Must Know High School Grammar and Composition

1

Capitalization

MUST KNOW

Why are capital letters so important? They are visual clues to a reader that provide clarity in some cases and emphasis in others.

Capital letters signal the beginning of a new sentence.

Capital letters are also used in abbreviations, initialisms, and acronyms.

With the recent use of incorrect lowercase writing or the overuse of capitalization popular in texting and on social media posts, it is extremely important to understand that proper capitalization in academic and professional forums is not only recommended but required. Therefore, it is important to make the distinction between the two and know your audience.

Some of these rules may be a review for you, while others will be brand new. Either way, it is a good idea to practice capitalization skills.

Rule 1: Capitalizing the First Word of a Sentence, Salutation, and Closing

As you know, the first word of a sentence must be capitalized. This serves as a signal to the reader that a new complete thought is being introduced.

EXAMPLE

▶ To pursue her career as a film actress, Roma moved to Los Angeles.

The first word of the sentence—To—must be capitalized.

There is an exception, however. If you are connecting two related sentences with a semicolon, the first word of the sentence following the semicolon should not begin with a capital letter unless it is a word that must be capitalized such as the word I or a proper noun (like someone’s name, the name of a specific place, etc.).

EXAMPLE

▶ Working on the weekends is not easy; everyone else has free time to socialize with their friends.

Since there is a semicolon preceding the word everyone, and everyone is not a proper noun, it should not be capitalized.

When writing a letter, the first letter of the salutation and closing need to be capitalized.

EXAMPLE

▶ Dear Mrs. Rudolph,

Thank you for hosting the club orientation meeting in your classroom. I look forward to working with you on several service projects this year.

Sincerely,

Joseph Bratstein

The word Dear is a salutation, and the word Sincerely is a closing in a letter, so the first letters of these words must be capitalized.

Rule 2: Capitalizing the Pronoun I

In the English language, the word I is the only word that is capitalized no matter where it appears in a sentence (even though it is not a proper noun or proper adjective).

EXAMPLE

▶ Simeon and I love to waterski.

Even though I is not the first word of the sentence, it is always capitalized.

Rule 3: Capitalizing Proper Nouns/Adjectives

As you know, a noun is a part of speech that represents a person, place, thing, or idea. There are two types of nouns: common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns do not have a specific name (dogs, freedom) and are not capitalized. A proper noun is the specific name of a person, place, thing, or idea. Proper nouns are capitalized no matter where they fall in a sentence.

Proper nouns are never preceded by articles such as a, an, or the unless these words are part of a title or part of the name of a place or organization (The Old Man and the Sea, The Ohio State University, A Better Chance).

Proper nouns are not preceded by determiners such as my or your unless those words are part of a title, place, or organization (My Antonia, Your Heart on Art).

A common mistake made by students is that they capitalize the words mother, mom, father, dad, and other family members. The only time these words should be capitalized is if the student is addressing the person directly within dialogue format (Mom, will you drive me to the party?), if the word is followed by a proper name (Uncle Al, Grandma Mary), or if the word is used alone to replace a personal name (Did you see Mom at the grocery store?).

Students often make the mistake of capitalizing the words high school. These words may only be capitalized if they are preceded by the name of the specific school (Green Oaks High School).

Smaller words within proper nouns are not capitalized unless they are the first word of the proper noun (The Grapes of Wrath, Joan of Arc).

The following chart will help you remember which nouns are proper nouns and will provide examples in each category for you. These categories need to be committed to memory, so you know whether to capitalize proper nouns when writing.

Categories of Proper Nouns

The directional words north, west, south, southeast, etc. are not capitalized when they simply refer to a direction and are not referring to a specific region of the country. Similarly, even though planets are capitalized, the words sun, moon, and earth are not capitalized when used by themselves. Seasons are not capitalized either.

EXAMPLES

▶ The roads to the east of Mill Highway were recently paved.

Since east does not refer to a specific region of a country, the word east should not be capitalized.

