Pathways to Philosophy in China and India

Pathways to Philosophy in China and India

K. Srinagesh Ph.D SAMPURNA SRINAGESH PH.D

Copyright © 2023 K. Srinagesh Ph.DandSampurna Srinagesh Ph.D

All rights reserved

First Edition

PAGE PUBLISHING

Conneaut Lake, PA

First originally published by Page Publishing 2023

ISBN 978-1-64544-072-7 (hc)

ISBN 978-1-64544-073-4 (digital)

Printed in the United States of America

Table of Contents

Preface

Acknowledgement

Buddha and Buddhism

Chapter 1

Life of Buddha

1.1 The Times (in India) of Siddhartha Goutama

1.2 Early Life of Siddhartha Goutama

1.3 Enlightenment

1.4 Buddha's Teaching

Chapter 2

Decline and Demise of Buddhism in India

2.1 Discontent on Discipline

2.2 Patronage of Ashoka

2.3 Split into Two Segments

2.4 Need for Philosophy

2.4.1 Vaibhasikas

2.4.2 Sutrantikas

2.4.3 Yogacharas

2.4.4 Madhyamikas

2.5 Demise of Buddhism in India

In China

Chapter 3

The Origin and Nature of Chinese Philosophy

3.1 Origin

3.2 Old Values

3.2.1 God, Heavenly Spirit, and the Way of Heaven

3.2.2 Ceremonies, Ancestors, and Filial Piety

3.2.3 Virtue

3.3 Philosophy of Confucius and Lao Tzu

3.3.1 Philosophy: Secular and Suggestive

3.4 Function of Philosophy

Chapter 4

Confucius and Early Confucianism

4.1 Inherited Values

4.2 Confucius, the Person

4.3 The Analects

4.4 Mencius

Chapter 5

Lao Tzu and Taoism

5.1 Tao and Lao Tzu

5.2 Lao Tzu, the Person

5.3 The Book of Tao

5.4 Chuangtse

Chapter 6

Blooming of Buddhist Philosophy in China

6.1. Entry of Buddhism in China

6.2 Kumarajiva

6.3 Three Treatise School

6.3.1 Chi-tsang

6.4. Consciousness-Only School

6.5 Tien-tai School

6.6. Hua-Yen School

6.7. Chan Buddhism

6.8 The Human Element

6.9. After Chan

Chapter 7

Neo-Confucianism

7.1 Revival

7.2 Han Yu and Li Ao

7.3 Chou Tun-I

7.4 Chang Tsai

7.5 Cheng Hao and Cheng I

7.6 Chu Hsi

7.7 Wang Fu-chih

Chapter 8

Philosophy in Modern China

8.1 Early Discontent

8.2 Fung Yu-Lan

8.3 Hsiung Shih-li

8.4 Mao Tse-tung

8.5 After Mao Tse-Tung

In India

Chapter 9

Vedas and Upanishads

9.1 The Vedas

9.2 The Upanishad

9.2.1 Chandogya Upanishads

9.2.2 Mundaka Upanishad

9.2.3 Brihadarnyaka Upanishad

9.2.4 Svetavatara Upanishad

9. 2. 5 Kena Upanishad (Titled Talavakara Upanishad by Max Muller)

