qualitative Research for Theology and Religious Studies

Approaches in Qualitative Research

Phenomenological Approach

Grounded Theory Approach

Ethnographic Approach

Qualitative Case Study Approach

Narrative Approach

Biographical Type

Autoethnography

Life History

Oral History

Theories in Qualitative Research

Sampling in Qualitative Research

Purposive Sampling

Maximum Variation Sampling

Theoretical Sampling

Snowball Sampling

Determining Sample Size

Methods of Data Collection in Qualitative Research

Data Sources and Types

Qualitative Interview

Semi-structured Interview

Unstructured Interview

Focus Group Interview

Modes of Qualitative Interviews

Art of Interviewing

Ending the Interview

Audio Recording

Participant Observation

Rapport

Observation

Non-participant Observation

Informal Interviews

Field Notes

Documents

Photographs

Audio/Video

Online Data

Qualitative Survey

Data Analysis in Qualitative Research

Transcription

Making Sense of the Data

Coding

Memoing

Developing Themes

Using Computer Software for Analysis

Credibility and Trustworthiness

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Further Help

5. QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

Types of Quantitative Research

Survey Method

Experimental Method

Quasi-experimental Method

Conceptual Phase in Quantitative Research

Theory and Concepts

Variables

Hypothesis

Measurement

Nominal Scale

Ordinal Scale

Interval Scale

Ratio Scale

Validity

Construct Validity

Internal Validity

External Validity

Ecological Validity

Reliability

Internal Reliability

Test-retest Reliability

Inter-rater Reliability

Sampling in Quantitative Research

Probability Sampling

Simple Random Sampling

Systematic Sampling

Stratification Sampling

Cluster Sampling

Non-Probability Sampling

Purposive or Judgmental Sampling

Convenience Sampling

Quota Sampling

Snowball Sampling

Sample Size

Data Collection in Quantitative Research

Questionnaires for Survey and Structured Interview

Questions

Response Rate

Sections of a Survey

Experts’ Review

Pilot Test

Administering Surveys

Supervised Self-Administered Survey

Postal Survey

Email Survey

Web Survey

Mobile Survey

Face-to-face Structured Interview

Telephone Interview

Mixed Mode Approach

Data for Structured Observation

Pretest and Posttest in Experimental and Quasi-experimental

Studies

Single-group Posttest

Single-group Pretest and Posttest

Pretest-posttest Control

Data for Content Analysis

Data for Secondary Analysis

Data Analysis in Quantitative Research

Coding

Data Entry

Missing Data

Univariate Analysis

Frequency Distribution

Central Tendency

Mean

Median

Mode

Measures of Variation

Range

Standard Deviation

Bivariate Analysis

Correlation

Statistical Significance

P-value

Type I and Type II Errors

Chi-square Test

Degrees of freedom

T-test

Analysis of variance (ANOVA)

