DENOMINATIONS: FROM GOD OR MAN? VOLUME TWO

© 2024 John F. Lugger. All rights reserved.

No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted by any means without the written permission of the author.

Published by AuthorHouse 08/14/2025

ISBN: 979-8-8230-2103-6 (sc)

ISBN: 979-8-8230-2104-3 (hc)

ISBN: 979-8-8230-2102-9 (e)

Library of Congress Control Number: 2022922880

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Unless otherwise noted, all Scripture quotations are from the New King James Version, Copyright 1982 by Thomas Nelson, Inc. Used by permission. All rights reserved.

Note: Per Thomas Nelson’s Preface, "Words or phrases in italics indicate expressions in the original language that require clarification by additional English words, as was done in the King James Version.

(Italicized words within all Scriptural quotations indicate words that were added by the translators for clarity purposes).

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FOREWORD

When I learned that my brother John was writing a five-volume set of books based on a religious theme, I was amazed and proud that he was transferring his considerable intellectual and organizational talents to a work that could be shared with many people.

We both started out in the Lutheran faith, but as he describes in his books, he made the transition to the Church of Christ, yet gives a fair review of all of the other major religions which I find both an ambitious and tremendous accomplishment in a five-volume set of books.

There is a wealth of reference to the Scriptures— to both the Old and New Testaments. People of all religious faiths should find these books thoughtful and provoking, often prompting one to review one’s own religious convictions as it did for me.

As communicated to me, the author’s intent is not to offend anyone or their faith; rather to read these books with an open mind and heart: studying the Scriptures one’s self to verify what is written there.

To this end, I found these books to be excellent, absorbing, and thought-provoking explorations of both difficult and wide-ranging topics.

The examinations and contrasts of the major religions in this particular format—-augmented with reference to Biblical books and topics— was most interesting and helpful; and surely may prompt the reader to re-examine their own religious ideations.

I believe this is a superior read, having much to offer those of any religious preference. Significant notations and documentations of the Scriptures further enhance the interest and value of these books.

Dear reader: Enjoy!

Jerry L. Lugger M.D. F.A.C.S. (Retired)

Lt Col U.S.A.F. MC (Retired)

CONTENTS

Introduction

Chapter 1   The Orthodox Churches

Introduction

Origin of the Orthodox Church

Organization of the Orthodox Church

Authority of the Orthodox Church

Primary Beliefs and Doctrine

Church Building and Services

Questions to Consider

Conclusion

Chapter 2   The Episcopal Church

Introduction

The English Reformation and Origin of the Anglican Church

Origin of the Episcopal Church in America

Organization of the Anglican (Episcopal) Church

Authority of the Episcopal Church

Primary Beliefs and Doctrines

Controversial Issues

Ecumenism

Worship Service

Questions to Consider

Conclusion

Chapter 3   The Lutheran Church

Introduction

Origin of the Lutheran Church

Organization of the Lutheran Church

Authority of the Lutheran Church

Primary Beliefs and Doctrines

Controversial Issues

Ecumenism

Worship Service

Questions to Consider

Conclusion

Summary

Appendix   The Translation of the Scriptures

Concluding Remarks

Bibliography

Endnotes

INTRODUCTION

As a continuation of the first volume concerning our study on Denominationalism, the original premise by which we began needs to be restated here in the form of two questions: (1) Who are the Lost? referencing Jesus’s words as recorded in Luke 19, verse 10, For the Son of Man came to seek and to save what was lost and (2) Does God approve of denominations? (Is one church or denomination as good as any other in one’s search to correctly serve and worship the God of heaven, or does Scripture describe a particular church that is acceptable to God, to the exclusion of others?). In attempting to answer these two questions in Volume 1, I examined Denominationalism as a chapter topic in and of itself, then proceeded to look at the church established by Christ as described in the New Testament, The Church of Christ, followed with an examination of the first denomination to break away from Christ’s church—the Roman Catholic Church.

