Research Proposal a Simplified Step-by-Step Guide - Revised Edition

Dedication

To my beautiful wife, Erica Lintle ‘Mathato Rakotsoane, for her unwavering support in all my life endeavours.

Introduction

As part of the requirements for their degree programme, college and university students are usually required to engage in an in-depth study on a topic of their choice. Such a study is called a research project. It is also referred to as a thesis or dissertation at postgraduate level of studies. Unlike other research works, this kind of research is usually preceded by a proposal which has to be approved by one’s supervisor as a prerequisite to engage in the proposed research. Such a proposal is meant to help one to develop one’s research idea into a scientific paper, which is not only integral in passing the degree programme but also serves as the final test of a student’s capability to work independently and think critically as an academic.

A research proposal is a tedious and meticulous exercise that requires one to have a thorough understanding of the concepts that are used as the building blocks when writing it in order to be able to get it right. Many students struggle to get their proposals right because of their failure to understand what each of these concepts entails. This book is meant to help such students. It is a step-by-step guide through which students are introduced to the said concepts and how they are used as building blocks to produce scholarly and professional research proposals that meet the required standards.

The book is divided into seven chapters that are arranged according to what needs to be understood first so that students may be able to write logically and have the results of their research work available for public consumption and sharing of knowledge. Thus chapter one of this book introduces students to the concept of research and different main approaches used in it. Chapter two discusses the constitutive elements/components of a research proposal as the first material needed for one to be able to build a research proposal. Chapter three introduces the students to several formats followed in the writing of a research proposal including a research protocol. Chapter four takes students through the various research designs available to researchers as blueprints to guide their research proposal writing. Chapter five introduces students to a technical way of writing a thesis, dissertation or research project as the end-product of their research work. Chapter six looks at different ways of citing one’s sources and presenting reference lists to acknowledge the sources used in the writing of the research work in order to avoid plagiarism. The last chapter initiates students to the art of writing a journal article in case they may wish to have the results of their research work published in academic journals.

Chapter One

Research

1.1 What is Research?

Research may be defined as a systematic and methodical process of enquiry and investigation of collecting, analysing and interpreting information with a view to increasing knowledge and understanding the phenomenon about which there is a private or public interest or concern. Researchers carry out research to:

• review and synthesize existing knowledge;

• investigate an existing situation or problem;

• provide solutions to a problem;

• explore and analyse more general issues;

• construct or create a new procedure or system;

• explain a new phenomenon;

• generate new knowledge;

• do a combination of any of the above,

(http://www.palgrave.com/business/collis/br/docs/sample.pdf).

The effort required for each research work differs from one level of study to another as follows:

• At First Degree level, one is generally expected to:

₀ demonstrate a clear conceptualisation of the various theoretical and methodological perspectives as they apply in research;

₀ demonstrate that he or she can carry out research independently, applying the theoretical knowledge acquired during the methodology courses in class.

N.B.: Originality or contribution to knowledge is not necessarily a requirement at this level. All that matters is that the student is able to apply the research skills learnt in class correctly and appropriately.

• At Masters’ Degree level, one is expected to:

₀ demonstrate that he or she can defend a position based on advanced knowledge and understanding of a particular academic discipline;

₀ apply appropriate methods and techniques to collect new evidence, analyse existing evidence or critique other scholarly works in a systematic way;

₀ expand the existing knowledge in a creative way and (where applicable) pioneer entrepreneurship.

• At Doctoral Degree (e.g. PhD) level, one is expected to:

₀ demonstrate that he or she can defend a position based on advanced knowledge and understanding of a particular academic discipline;

₀ apply appropriate methods and techniques to collect new evidence, analyse existing evidence or critique other scholarly works in a systematic way;

₀ expand the existing knowledge in a creative way and (where applicable) pioneer entrepreneurship;

₀ apply innovative methods, technologies and interventions to solving real-world and theoretical problems;

₀ create a new, systematic and logical knowledge base through an in-depth and original research and scholarship.

NB.: At this last level the issue of originality or research novelty is very critical.

Although they may vary in complexity and duration, research studies have common characteristics. According to Leedy & Ormrod (2010: 2-3), common to all researches are the following characteristics:

• They start with an issue, question or problem.

• They require a clear articulation of a goal.

• They require a specific plan for proceeding.

• They usually divide the principal problem into more manageable sub-problems.

• They are guided by the specific research problem, question or hypothesis.

• They accept certain critical assumptions.

• They require the collection and interpretation of data in an attempt to resolve the problem that initiated the research.

• They are, by their nature, cyclical or, more exactly, helical.