9.2.5 Prasna Upanishad

Chapter 10

The Epics and the Bhagavad Gita

10.1 Ramayana and Mahabharata

10.2 The Bhagavad Gita

10.2.1 Concepts of Atman1-Brahman2

10.2.4 Bhakti Yoga: Devotion Is an Effective Means

10.3 Moralizing

10.3.1 Descriptions of a good man

10.3.2 Description of bad men

10.4 Inborn Characters

10.5 God of All Men, He Is the Savior, He Is Tolerant

10.6 Life Is Pain

Chapter 11

On the Purpose of the Worldly Life

11.1 Three Shastras Expounding the Purposes

11.2 Dharma Shastra of Manu

11.3 Artha Shastra of Kautilya

11.3.1 Kautilya's Own Description of Artha Shastra

11.4 Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana

Chapter 12

The Six Systems of Indian Philosophy

12.1 The Faith of Vedas versus the Light of Logic

12.2 The Systems

12.2.1 Nyaya

12.2.2 Vaisesika

12.2.3 Sankhya

12.2.4 Yoga

12.2.5 Purva Mimamsa

12.2.6 Vedanta (Also Known as Uttara Mimamsa, Meaning Later Great Thought)

12.2.6.1 Shankara

12.2.6.2 Ramanuja

12.2.6.3 Madhva

12.3 Retrospective Synopsis of the Six Philosophical Systems

Chapter 13

An Interlude of Materialism

Chapter 14

Philosophical Ferment in the Nineteenth Century

14.1 Indian Philosophy before the Nineteenth Century

14.2 Ram Mohun Roy

14.3 Ramakrishna and Vivekananda

Chapter 15

Revival of Religion and Recurrent Philosophy in India

15.1 Search for Philosophy Now

15.2 Prominent Persons in Philosophy

15.2.1. Aurobindo

15.2.2 Gandhi

15.2.3 Tagore

15.2.4 Radhakrishnan

15.3 Philosophy and the Present Values

About the Authors

Index

TO THE MEMORY OF

Doddaputtaiah and M. K. Bommaiah of Mandya

M. Nagaraj and B.K. Somasundara of Mysuru

and

Chengamani and C. Ramachendra Rao of Anantapur

Preface

What Is Philosophy of a People?

It is a tendency to adapt, a bent of mind, a way of thinking of the people, the pathways to follow toward what occurs to them as ideals.

What Is the Use of Philosophy?

The best answer we can find is given by Thoreau, himself a philosopher in the United States: To be a philosopher is not merely to have subtle thoughts, nor even to find a school, but so to love wisdom as to live according to its dictates, a life of simplicity, independence, magnanimity and trust.

We have chosen here to track the pathways to philosophy of the Chinese and the Indian people. Why these two? Some superminds have predicted, perhaps impressed by the large populations of these countries, that the present century will be dominated by these. China has made serious (some say too serious) attempt to limit the population, whereas India seems to like, despite its limited resources, its unlimited population.

People born in China and India, following the same kind of excellence appreciated in the West, have migrated in large number to United States and some West European countries in recent decades; the trend is progressively increasing. Their presence, or pressure, is felt in all kinds of professions. They are here to stay. Their counterparts in the West must deal with them, like it or not. Some of the idiosyncrasies of the Chinese and the Indians are different, often strange, not to say causing uneasiness. If the source or origin of their idiosyncrasy is understood, it will be easier to accept, maybe even appreciate, their behavior.

This book is all about that, addressed to the people of the United States and other English-speaking countries. The book is also suitable as text for a one-semester freshman or sophomore college course.

The historical link between China and India are the teachings of Gautama Buddha and the Buddhist religion. First two chapters of the book trace these. Selecting on the most common pathways in China, their philosophy is presented, necessarily sketchy, in chapters 3–8. Similar presentation is made for India in chapters 9–15.

Acknowledgement

Francine Gilbert for help in preparing the manuscript, Professor Cleffi for reading some of these chapters and offering many useful suggestions, both at UMass-Dartmouth, our sons, Prasanna and Vishwanath, for timely suggestions, and encouragement, Deanna Devore, and Lana Beers, for their coordination at the publication.

PART I

Buddha and Buddhism

Chapter 1

Life of Buddha

1.1 The Times (in India) of Siddhartha Goutama

The invasion of Aryans in India, which is supposed to have happened a few thousand years earlier, was completely an event in Indra of the past. Separated by the Himalayan Mountains, the invaders had completely lost contact with their ancestry in the north. Instead, they found themselves amidst a peace-loving, cultured, indigenous Dravidian civilization. If there was strife between the Aryans and Dravidians, it was in terms of values, beliefs, and customs, not in terms of war and bloodshed. The Dravidians would rather accommodate the brusque intruders than fight and drive them away, somewhat similar to what happened many centuries later when the Muslims invaded India. The Aryans developed a culture of their own, building on and transforming the Dravidian culture, Sanskrit becoming the language for their religious practice.

The fair-skinned Aryans were trying to remain unmixed with the dark-skinned Dravidians, whom they shunned if not subjugated. Within the Aryans, based on the profession practiced for many generations, there was polarization, leading toward the caste system. The priestly sect of Aryans, calling themselves Brahmins, were engaged in performing sacrifices, known as yaga and yajna, learning by memorization alone and communicating by oral tradition the hymns and chants in Sanskrit required for that purpose. The written form of the languages, including Sanskrit, was yet to be developed. Lower in caste hierarchy were the Kshatriyas (kings and warriors), Vyshyas (merchants and farmers), and Shudras (servants). There were many tribes and many languages, local and secular. Pali, the language where Siddhartha was born, was one such. There were many kingdoms, some of those very small, ruled by local kings, practically independent and unmolested by any emperor. The kings and their sons spent their leisure in hunting, playing chess, and enjoying the company of the fair sex. Siddhartha Goutama was born sometime in the sixth century BC, among a clan of Kshatriyas known as Sakyas, as the only son of a local king in the northeast of India.