Several assumptions were also stated in Volume 1 which need repeating here. First, it’s assumed the reader honestly seeks truth, wherever that truth may lead. Jesus stated, I am the way, the truth, and the life. (John 14:6), therefore His teachings are the truth we must follow, and none other. Second, it’s assumed the reader recognizes, or at least has an open mind as to, the fact that the Scriptures are the inspired Word of God and the sole standard for authority. Paul, speaking to Timothy, stated, "All Scripture is given by inspiration of God, and profitable for doctrine, for reproof, for correction, for instruction in righteousness, that the man of God may be complete, thoroughly equipped for every good work." (2 Timothy 3:16–17).

In addition to the above, Paul, speaking by inspiration, told the Colossians, "And whatever you do in word or deed, do all in the name of the Lord Jesus (Col. 3:17). By that example, whatever we do religiously, we must do in the name of, or by the authority of, Jesus. Also, concerning the worship assembly, Paul told Timothy, These things I write to you … that you may know how you ought to conduct yourself in the house of God, which is the church of the living God" (1 Tim. 3:14–15).

The importance of these passages cannot be overstated; as we’ve seen already with the Catholic Church and will continue to see moving forward with other denominations, much liberty has been taken with interjecting man’s ideas into what the Scriptures clearly instruct. If, in the reader’s mind the Scriptures and Jesus’s teachings are irrefutable, they will stand as the authority to judge all other doctrines; however, if they are under any suspicion, or if the reader feels they’ve been compromised in any way, it undermines their credibility for speaking truth.

To lend credibility, I included an appendix at the end of Volume 1 dealing with the inspiration of Scripture. This second volume also contains an appendix to help build confidence in the Scriptures, which is entitled Translation of the Scriptures, and which gives insight into this process from Old Testament to New. These appendixes go to great lengths to provide arguments and, yes, even proofs that the Scriptures are what they claim to be – every word to be true, factual, non-contradictory, and in accordance with God’s will. Should further evidence be desired, the reader is encouraged to consult the references given, particularly Apologetics Press (www.apologeticspress.org) ¹, as a source specializing in this subject.

The purpose of this volume, as with the first, is not to insult or otherwise discredit sincere believers of one denomination or another, but rather to appeal to Scripture for direction on this subject. God’s Word does indeed describe a church established by Christ, giving insight and examples on how we are to serve and worship our God. It speaks of a simple, unpretentious plan by which we may be saved from our sins; five distinctive acts that God has expressed in his Word, that He desires we incorporate into our worship to Him; and direction on how we are to conduct our daily lives to help us remain faithful until Jesus’ return.

The reader is encouraged to simply pick up the Bible and read it (just as the Bereans did in Acts 17, comparing and testing Paul’s words with the Scriptures) to verify all that is claimed within these volumes concerning the Scriptural arguments are factual. If one were to forget all denominational ties and influences and simply read the Bible, cover to cover, one would come away with a correct understanding of what God desires on this subject. The Scriptures are not difficult to understand, regardless of what some denominational teachers may indicate; God created us with the ability to comprehend His instructions through His Word, and certainly, translators over the years have aided in making the Bible accessible for all to read and understand. I touched on this earlier in Volume 1 with the Roman Catholic Church, where pastoral leaders not only lift themselves up spiritually with their doctrine of apostolic succession, creating a separation from the laity, or common people of the congregation but also instill this false notion that God’s Word is just too difficult for the laity to understand on their own, thus requiring special help and interpretation from those who have been educated on such things, creating even more separation and dependence upon the clergy.

In this volume, we’ll continue with an examination of three additional denominations. The first two, the Orthodox Church and the Anglican Church—or, as it is known in the United States, the Episcopal Church—hold doctrine very similar to that of the Roman Catholic Church, with some variations. Within the Orthodox study, we’ll look at the early ecumenical councils, which helped form and clarify doctrine in that era and continue to maintain authority and influence today. The final denomination of study in this volume, the Lutheran Church, represents the first protestant body to depart from Catholicism—as part of the Reformation movement. Breaking from much of the formality and doctrines of the parent church, Martin Luther, founder of this body, held wide appeal, as many denominations would soon follow; although with various doctrinal differences, these groups split from this body into multiple denominations.