▶ How soon will it be before citizens will be allowed to visit Mars?

Since Mars is a planet, it is capitalized.

There are instances when adjectives are considered proper adjectives. This occurs when the noun form of that adjective is a proper noun and is normally capitalized (Canadian border, Christmas cards).

Did you know that there are standard correction marks or codes called Proofreaders’ Marks? These symbols and abbreviations are used by editors and proofreaders. Perhaps you have seen these on some of the papers returned to you by teachers. If a letter is supposed to be capitalized but is not, you may see three short lines under that letter, indicating that letter should be a capital letter. You may also notice a slash through a letter. If you see that correction, it means that the letter should be lowercase.

The entire key to Proofreaders’ Marks appears in Chapter 9.

Try using these marks while proofreading the sentences in the following exercises.

EXERCISE 1-1: Capitalization Rules 1–3

DIRECTIONS: The following sentences contain errors in capitalization.

• Indicate that a letter should be capitalized by placing three small lines below that letter.

• Indicate that a capitalized letter should be lowercase by drawing a slash through that letter.

1. I can’t tell you why i am not going on our spring field trip out west to disney world in anaheim, california.

2. The newly elected President, abdullah shahid, addressed the united nations congregants in new york city.

3. do you know how quickly mars and venus rotate around the Sun?

4. The Dublin merchant was a ship that transported Irish emigrants from the city of cobh to Ellis island via the Atlantic ocean.

5. Does jivan celebrate hanukkah, kwanzaa, or Christmas?

6. calendars were developed in the bronze age by sumerians in Mesopotamia.

7. Do you prefer Band-aid bandages or Curad Bandages?

8. Early settlers in north America traveled West to explore the frontier.

9. The guest speaker shook the hand of principal Tomkins upon receiving the Most-valued Speaker award.

10. Fluffy

Fluffy, the siamese cat, runs faster than moxie, my german shepherd.

Rule 4: Capitalizing Abbreviations, Initialisms, and Acronyms

Abbreviations are shortened forms of actual words or phrases for the purpose of speeding up communication or using fewer symbols.

EXAMPLE

▶ After her back surgery, Harriet went to a rehab center to regain strength.

The abbreviation rehab is short for rehabilitation. Notice that rehab is such a commonly known abbreviation that a period after the abbreviation is not even necessary.

An initialism is an abbreviation that shortens a term or phrase by representing it by using the first letters of the words. If the phrase or term has a small word within it (a, the, of), the first letters of those words are not usually included in the initialism.

Common initialisms seen in many different forms are those representing morning and afternoon. You have probably seen many different versions:

■ 10:00 A.M.

■ 10:00 AM

■ 10:00 a.m.

■ 10:00 am

So, which one is correct? The simple answer is that they are all used and acceptable. I tend to agree with the Chicago Manual of Style that lowercase a.m. and p.m. are best, since they are least commonly confused with other capitalized initialisms that use the same letters (AM for radio; PM for private message).

An acronym follows the same rules of capitalization as an initialism, so you may be wondering: What is the difference between them? The difference is in how the abbreviation is pronounced. If the abbreviation is read aloud letter by letter (DVR for digital video recorder), it is considered an initialism.

If the abbreviation is read aloud as one word (NASA for National Aeronautics and Space Administration), it is considered an acronym.

You may have noticed in the examples above that some initialisms and acronyms are formed from terms that are normally lowercase when spelled out (digital video recorder). That is because those terms are not proper nouns, but when they are shortened, capital letters are used to signify the abbreviation.

EXAMPLES

▶ It has been Moby’s dream to work for the FBI.

FBI is an initialism, since we pronounce this abbreviation letter by letter: F-B-I.

▶ To access the system, enter your PIN and password.

PIN stands for personal identification number. It is an acronym because it is pronounced as a full word, PIN, rather then letter-by-letter.

A well-known example of a common noun that is capitalized when it is abbreviated is an element such as zinc or hydrogen. As you may know, the abbreviations for elements are capitalized: Z for zinc, H for hydrogen, etc.