1.2 Early Life of Siddhartha Goutama

Siddhartha grew up in luxury with the best education then available to his kind. Perhaps he had witnessed how the privileged Brahmins were claiming as their right using all others for their own comfort and convenience. Perhaps he had observed how the Aryans ill-treated and despised the colored Dravidians. Perhaps he had seen how women were used and abused by men. To his, like to any other sensitive mind, these were undesirable but unavoidable social evils of the time. But what really disturbed his sensitive intellect most, beyond the possible limits of complacence, was much bigger: the course of human life, the destiny of humanity.

Thanks to the study since about a century of original writings in Pali, the actual life and thoughts of Siddhartha are now available. The young prince Siddhartha lived with all the enjoyments that life could offer. He had a beautiful wife since he was nineteen. He walked in luxurious gardens and groves surrounded by beautiful courtesans singing and dancing for his amusement. He hunted and played games of leisure like other aristocrats, knowing no scarcity of any kind. Amidst all such enjoyment he was gripped by a great discontent. He moved through many gratifications, none of which could hold sway and satisfy his soul. He looked for something far beyond such routine, fleeting gratifications, each sure to turn sour soon. It was the dissatisfaction of an extraordinary mind, searching deep into the real nature of human existence.

The story goes that one day he and his charioteer, Channa, went out into the city for a drive. He noticed an old and frail man struggling to stand up. That is the way of life, he heard Channa say. Another day he saw a man horribly sick, groaning with a dreadful disease. That is the way of life, he heard Channa say again. Yet another day, he saw the petrifying body of a dead man, swarms of flies buzzing around, and the crows pecking on it. That is the way of life, he heard again. The impermanence and falsity of pleasure in life struck deep into his mind; the reality of decay and death was all too obvious.

It is often made out that Siddhartha's palatial life was so much insulated from the realities of old age and death that the sight of these, being total surprise to him, turned the course of his life. A supremely intelligent mind, as his was, could not have missed such obvious occurrences. It makes sense, instead, to think that these sights served as the last drops to fill the cup of his discontent with the usual, unreflecting, worldly life. The discontent in his mind turned to pity, remorse, and sorrow for the plight of human existence. He felt an irresistible, silent call in his heart to find the cause for the misery in life, and to search for the remedy, if there is one. In the middle of the night, looking at his wife sleeping with his newborn son in her arms, he silently bade farewell to all the ties that held him to the worldly life. Channa, according to his master's order, was waiting in the moonlight with two horses. They both stole away riding all night beyond the borders of the kingdom. At daybreak, Siddhartha cut his flowing locks of hair; with his sword, and with ornaments and horse, he sent Channa back to the capital. On his way, walking alone, having seen a man wearing rags, he exchanged clothes with him. Siddhartha now belonging to no place and no one, owning nothing, wandered alone. He was then twenty-nine.

1.3 Enlightenment

In those days there were many ascetics in India known as samanas, who wandered homeless, covered in rags, possessing nothing, exposing themselves to the simmering sun or the pouring rain, sleeping little, wearing themselves away in fasting. They believed, like some still believe in India, that self-torture, punishing the body, was essential for gaining spiritual knowledge. They were supposed to meditate for long hours or days on deeper issues of metaphysics and religion. Siddhartha became a samana. His limitless capacity to torment himself made him famous as a great samana. But there was one person who was not pleased with all his samana achievements: himself. The discontent that weighed on his mind since his princely days did not diminish; it increased. One day, while sitting alone under a bodhi tree, as if a flash, a clear vision pervaded his mind: the way of the samana was not for him anymore. All the torment that he has been inflicting upon himself for six years had functioned as a wall behind which the truth was hidden. All that was necessary, he realized, was to brush aside the wall. He saw the truth about human existence, its reality in all essential details.

Siddhartha walked alone to Benares where he found the five followers of his samana days who had left him when he abandoned the samana ways. They were very reluctant to listen to him. To them he explained the truth as he saw—simple, straight and clear. After five days of intense debate, they were convinced, and hailed him as a Buddha, meaning the wise one, the knower. In the course of time, they went round the country and spread his name and interpreted his message. Contrary to many stories we find in religious scriptures, it seems the historical Buddha never referred to himself as the wise one. He, like his teachings, remained simple to the end.