The same format will be followed here as with the first volume, that being to include an introductory overview of each denomination’s prominence within the United States and around the world today, followed by a look at the origin, organization, recognized authority, and primary beliefs and doctrines of each group. In addition, a look at a typical worship service, giving the reader further insight into the public focus with each, will be examined. Comparison to Scripture and to Christ’s church as described in the New Testament (Chapter 2 of Volume 1), will be infused throughout these topics as the benchmark for truth. Final thoughts of each chapter will include questions the reader might consider asking those of that particular denomination they may find themselves in conversation with (or, if the reader is a member of the denomination under discussion, questions they may consider themselves), concerning these matters.

To help the reader reference the formation of these various denominations, two charts that were introduced in Volume 1 are repeated here. The first, entitled Apostasy of the Church—Tree of Denominations 1 shows the events leading up to the first denomination to separate from the Lord’s church as recorded in Scripture, the Roman Catholic Church, which in turn split in A.D. 1054 into similar yet independent denominations: the Western Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches. The second chart, entitled Apostasy of the Church—Tree of Denominations 2, reveals a number of denominational splits originating from the Roman Catholic branch that were formed as a result of the Protestant Reformation initiated in Europe and the English Reformation—both of which spread to the United States over time, where additional denominational division took place.

Apostasy of the Church—Tree of Denominations 1

(Events Leading to the Formation of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches)

Apostasy of the Church—Tree of Denominations 2

CHAPTER 1

THE ORTHODOX CHURCHES

Introduction

The Orthodox Church—predominately the Eastern Orthodox churches, including Greek Orthodox, Russian Orthodox, Syrian Orthodox, Serbian Orthodox, and Romanian Orthodox—claims to be the second-largest Christian community in the world after the Roman Catholic Church, and though they claim separation from Roman Catholicism, the Orthodox Church holds many of the same beliefs and practices.

Numerical estimates range from 150 million to 350 million adherents worldwide. Eastern Orthodox is the largest single religious faith in Belarus (89 percent), Bulgaria (86 percent), the Republic of Cyprus (88 percent), Greece (98 percent), the Republic of Macedonia (70 percent), Moldova (98 percent), Montenegro (84 percent), Romania (89 percent), Serbia (88 percent), and Ukraine (83 percent). In addition, there are significant Orthodox communities in Africa, Asia, Australia, and North and South America. The percentage of Orthodox adherents among the worldwide population is approximately 14 percent, and in the United States population, it’s roughly 2.5 percent. ¹.

This chapter contains quotations from official online resources of the Orthodox Church (including Greek Orthodox Archdiocese of America [www.goarch.org], Orthodox Church in America [https://oca.org], and Orthodox Christian Information Center [http://orthodoxinfo.com].

Origin of the Orthodox Church

The Eastern (Orthodox) and Western (Roman Catholic) churches, for all intents and purposes, were one and the same throughout the first few centuries following the time of Christ and the apostles. The Orthodox Church thus joined Catholicism in a slow departure from the divine example.

Hints of a separate denomination (from Catholicism) came as early as A.D. 325 when the Roman emperor Constantine the Great convened the First Ecumenical Council in Nicea, the first of seven such councils convening between the years 325 and 787. These councils, by proclaiming and clarifying doctrine via consensus, marked a departure from the Western (Catholic) practice of papal dictates alone, though prior to the East–West Schism in 1054, the bishop of Rome (the pope) did attend and had influence as First among Equals ². at these early councils. Differences between Western (Catholic) and Eastern (Orthodox) beliefs emerged, however, as a result of this consensus-versus-individual protocol. The councils were convened by ruling emperors or by patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Constantinople and were attended by anywhere from 150 to 500 bishops. The proclamations of these councils are held to be on par with Scripture itself concerning their authority and early influence on the formulation of Orthodox theology and doctrine.

In addition to these seven councils, a number of other significant councils (though not recognized as ecumenical) occurred between 1484 and 1672 to further define Orthodox doctrine. In A.D. 330, Emperor Constantine renamed the city of Byzantium as Constantinople, which became the city of the leading patriarch in the Great Schism of 1054. Today, this city is known as Istanbul, Turkey.