Beware: Some element abbreviations begin with a different letter or different letters than the first letter of the element. This is often because the name of the element is derived from a word in Latin. For example, the abbreviation Fe is used for iron. This derives from the Latin word ferrum, which means firmness.

If an academic course is referred to by an abbreviation, initialism, or acronym, it should be capitalized without periods (PE for physical education, APUSH for AP US History).

Although many abbreviations fall under the classification of either initialism or acronym, there are some abbreviations that do not fall under either category.

One type of abbreviation that does not fall under the category of initialism or acronym is the shortening of a person’s title. The capitalization rule related to this is if the word would be capitalized in its full form, the abbreviation should begin with a capital letter (Doctor Smith = Dr. Smith). This only applies if the person’s last name follows the abbreviation. If the sentence were rearranged with the word doctor elsewhere in the sentence, that word should not be abbreviated.

Incorrect: Roger Smith is a Dr.

Incorrect: Roger Smith is a dr.

Did you notice that periods are not used between the letters of initialisms and acronyms? In the past, it was customary to utilize periods between the letters of initialisms but not to use periods between the letters of acronyms, since acronyms were read as an entire word. However, nowadays, periods have been dropped between the letters of most initialisms as well. Exceptions are when initialisms can be confused with actual words in the English Language. P.O.W. stands for Prisoner of War but can also spell out the word pow. The rules related to punctuating certain abbreviations vary by country. For example, in Great Britain, periods are not placed after abbreviated titles (Mr) or academic degrees (BA), whereas they are followed by a period in the United States.

EXAMPLE

▶ Roger Smith is a doctor.

The word doctor is separate from the last name Smith. It should be spelled completely.

Other common abbreviations that require capitalization include academic degrees (Doctor of Philosophy = Ph.D. (The h is lowercase because it is part of the word philosophy.)

One unusual set of abbreviations that does not follow the initialism or acronym format is the US state postal code system. This is because every state code is a two-letter code whether or not the state has two words. (MO = Missouri, MS = Mississippi, MI = Michigan, MN = Minnesota).

You may be wondering about the abbreviations popular in text messaging. Originally, text initialisms such as LOL and TTYL were capitalized. More recently, these expressions have become so well-known that capital letters have been eliminated. So, here is the best way to handle them.

When you are texting someone you know well, feel free to utilize either format.

However, if you refer to texting abbreviations in a formal setting or in a written paper, defer to the capital letters, as abbreviations in texts are technically considered initialisms and should, therefore, be capitalized.

Rule 5: Capitalizing Titles of Written Works, Pieces of Art, and Pieces of Music

When capitalizing titles of stories, books, poems, speeches, plays, novels, memoirs, other publications, songs, operas, albums, symphonies, paintings, and sculptures, always capitalize the first letter of the first word. Then, capitalize all words in that title except for:

■ Articles (a, the)

■ Coordinating conjunctions (and, or, but, yet, as, so, since, for)

■ Short prepositions (at, from, for, in, of, to)

An exception is when the author/artist uses all lowercase letters or all capital letters with intent. Here are some examples:

Poem title by e.e.cummings: I carry your heart with me

Song title by singer, Billie Eilish: when the party’s over

Song title by rapper, Kendrick Lamar: ELEMENT.

EXAMPLE

▶ The Old Man and the Sea is a famous novel by Ernest Hemingway.

Notice that the first The in the title is capitalized because it is the first word of the title. However, when the words and and the appear later in the title, they are lowercase.

Rule 6: Capitalizing School Subjects and Courses

The names of general school courses should not be capitalized (math, science, social studies).

One exception is in the case of language courses, which should be capitalized (Chinese, American Sign Language).

If the title of a course is being provided, it should be capitalized (AP Chemistry, Social Studies 8, Writing 101).

NOTE: The capitalization and punctuation rules for courses presented as initialisms or acronyms are covered in the notes under Rule 3.