Regression analysis

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Further Help

6. MIXED METHODS RESEARCH

Definition of Mixed Methods Research

Characteristics of Mixed Methods Research

Purposes of Mixed Methods Research

Research Designs in Mixed Methods Research

Convergent Design

Explanatory Sequential Design

Exploratory Sequential Design

Quality Concerns for Mixed Methods Research

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Further Help

7. WRITING A RESEARCH PROPOSAL

Importance of Research Proposal

Elements of a Research Proposal

Title

Abstract

Background

Statement of the Problem

Statement of the Purpose

Research Questions and Hypotheses

Qualitative Research Questions

Quantitative Research Questions

Mixed Methods Research Questions

Research Objectives

Literature Review

Methodology

Philosophical/Theological Assumptions

Research Strategy and Approach

Primary Source/Population

Sampling

Role of the Researcher/Instrument

Data Collection Procedures

Data Analysis Procedures

Reliability/Credibility

Validity/Trustworthiness

Justification of the Chosen Methods

Significance

Limitations and Delimitations

Definition of Terms

Organization of Research Report and Dissemination

Timeline

Ethical Concerns

Working Bibliography

Appendices

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Further Help

8. WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT

Research Argument

Academic Tone

Academic Style

Writing a Dissertation/Thesis

Title Page

Dedication

Acknowledgments

Abstract

Table of Contents

List of Figures

List of Tables

Chapter 1: Introduction

Chapter 2: Theological Framework or Religious Perspective

Chapter 3: Literature Review

Chapter 4: Methodology

Chapter 5: Findings/Results

Chapter 5 in Qualitative Dissertation/Thesis

Chapter 5 in Quantitative Dissertation/Thesis

Chapter 5 in Mixed Methods Dissertation/Thesis

Chapter 6: Discussion

Chapter 6 in Qualitative Dissertation/Thesis

Chapter 6 in Quantitative Dissertation/Thesis

Chapter 6 in Mixed Methods Dissertation/Thesis

Chapter 7: Conclusions and Recommendations

References

Appendices

Writing a Professional Doctorate Dissertation

Writing a Journal Article

Title Page

Abstract

Introduction

Methods

Findings/Results

Discussion

References

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Further Help

9. THE ROLE OF SUPERVISORS AND EXAMINERS

Student-Supervisor Relationship

Supervising as a Calling

Students’ Expectations of a Supervisor

Developing Research Skills

Offering Intellectual Support

Maintaining Professional Relationship

Providing Administrative Guidelines

Offering Pastoral Care

Supervisors’ Expectations of a Student

Students Acquiring Research Skills

Students Seeking Intellectual Guidance

Students Maintaining Professional Relationship

Students Obtaining Administrative Guidelines

Students Looking for Pastoral Support

The Role of Supervisor in Social Research

Supervisor’s Role in Choosing a Topic

Supervisor’s Role in Engaging Literature

Supervisor’s Role in Sampling

Supervisor’s Role in Data Collection

Supervisor’s Role in Data Analysis

Supervisor’s Role in Dissertation/Thesis Writing

Supervisor’s Role in Research Writing

Supervisor’s Role in Equipping Students for Viva

The Role of Examiners in Social Research

Dissertation/Thesis Viva

Examiners’ Expectations

A Clean Presentation

Importance of Introduction and Literature Review Chapters

Original Contribution

Coherence

Academically Sound

Methodological Rigor

Levels of Quality of a Dissertation/Thesis

Outstanding

Very Good

Acceptable

Unacceptable

Quality of Qualitative Dissertation/Thesis

The Choice of Topic

Critical Engagement of Literature

Methodological Rigor

Trustworthiness and Credibility

Ethical Concerns

Quality of Quantitative Dissertation/Thesis

The Choice of Topic

Critical Engagement of Literature

Methodological Rigor

Reliability and Validity

Ethical Concerns

Quality of Mixed Methods Dissertation/Thesis

Rationale for Mixed Methods Research

Integration of the Results

Coherence

Chapter Summary

Review Questions

Further Help

Glossary

References

Acknowledgement

I thank my students who have taken my course on research methodology, students who have completed their research projects, and those currently doing their research under my supervision. Your questions, challenges, and inspiration have shaped the book.

Although, I have cherished the idea of writing this book for many years, the grant from the Langham Partnership UK set the project in motion with a residency at the Trinity College of Bristol, UK in 2018. The Nagel Institute of Calvin University, Grand Rapids, provided a grant so I could continue the writing project at the Prophet’s Chamber. Langham Literature made a grant towards the publication of this book. I am grateful to these institutions for their grants.

Special thanks to Joel Carpenter for his inspiration and help in bringing out this book and Paul Fields, Theological Librarian at Calvin, for his help with accessing the titles that I wanted to consult. I am indebted to Krysia Lear for her scrupulous editing and polishing the manuscript, Thilagavathy Joseph and Jedidah Joshem for copy editing, and Hema Joshua for proof reading. I thank Jerusha Joshem, a multidisciplinary designer, who designed the book cover and interior.

The families of Chris and Warren and Rosemary provided social and pastoral support during my stay in Bristol. Donna, Nellie, Peter and Hepzi, Sam, and Mike made my stay comfortable amid snowstorms in Grand Rapids. I am grateful to these friends.

This book project separated me physically and emotionally from my family for the past few years. I am thankful to my wife, Hema, for taking the full load at home and sparing me to focus on writing and the 3Js (Jed, Jeru, and Jem), my daughters, who sacrificed their time with dad. Most importantly, I thank Jesus for his grace.

Preface

Research can be your hobby if you master research methods, said Dr Sebastian Perriannan in his workshop on social research methodology in 2002 at the University of Madras, Chennai. This statement is contrary to the common perception among students that research is not for everyone but can be done only by top-ranking students, as it is difficult to master research methods. Periannan’s idea that research could be a hobby removed my mental blocks against research methods and motivated me to explore in depth the use of social research methods for theology and religious studies. Teaching research methodology became my passion after that.