Below is our timeline, once again highlighting this major split between the two Catholic churches in 1054. One could make a case for the origin of the Orthodox Church as either the move to rename Byzantium in 330 or this later recognized split in 1054. Certainly, the definitions of separation began in 330, shortly following the First Ecumenical Council meeting, which ultimately culminated in 1054.

Founding of the Orthodox Churches

Split from Catholicism, AD 1054

The Orthodox Church claims to have descended from Christ’s original church and has upheld the teachings of Christ and His apostles, maintaining a continuity of faith ³. through apostolic succession to the current day. Reverend [sic] ⁴. Thomas Fitzgerald, in his Teachings of the Orthodox Church, for instance, confirms this continuity with the apostolic community and notes, Orthodoxy believes that she has preserved and taught the historic Christian Faith, free from error and distortion, from the time of the Apostles. She also believes that there is nothing in the body of her teachings, which is contrary to truth. ³. Another confirmation comes from the Orthodox Church in America website concerning The Original Christian Church, with these words: We Orthodox believe that we are the continuation of the ancient Orthodox Christian Church, that we trace our history back to Christ and the apostles, and that the Church was ‘formally’ established on the day of Pentecost. The Roman Catholic Church placed itself outside of the fellowship when it broke off communion with us in the 11th century. ⁵.

Adding to the gifts and authority of the apostles through apostolic succession, Vladimir Berzonsky, in his work, Thoughts in Christ, acknowledges another avenue of authority: Apostolic succession is a phrase describing those Christian communions that can claim to be descended from the earliest apostles… But for us it’s more than that – it’s the inheritance of sacred tradition that identifies the bearers and grateful heirs of spiritual gifts that flow in the Church through the centuries. ⁶.

This sacred tradition is identified as the teachings of the church fathers, particularly the ecumenical councils, whose doctrine was so revered and reverenced that those who did not believe these writings were declared anathema (cut off from the church and salvation).

George Bebis, Ph.D., in his article titled Tradition in the Orthodox Church; subhead, The Ecumenical Councils, made this statement These Ecumenical Councils became instruments for formulating the dogmatic teachings of the Church … In the Fourth Ecumenical Council of Chalcedon, it was stated that: ‘The Fathers defined everything perfectly; he who goes against this is anathema; no one adds, no one takes away.’ Later in this same article, under The Living Tradition of the Eucharist, Dr. Bebis stated, By adhering to the teaching of the Scriptures, the Ecumenical Councils, and the Patristic writings, by observing the canons of the Church, by frequently participating in the Eucharist, where Tradition becomes an empirical reality, we are members of the Body of Christ and are led to the ‘contemplation of God.’" ⁷.

As previously noted in Volume One, this idea of apostolic succession is not supported by the Scriptures; nor can the pronouncements of ecumenical councils or patristic tradition be added as authoritative revelation to the Scriptures. Passages such as 2 Timothy 3:15–17, Jude 3, and Acts 20:27 simply will not allow this.

The same Scriptures referenced with the Roman Catholic Church (as a prophecy given in the New Testament, warning of a coming departure from the Lord’s true church) also apply here, as the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches were one and the same at this point. This includes Paul’s exhortation to the Ephesian elders in Acts 20:29–30, where he warns them that after he leaves, savage wolves will come in among them, and that these would be men who would rise up from among their own brethren, speaking perverse things in order to draw away the disciples after themselves.

Paul also warns Timothy of some of the doctrines that would be espoused by those advocating this departure, first in 1 Timothy 4:1–4: "In later times some will depart from the faith, giving heed to deceitful spirits and doctrines of demons … forbidding to marry, and commanding to abstain from foods which God created. Later, Paul warned Timothy again, this time in his exhortation to encourage him to persevere in his preaching: Convince, rebuke, exhort, with all longsuffering and teaching. Why? For the time will come when they will not endure sound doctrine, but according to their own desires, because they have itching ears, they will heap up for themselves teachers; and they will turn their ears away from the truth, and be turned aside to fables" (2 Timothy 4:2–4).