EXAMPLE

▶ Chelsea had trouble choosing an elective, since Chinese and cooking both interested her.

One course is a language (Chinese), so it must be capitalized, while the other course is general (cooking), so it does not require capitalization.

The following exercises will help you practice distinguishing between the different types of capitalization rules discussed in the chapter.

EXERCISE 1-2: Capitalization Rules 4–6

DIRECTIONS: Correct any words that are capitalized incorrectly or that need to be capitalized. Then, to the left of the question, write the letter of the rule that corresponds with your correction on the line provided.

Rule Key

A: General Abbreviation Rule (unrelated to initialisms and acronyms)

B: Initialism Rule

C: Acronym Rule

D: Title of Work

E: Title of Course or School Subject

_____ 1. Dale decided to take math 202 in college even though he had never taken that course in high school.

_____ 2. Mr. Jones caught Bilal reading The Fall Of The Roman Empire in the hall right before the quiz.

_____ 3. Did you know that Dr. Phil does not have a Ph.d. or a D.P.C. degree?

_____ 4. It took Patty seven hours to drive from Baltimore, Md, to Raleigh, NC!

_____ 5. Etsy is known for its diy project ideas.

_____ 6. My grandmother has no idea what fomo means.

_____ 7. Zoe uses yolo and an emoji whenever she sends a meme to her cousin.

_____ 8. Although Mark was training to be a member of the Cia, he could not share this news with his family due to the confidential nature of the position.

_____ 9. Edgar traveled to Norway to see Edmund Munch’s the Scream in person.

_____ 10. How did Guy do on the Foundations of Geology quiz?

EXERCISE 1-3: Writing with Capitalization

DIRECTIONS: In the space below, attempt to write a paragraph using all of the capitalization rules correctly. If you wish, you may use more than one capitalization rule within a sentence. Using parentheses after each sentence, write the number of the capitalization rule(s) you applied in that sentence.

PROMPT: You have decided to complete an application to take AP Art History as a senior in high school. As part of the application process, you must write a letter to your guidance counselor explaining why you qualify to be a student in that course.

Capitalization Rules

Rule 1: Capitalizing the First Word of a Sentence, Salutation, and Closing

Rule 2: Capitalizing the Pronoun I

Rule 3: Capitalizing Proper Nouns/Adjectives

Rule 4: Capitalizing Abbreviations, Initialisms, and Acronyms

Rule 5: Capitalizing Titles of Written Works, Pieces of Art, and Pieces of Music

Rule 6: Capitalizing School Subjects and Courses

2

The Comma

MUST KNOW

The comma is a very important punctuation mark that provides clarification and structure in a sentence.

Commas help us understand what we are reading. They are so important that the entire meaning of a sentence can change based on a misplaced comma.

Commas are also used to provide emphasis of certain words, phrases, and clauses.

What is the comma, and why does it give us pause? There are several comma rules to learn and even some exceptions to those rules. This chapter will help you have a better understanding of when and why to use a comma correctly. Try not to be overwhelmed with the number of comma rules in this chapter. Many will seem familiar to you. Others might include something you never knew. Either way, you will become a more sophisticated writer if you use the comma correctly.

Rule 1: Items in a Series

This is a rule that may be familiar to you. We insert a comma in a sentence when listing more than two nouns, verbs, adverbs, or phrases.

■ The comma before the word and is also called the Oxford or serial comma .

■ Some style guides such as Chicago Manual of Style use this comma, while others, including the Associated Press (AP) Stylebook , disagree with it.

NOTE: This rule does not apply when numerous adjectives appear in a sentence.

EXAMPLES

▶ Seth Rogen is a writer, a comedian, and a filmmaker.

Since we are listing more than two nouns, a comma belongs after writer and after comedian if we are including the Oxford comma.

▶ Cynthia crossed the path skillfully, carefully, and methodically.

Since we are listing more than two adverbs, a comma belongs after skillfully and after carefully if we are including the Oxford comma.