In his introduction to social research for Christian Studies, Perriannan also led me to realize that people’s experiences could be a valid source for sound theological and religious research. Researching lived experiences is common among many disciplines in human sciences and now scholars of religious studies and theology have turned to researching lived religion, lived theology, and lived experience.

Contextual theologies shifted the loci of theological research from the speculative/philosophical to contextual, with a liberative approach. However, contextual theologians assumed the role of patrons of the marginalized and oppressed communities and articulated theologies on their behalf, rather than making them partners in their theological reflection. Their intentions were well meant and their attempt to see text and reality from below is greatly appreciated. However, most contextual theologians have stopped short of achieving their goals of producing relevant theologies that emancipated the communities because they failed to engage the lived realities of the marginalized and oppressed. These scholars needed to bring data from lived realities to their theological reflection.

Researching lived experience shifts the methodological paradigm from rhetoric and speculation to constructivism in theologizing. Researching lived reality makes one enter the complex social world, where reality is perceived differently by different players. Its hermeneutical tools differ. For theologians to enter the social world to study lived realities, they must adopt the expertise of social sciences. Therefore, studying lived experience leads one to adopt an interdisciplinary approach.

An interdisciplinary approach can open ways to innovate ideas for research, because it lets scholars think originally and be creative. Scholars can move beyond their disciplinary order to create something new.

But what is the need for theology to engage other sciences, one might ask, when its focus is the study of God? Theology is not like other disciplines, it has been argued, because it focuses on God, who cannot be the subject of analysis similar to social structure, a subject of analysis in sociology, or kinship in anthropology. Even so, theology necessarily ranges beyond the nature of God’s being to ask: what are God’s ways and God’s will? These questions force theologians to reflect on human experience in order to understand the activity of God or the Spirit. Theology aims at understanding God’s activity in relation to human community and the world. Therefore, theology cannot isolate itself but must engage social sciences to study lived theology or lived religion.

In an interdisciplinary approach, theology does not abandon its unique perspectives but incorporates insights from other disciplines to improve its own perspective and offers insights to other disciplinary perspectives. When theology engages social sciences, it retains its position while being open to interacting with the perspectives of social sciences. Theology’s primary lens is to understand the social world in relation to God, through Christ. When theology engages social sciences from this position, it guards itself against reductionism, while considering insights from social sciences to have a holistic understanding of the social world in relation to God. Through interdisciplinary approaches, theology can be more intelligible in engaging the world.

Religious studies have turned to researching lived religion by shifting the focus away from defining the universal phenomenon of religion or macro-level questions and looking for universal definitions or normative positions on beliefs and practices. Now scholars of religious studies and social scientists who study religion are interested in exploring how religion is practiced in different cultural contexts. This also paves the way for understanding individuals’ experiences and interpretations.

Some theological scholars think that they are not social scientists and hence assume that their field-based study in theology does not require the level of scientific rigor expected in social sciences. But research in every discipline is a scientific endeavor and scientific rigor cannot be compromised in any research.

Field-based studies lacking scientific rigor have little value. Although field-based studies are common in theology and religious studies, the scientific rigor employed in such studies has often been found deficient, as the proficiency of theological scholars in executing social scientific research is a matter of debate. While some field-based studies in theology and religious studies are excellent, many fall short in terms of quality. Let me give you some examples. I was once asked to review a master’s thesis on differing views on the doctrine of eschatology. This thesis was a theological study that analyzed various theologians’ viewpoints on eschatology. Yet, to my surprise, the methodology chapter was all about qualitative research, with both the student and the supervisor erroneously assuming that an analysis of a theological concept or doctrine equated to a qualitative study. Similarly, I once witnessed a public defense of a PhD dissertation based on a phenomenological study that was filled with statistical analyses. All three examiners questioned the inconsistency between the chosen approach and analysis. These examples underscore the need of providing both students and scholars with clear and reliable information on using social research methods for theology and religious research.

Social Research Methods for Students and Scholars of Theology and Religious Studies results from teaching research methods for more than a decade and supervising and examining a number of dissertations. Teaching research methodology at various institutions has enabled me to understand the minds of students from different cultures.

My students taught me and inspired me to write this book. Keeping the expectations of students from across cultures in mind, I have written this book from the students’ point of view so that they could gain the confidence to design and conduct a study using social research methods and acquire the needed research skills. Therefore, this book will demystify designing and executing a research project and make their research journey enjoyable.