The Thessalonians were told of the reality of this departure as well, and the man of sin will be exalted to a position displaying himself as being God: "Let no one deceive you by any means, for that Day will not come (the coming of our Lord Jesus Christ) ⁸ unless the falling away comes first, and the man of sin is revealed, the son of perdition, who opposes and exalts himself above all that is called God or that is worshipped, so that he sits as God in the temple of God, showing himself that he is God" (2 Thessalonians 2:3–4).

Various postulations have been put forth as to the identity of this man of sin, including Satan, Judaism, a Roman ruler, or possibly the Antichrist, but nothing fits all details of this prophecy more precisely than the religious departure from New Testament teaching, as found in Catholicism, including its associated branches of Greek Orthodoxy and Anglicanism (Jackson 2012, 441–443). ⁹.

Although the man of sin spoken of in 2 Thessalonians is singular in this prophecy, as is other verbiage used in this passage, such as "son of perdition … exalts himself … he sits as God," ¹⁰ and it lends itself to the idea of the pope of Catholicism, as Jackson points out, this prophetic phrase man of sin indicates a broader meaning, including the associated denominations of Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, and Anglicanism (the American Episcopal Church), to name a few. The Orthodox Church is organized under patriarchs, who govern much the same as popes, except they have control over geographical areas, rather than a single pope governing the entire denomination. Similarly, the Anglican Church is set up with archbishops, acting as patriarchs, governing large provinces. All three of these denominations are similar in their theology; as mentioned, the Orthodox and Catholic Communions were one and the same until the split of 1054, and the Anglican Church split from Catholicism via King Henry VIII of England in 1534. The common factor with these three churches to this man of sin, identified as a man or men or theology, most closely resembling the religious departure from New Testament teaching, as described in 2 Thessalonians, at least in this author’s view, seems to be apostolic succession.

Apostolic succession and its enactment by the clergy of this denomination (and others) have created a human-made elevation for certain clergy, giving them gifts supposedly carried forward from the apostles (even exceeding the attributes of the apostles, in some respects), to be employed in these denominations today. The gifts include the ability to receive confession and forgive sin, to heal the sick, to intercede in prayer, and to stand before the congregation through the Spirit in place of Christ.

As previously mentioned in Volume I, one of the church fathers, Ignatius of Antioch, said: Take care to do all things in harmony with God, with the bishop presiding in the place of God, and with the presbyters in the place of the council of the apostles, and with the deacons … entrusted with the business of Jesus Christ … It is necessary that you do nothing without the bishop, and that you be subject to the presbytery, as to the apostles of Jesus Christ. ¹¹.

The OCA confirms this idea in their official doctrine of Holy Orders: Christ is present now, always, and forever in his Church. The sacramental ministry of the Church – the bishops, priests, and deacons – receive the gift of the Holy Spirit to manifest Christ to men … As the apostles received the special gift of God to go forth and make Christ present to men … so the clergy of the Church receive the gift of God’s Spirit to maintain and manifest Christ’s presence and action in the churches. ¹².

It’s not only the upper echelon of clergy who take on this role as Christ in the Spirit to men; any bishop or priest who asserts his apostolic prerogative may do so. This seems to fit into what Paul was warning of in 2 Thessalonians 2:4—a departure in which one opposes and exalts himself above all that is called God or that is worshipped, so that he sits as God in the temple of God, showing himself that he is God. In some instances, the highest of clergy (pope, patriarch, or archbishop) will accept worship, something even the apostles never dared to do. This is not what Jesus had in mind or what He set up as His church (an almost complete separation between clergy and laity). The Lord’s church is to be led by elders or overseers, with deacons as servant leaders, and each body is to be autonomous. These three denominations are governed by popes, patriarchs, and archbishops who reside far from their individual congregations and who exert authority well beyond what Scripture allows.