1.4 Buddha's Teaching

There was no need in his teaching for the many gods invented by the Hindus; there was no need for temples, supplications, and sacrifices to bloodthirsty spirits; there was no need for the fear of hellfire or the craving for immortality; there was no need for Atman or Brahman, the theme of the Upanishads and the topic of endless sophistry of the learned Brahmins. His was the teaching for here and now, for real men, not for ghosts and spirits. He stated his wisdom on human destiny with such precision, clarity, and pervasiveness that no founder or proponent of any religion attempted before or since.

There is suffering (and sorrow) in life.

There is cause for the suffering; it is desire, greed, and selfishness.

There is remedy for the suffering.

The remedy consists of eight paths of right conduct.

These tenets are referred to as the four noble truths.

The eight paths of right conduct are the following:

Right views: Truth on religious issues is to be found by reason and research, not by blind belief.

Right Aspirations: To aspire for wealth or fame leads to greed and avarice. Aspiring to help the helpless and to be of service to fellow men can liberate one from the prison of selfishness.

Right speech: This means abstention from telling lies, slandering, backbiting, etc., which will bring about hatred and enmity between individuals, disunity and disharmony within groups of people; abstention from harsh, rude, impolite, malicious, and abusive language; abstention from idle, foolish, useless gossip.

Right actions: This means moral, honorable, and peaceful actions. It admonishes that we should abstain from destroying life, from stealing, from dishonest dealings such as illegitimate sexual pleasure ¹.

Right livelihood: One should not live by a profession that is harmful to others, such as trading in lethal weapons, selling intoxicating drinks, killing animals, cheating, gambling, etc.².

Right effort: It is not enough to know what is right to do. To act upon what is found by reasoning to be right is necessary. It is obligatory.

Right mindfulness: In the course of finding the right action, one should be watchful against the pitfalls of vanity, craving for fame and glory.

Right concentration (rapture): Glorying oneself with such demonstrations as walking on fire, stopping breathing, being buried alive, living for three hundred years, and so on (such claims are made even today by some yogis in India) are cheap tricks leading nowhere, useful to no one. Even meditation should have purpose and use.

There is nothing profound in this original teaching, nothing esoteric, nothing that cannot be understood by common men. But common sense among men has not been, and is not, so common. The historical Buddha, Siddhartha Goutama, was a genius. His teaching is beyond all dispute the achievement of one of the most penetrating intelligences the world has ever known ³. The early success of Buddha is due as much to his personality as to his teaching. The serenity and gentleness of his face, the beauty and dignity of his life, the earnestness and enthusiasm of his love, the wisdom and eloquence of his message won the hearts of men and women alike ⁴.

Starting with the five disciples, a Sangha, literally meaning a group with common interest, was formed. Listening to his subsequent sermons, more and more people joined the Sangha. His original five disciples and other missionaries went out in many directions, spreading his message and winning new converts. Mentioned among the well-known ascetics whom Buddha personally admitted to the order are Sariputta, Megallana, Upali, and Kasyapa ⁵. Many Brahmin scholar-teachers asked for and were accepted into the Sangha. Ananda, a cousin of Siddhartha, was the first relation to enter the order. He is mentioned as a devoted personal caretaker of the master till the end. Many kings invited Buddha, then often referred to as Sakyamuni (sage of the Sayka clan) to their capitals, offering retreat facility to him and his followers. Twelve years after he left home, he was invited to his father's palace. Buddha, the leader of thousands of followers, now a monk in yellow robes, visited the family as a guest, not to stay, but only to accept and welcome his mother, father, wife, and son as new converts to his order.

Traveling on foot from place to place, except in the rainy season, Buddha addressed many gatherings and delivered many sermons, always explaining, elaborating, and clearing away the doubts of his listeners. Quite often scholars and philosophers, the Brahmin teachers, asked questions not related to his theme: Is the world finite or infinite? Is the self distinct and separate or related to the world? Does the soul perish or survive the death of individuals? Is what we perceive only an appearance, or is it a dependable reality? In that age, rife with speculations, typified by topics discussed in the Upanishads, he had to keep his teaching pure and simple. He adapted what is referred to as noble silence to such questions. Buddhism, in its original form, attributable to Siddhartha Goutama, is essentially logic and ethics, not metaphysics. After his death, metaphysics crept into Buddhism. We