For professors, this book will be a reference tool in supervising and examining dissertations/theses that use social research methods. At the end of a workshop on supervising social research methods, one professor commented to me, if social research involves all these steps, then we have not produced any scientific research until now. Scholars and professors will find this book helpful in maintaining scientific rigor in their research projects and helping their students in producing dissertations/theses with scientific rigor to contribute knowledge beyond the fields of theology and religious studies.

By writing this book, I would like to achieve the following purposes:

1. To help students and scholars of theology and religious studies to engage in research that would be relevant to the faith communities and society at large

2. To facilitate researching lived religion or lived theology of the people where religion thrives

3. To encourage interdisciplinary research in the fields of theology and religious studies to contribute knowledge across disciplines

4. To introduce scientific rigor in theological and religious studies research

To achieve the above purposes, Social Research Methods is intended to be a guide to students and scholars in designing and carrying out theological/religious studies research using social research methods with scientific rigor. The book follows the process of producing sound research from choosing a topic to writing a research report. It discusses the role of professors in supervising and examining dissertations/theses that use social research methods. I envisage this title being used as a textbook in courses on research methods in the fields of theology, religious studies, and across social sciences dealing with religion.

Chapter 1 provides an overview of research fundamentals and explores the process of selecting a topic for investigation. Chapter 2 is designed to enhance your ability to critically engage with existing literature for your research. In Chapter 3, you will be introduced to various research strategies, including qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods, and explore different paradigms employed in social research. Chapters 4, 5, and 6 provide guidance on designing qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods studies, respectively. In Chapter 7, you will learn the art of crafting a compelling research proposal, while Chapter 8 delves into the intricacies of writing a dissertation/thesis or article for publication. Chapter 9 offers practical guidelines on supervising and examining dissertations/theses that use social research methods and provides insight into the roles played by supervisors and examiners in facilitating a successful research journey.

I hope this book will inspire you to adopt research as a hobby to make this world a better place!

Joshua Iyadurai

About the Author

Joshua Iyadurai, PhD

is the founder and director of Marina Centre for Interdisciplinary Studies in Religion (MCISR), Chennai. He is a theological educator and social scientist who is passionate about teaching social research methods in hopes of bringing a paradigm shift in theological research to engage people as a source of constructing theology. His ability to generate a passion for social research among students is one hallmark of his lectures. He has been teaching research methods for more than a decade and supervising students using social research methods for their theological research in several institutions that included the University of Roehampton-online, London, University of Madras, Chennai, and South Asia Institute of Advanced Christian Studies (SAIACS), Bangalore. He has been a resource person for research methods seminars that equip seminary students in using social research methods and workshops to equip faculty for supervising students in using social research methods for their dissertations.

He authored Transformative Religious Experience: A Phenomenological Understanding of Religious Conversion and has contributed several book chapters and articles on religious conversion.

He is available for leading research methods seminars for students and workshops for faculty to supervise and examine dissertations/theses using social research methods. He can be contacted at https://jiyadurai.com

Chapter 1

CHOOSING A TOPIC

Theology was once considered the queen of sciences but is now largely confined within its domain, with a few exceptions. For centuries, theological research methods have been confined largely to reflection and speculation; a common perception is that theological research stays largely disconnected from the church and the followers of the faith. More recently, theological researchers have found that social research methods make it possible for them to be relevant. They can address real-world problems because the methods enable them to engage people as a source of theological research.

Field-based studies in theology and religious studies have lacked scientific precision. Steve Bruce (2018), Professor of Sociology at the University of Aberdeen, finds quantitative studies dealing with religion, lacking in scientific accuracy. This is also true of the quantitative studies done in theology. Only in the recent past, has some interest been shown to use qualitative research in theology and religious studies; however, this is being challenged by many who are influenced by the positivist paradigm.

Using social research methods also enables theological and religious scholars to readily work across disciplines, a current trend in research, and so pursue interdisciplinary or cross-disciplinary or multidisciplinary approaches to solve problems. Social research methods can provide bridges for theology and religious studies to interact with other disciplines.

The goal of education is passing on knowledge and the goal of research is advancing knowledge. Advancing knowledge is a scientific process that requires scientific rigor; scientific rigor in research requires researchers to know the basics of research and the research process. Students and scholars from the fields of theology and religious studies cannot compromise on scientific rigor. This chapter will help you with the basics of research and the steps involved in choosing a topic.

Research

The term research could mean different things to different people: People use Google to search for information, companies conduct market survey to launch a product, organizations do research to solve a problem, journalists do research to report to the public, and so on. But academic research is a scientific process to produce knowledge.