Developing Effective Instructional Systems

Dedication

To my wife, Lillian, whose loving concern and continuous encouragement to complete this book have caused me to spend many hours of research and writing that otherwise could have been spent with her.

To my son, Brenton, who made it difficult for me to write this book.

To my mother and father as a small down payment on a large debt.

To my eight brothers and sisters, who deserve special recognition.

Contents

Dedication

Preface

Introduction

Introduction

Chapter One Define Instructional Problem

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Chapter Two Determine Students' Characteristics

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Chapter Three Develop Learning Objectives

Categories of Objectives

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WORKSHEET (UNIT PLANNING)

Chapter Four Specify Subject Content

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Chapter Five Develop Learning Facilities

Independent Study

An Analysis of the Conditions of Learning

Grouping for Activities

Selecting Learning Activities

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Chapter Six Select Media

Rich Experiences

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Chapter Seven Identify Required Supportive Services

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Chapter Eight Evaluation

Cognitive Domain

Psychomotor Domain

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Chapter Nine Analyze Feedback

FIGURE 4: THE PROCESS OF DECISION MAKING

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Appendix A Taxonomy of Media-Stimulus Characteristics

Appendix B Some Instructional Modes

Appendix C

Appendix D Balancing the Behaviour Taxonomies

Appendix E

Appendix F

Appendix G

References

About The Author

Preface

This book is written to assist prospective and practicing teachers in becoming more aware of the broad range and the interrelatedness of the components of instructional systems. It is designed to be used also as a supplementary text for most decourses in education (for example: testing and evaluation, educational methods, educational administration, educational psychology, and psychology of learning). Instructional signers, curriculum and subject matter planners learning theorists, testing and evaluation specialists, administrators, media specialists, members of the school board, parents, and researchers should find this book to be of value.

This book represents an effort to assist teachers in:

Selecting instructional systems.

Determining the appropriateness of the selected systems.

Determining the practicability of the appropriate systems.

Evaluating the practical systems.

Making decisions about the effectiveness of the utilization of instructional systems.

I am indebted to the following schools, colleges, and universities for permitting me to practice developing instructional systems over a span of thirteen years: Beach Junior High School, Savannah, Georgia; Belize Technical College and St. John's College, Belize City, Belize, Central America; Ball State University, Muncie, Indiana; The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio; Central State University and Wilberforce University, Wilberforce, Ohio.

My appreciation is expressed to Ball State University Teacher's College Alumni Association, whose small grant served as a catalyst in producing this book; my colleagues Ermin Frey and Bragge Kristensen for their guidance; Jeanette O'Neal, Joan Holley, and Coleen Cosby for their efforts to produce the typed materials; and to all my former students.

Rick Coger

2781 Brandenberg Ln. St Louis Mo.63129

Introduction

The days of poorly designed materials for teaching are numbered. It is no longer necessary to do without some form of specifications and quality control in education. If all instructional components are selected and designed on the basis of objectives, presentation form, subject content and student characteristics, if all media, methods, and instructional events are put together because they are the most appropriate for each objective and for each general and specific goal, and if the interrelated combination is thoroughly validated, an instructional system exists.

A system, as used in this writing, denotes the state or condition of a harmonious and orderly relationship. It is a group of interacting, interrelated, and/or interdependent elements forming a collective entity. An instructional system is broadly concerned with all elements of instruction. It is oriented toward the inputs, processes and outputs of the instructional process. There are ten necessary elements in a system. They are:

Function (Purpose)

Input (Resources)

Sequence (Process)

Output (Result)

Environment-Physical, Social, Emotional and Mental.

Human Agent- (System designer, system engineer, system manager, system analyst, executor, etc.)

Boundary (Inclusion in or exclusion from a line or area.)

Feedback (The observed functions of outputs.)

Signal (Communication, information)

Noise (Distraction)

An instructional system is a planned, validated selection of media, methods, equipment, facilities, teachers, students, and supportive services used in performing activities to achieve the objectives of instruction. The Commission on Instructional Technology defined an instructional system as a systematic way of designing, carrying out, and evaluating the total process of learning and teaching in terms of objectives in hopes of bringing about more effective instruction. Effectiveness is the measurement of the performance of students in relation to the system used. This measurement is the ratio of the number of objectives a student achieved to the time he took to achieve them.

The level of effectiveness of an instructional system is identified by:

What is taught?

How?

To Whom?

Through what means?

In what sort of environment?

With what effects?

The concepts of senses and learning are very important in instructional systems. Research indicated that we learn about 1 percent through taste, 1½ percent through the sense of touch, 32 percent through the sense of smell, 11 percent through hearing and 83 percent through visual experiences.

Retention of what is learned is also related to the experiences of the senses. Research indicates that we generally remember:

10 percent of what we read;

20 percent of what we hear;

30 percent of what we see;

50 percent of what we hear and see;

70 percent of what we say; and

90 percent of what we say as we do a thing.

The inferences one may make from this information will vary. So, should the instructional systems of a given teacher in one teaching situation be in contrast to another? Instructional systems, all parts that have specific relationships to each other and to the total systems, are the main means by which performance specifications and quality control will reach the classroom and the students.

In designing an instructional system, one should:

Analyze the problem;

Define the objective;

Select the teaching strategies;

Try out, evaluate, revise, and recycle the teaching strategies.

Keep in mind as you read this book that:

Each learner is unique;

Perception is the foundation of learning;

The learner must become involved;

Learning experiences must be suitable;

Teaching strategies must be appropriate;

Creativity is the goal of learning.

Manner of Teaching

Teaching is the promotion of the achievement of learners. It should be practiced in such a manner where the intellectual integrity and the capacity for independent judgment of learners are respected.

Some educators have defined teaching as being an Art: good teaching is caught and not taught. Some others defined teaching as being a Science: Good teaching is taught and not caught. This book emphasized the latter. However, some research has indicated that effective teaching is a combination of both. Good teaching is somewhere on the line of continuum between the two poles an art and a science.

Some activities that teachers perform are vital to their jobs but not to the act of teaching. Activities related to the act of teaching are divided into two categories: logical acts and strategic acts. Other activities are called institutional acts.