In 2020, the Oxford comma was at the center of a $5 million class-action lawsuit filed by dairy drivers. A judge ruled in the drivers’ favor, since the dairy’s overtime policy was unclear due to the lack of an Oxford comma in a particular portion of the contract.

Rule 2: To Keep Numbers Clear

Most people know how to use commas to represent place value in numbers. Believe it or not, this varies by the country or language in which the number is being used, or even the context, such as in scientific writing. In certain countries, it is customary to punctuate numbers by using periods rather than commas.

Lately, in countries where English is spoken, commas may or may not be used in four-digit numbers. Perhaps this is because of how we read these numbers, like saying 2054 as twenty fifty-four rather than two thousand fifty-four. Commas are always used in numbers over 10,000, and are placed every three digits from the right.

Some types of sentences, such as sentences that require sequencing, fall under Rule 2 (even though the sequential words may not include numbers at all). For introductory words to be classified as sequential, there must be multiple consecutive sentences beginning with introductory words that are listed in a definite order.

EXAMPLES

▶ Maxx received 12,476 demerits for chewing gum in class.

The comma is included after the 2 in the number 12,476 because you count three places backward from the right to indicate the thousands place.

▶ First, wake up. Then, eat breakfast. Next, take a shower. Finally, get dressed.

This is an example of sequencing. Even though there are no numbers in this sentence, the sentences must remain in sequential order, which falls under the umbrella of keeping numbers clear.

Rule 3: In Dates and Addresses

When writing a date that includes the year, place a comma between the day and the year. Also, you must include a comma between the city and state or between the city and country. Never place a comma between the state and the zip code. In certain style guides such as CMOS, a comma is also placed after the year, state, or country if the sentence continues.

EXAMPLES

▶ Julia’s birthday is September 25, 1996.

When writing the date, the comma belongs after the day and before the year.

▶ Madame Therese travels to Paris, France every year.

The comma also belongs between a city and a country.

There is something called an Envelope Rule. If you are writing out an address within a full sentence, you must place a comma after the word that would be the last word on the line of an addressed envelope. This is how the address looks on the envelope:

Here is what it looks like in a sentence:

Please mail a replacement to Jay Smith, Avian Middle School, 26 Mill Road, Phoenix, Arizona 85003.

The comma goes after Smith, School, and Road because those are the last words that appear on each line of the envelope. Of course, you still need the comma between Phoenix and Arizona because of the city and state rule.

Rule 4: To Set Apart an Explanatory Phrase from a Direct Quotation

Commas are used to separate direct quotations from explanatory phrases. The term direct quotation refers to the exact words of a speaker. An explanatory phrase tells us who is speaking. This comma rule can only be applied if there are quotation marks in the sentence. The placement of the comma changes depending on whether the explanatory phrase is placed at the beginning, middle, or end of the sentence.

When a sentence ends in a quotation, an ending comma or period must go inside the quotation mark. An ending question mark or exclamation point goes inside the quotation mark if it is part of the quotation and outside the quotation mark if it is not.

EXAMPLES

▶ Ethan exclaimed, The math exam was so easy!

When the explanatory phrase is at the beginning of the sentence, only one comma is required. The comma goes after the explanatory phrase Ethan exclaimed, and before the quotation mark. The ending exclamation point goes inside the quotation mark because it is part of the quotation.

▶ What if, asked Jenny, someone doesn’t finish the test in the allotted time?

When the explanatory phrase comes in the middle of a sentence, two commas are required—one before the first closing quotation mark (. . . if,) and one immediately after the explanatory phrase and before the next opening quotation mark (asked Jenny, someone . . . ).

▶ I love Keith Urban, said Gina.

When the explanatory phrase comes at the end of the sentence, only one comma is required. The comma belongs BEFORE the closing quotation mark (. . . Urban,").

Rule 5: To Set Apart Interruptions

Interruptions are words or phrases that can be added to a sentence. They come after the first word of