1.2 Main Approaches to Research

Depending on what the researcher’s interest is in doing research, there are at least five main approaches to research. These are:

• Logical Theoretical Approach

• Quantitative Approach

• Qualitative Approach

• Pragmatic Approach

• Advocacy or Participatory Approach

1.2.1 Logical Theoretical Approach

By this is meant formal deduction of logical consequences from a set of initial assumptions (axioms). If the axioms are found to be true and the rules are logically sound, the consequences are judged to be true as well. This approach is mainly appropriate for formal sciences such as mathematics and parts of computer science. The approach is also suitable for philosophical research in humanities.

In this approach, one starts by specifying a theory or major premise. From the theory, one then generates hypotheses about what should happen in specific circumstances. If one wishes to test the theory, one can collect data to see whether what is hypothesized happens. This direction of reasoning is generally referred to as top-down, from theory (the general) to the data (the specific).

1.2.2 Quantitative Approach

A quantitative approach to doing research is an approach mainly used within the classical scientific paradigm of natural, hard sciences. It is an approach used in connection with the positivist/post-positivist paradigm. It usually involves collection and conversion of data into numerical form so that statistical calculations can be made and conclusions drawn.

The approach is used by researchers to test one or more hypotheses. In other words it is meant to test theory. Data is collected by various means following a strict procedure and prepared for statistical analysis. The statistical analysis is, nowadays, carried out with the aid of sophisticated statistical computer packages. The analysis enables the researchers to determine the extent of the relationship between two or more variables. Statistical analysis permits researchers to discover complex causal relationships and to determine the extent to which one variable influences another (Babbie and Moulton, 2006).

Objectivity is of primary importance in quantitative research. As a result, researchers take great care to make sure that their own presence, behaviour or attitudes do not affect the results. They also engage in critical examination of their methods and conclusions for any possible bias.

Researchers go to great lengths to ensure that they are really measuring what they claim to measure. External factors, which may influence the results, are controlled. It is important, however, to note that not all possible contributing factors can always be controlled. Thus, such factors should be acknowledged by researchers.

The quantitative approach mainly uses a top-down approach or deductive reasoning which tends to move from the general to the specific. The validity of conclusions depends on the validity of one or more premises (prior statements, findings or conditions). If the premises of an argument are inaccurate, then the argument too is bound to be inaccurate.

1.2.3 Qualitative Approach

The qualitative approach is a research approach in which research results are not presented as representative but as offering people’s reflections or perspectives on an issue or experience. It is usually associated with the social constructivist paradigm which puts emphasis on the socially constructed nature of reality. It is about recording, analysing and attempting to uncover the deeper meaning and significance of human behaviour and experience as well as contradictory beliefs, behaviours and emotions. Although it enables the researchers to gain a rich and complex understanding of people’s experience, it does not provide them with the kind of information which can be generalized to larger groups (Babbie and Moulton, 2006).

The main reason for the preference for qualitative approach by many people today appears to come from the observation that, if there is one thing which distinguishes humans from lower creatures, it is their ability to talk and argue for what they believe in. Qualitative research is meant to help the researchers to understand people and the social and cultural contexts within which they live. It allows humans to talk as humans. Many researchers, who today tend to prefer qualitative research as opposed to quantitative research, argue that the point of view of the participants and the particular social and institutional context is largely lost when textual data are quantified as is the case in quantitative research (http://www.qual.auckland.ac.nz/#Introduction)

However, as Leedy & Ormrod have correctly noted, it is important to be aware that:

Regardless of the kinds of data involved, data collection in a qualitative study takes a great deal of time. The researcher should record any potentially useful data thoroughly, accurately, and systematically, using field notes, audiotapes, sketches, photographs, or some combination of these. As they collect data, many qualitative researchers also begin jotting notes (sometimes called memos) about their initial interpretations of what they are seeing and hearing (Leedy & Ormrod, 2010: 145).

Unlike the deductive approach used by quantitative researchers, the approach used by qualitative researchers tends to be inductive. This means that in the qualitative approach researchers produce a theory or look for a pattern of meaning on the basis of the data that they have collected. This is called a bottom-up approach because the researcher moves from the specific to the general.

In the qualitative approach, researchers do not base their research on pre-determined hypotheses. However, once they have clearly identified a problem or topic that they want to explore, they may be guided by a theoretical lens - a kind of overarching theory which is meant to provide a framework for their investigation.

Although the approach used to collect data and analyse it is still methodical, it allows for greater flexibility than in the case of the quantitative approach. Data is collected in the textual form through such data gathering methods as participant observation, in-depth interviews and focus groups discussions. The collected data is not converted into numerical form and is not statistically analysed.

In this approach, data collection may be carried out in several stages rather than once-off. The approach is so flexible that the researcher may even adapt the process mid-way, deciding to address additional issues or dropping questions which are found inappropriate on the basis of what he/she learns during the research process. In some cases, the researcher may interview or observe a set number of people while in other cases the process of data collection and analysis may continue until the researcher has satisfied him/herself that no new issues are emerging.

The methods used in the qualitative