Organization of the Orthodox Church

The government of the Orthodox Church has a hierarchy similar to the Roman Catholic Church, except for a variation in the top position. According to Father [sic] ¹³ Vladimir Berzonsky, in his article Thoughts in Christ—One Shepherd, Many Flocks, published December 26, 2004, on the Orthodox Church in America (OCA) website:

The original transmitters of the life and resurrection of Christ were the apostles. They established parishes wherever they went, ordaining by laying on of hands bishops, presbyters or priests, and deacons. The continuity of the Church was marked by apostolic succession; but that also is seen in two ways. One is that a single bishop is understood to be the successor of the apostles, while another tradition is that Christ is the only head of the Church, and His authority is received and promulgated by the assembly of bishops open to the work of the Holy Spirit within the gathered body. ¹⁴.

The Greek Patriarch - Israel

The single bishop idea undoubtedly refers to the Catholic pope, while the second, claiming an assembly of bishops to be preeminent in the church, is the position taken by the Orthodox Church. Additional support for this is evident in the OCA online Q&A document On this Rock I will build my church. ¹⁵.

Although claiming no single pope, the Orthodox Church recognizes the patriarch of Constantinople as the First among Equals ². (An honor bestowed on him from the Great Schism forward), reflecting both this individual’s administrative leadership and his spiritual elevation among the churches. Unlike the Catholic pope, however, this person does not proclaim doctrine; nor does he claim to be infallible. Whereas the pope asserts himself as the vicar (substitute) of Christ on earth, this person and many of the archbishops and others who exert apostolic privileges present themselves as being Christ in the Spirit—not exactly the same, but if asked to give a difference between the two, one would be hard-pressed for an answer.

The Orthodox Church is set up territorially, with a hierarchy of governors or clergy to rule each territory. In descending order, from the First among Equals, there are patriarchs, archbishops or metropolitans, bishops, priests or presbyters, and deacons.

o A patriarch is head over a large geographical area or country, including all dioceses contained therein.

o An archbishop, or metropolitan, is the leading bishop of the chief city or capital of a region, which usually contains other bishops, each with his own particular diocese.

o Bishops are responsible for a number of churches within a region; all bishops are said to be equal in authority and cannot interfere with each other’s territory. The territory governed by a bishop is called a see or a diocese.

o In a similar fashion to the Catholics, along with the regular ranks of Orthodox clergy, there are parish priests or presbyters who govern the individual congregations (comprising the laity); deacons, who usually assist the priests in liturgical services; subdeacons; and a host of monastic orders.

The development of this hierarchy is explained in several sections of the document The History of the Orthodox Church: Early Administrative Structure, Heresies and Ecumenical Councils, and The Pentarchy. The document begins with a statement from the Early Administrative Structure that once the apostles founded a community, they would depart, leaving behind others to administer the new congregation, mainly to function as presiders over the Eucharist, or Lord’s Supper, and to baptize. Within this structure, a hierarchy developed to include a presiding officer for the community called the "episcopos, or bishop, who was assisted by priests and deacons. This was based upon the Last Supper (the first liturgy), which could not have taken place without the Lord’s presiding presence … the existence of a presiding head was taken for granted by the Church. This establishment of a local ‘monarchical’ episcopate is still at the very center of Orthodox ecclesiology." ¹⁶.

Under Heresies and Ecumenical Councils we learn by the fourth century, a provincial system had developed, grouping churches by province and following the Roman government structure. Greater honor was afforded larger cities, whereby the metropolitan, or bishop, of a capital city was given special precedence. At first the presiding bishop of the three largest cities in the empire—Rome, Alexandria, and Antioch—was ranked as the most important by common consensus (without any ecclesiastical legislation to support it). This problem was rectified in 325 when the bishops of the First Ecumenical Council sanctioned these dioceses. Constantinople soon emerged as the new capital of the empire, and by the fifth century, the pentarchy, or system of five sees, with an understood order of precedence, was established. Finally, under The Pentarchy is stated, This system of patriarchs and metropolitans was exclusively the result of ecclesiastical legislation; there was nothing inherently divine in its origin. None of the five sees, in short, possessed its authority by divine right. … The determining factor was simply their secular status as the most important cities in the empire … each of the five patriarchs was totally sovereign within his sphere of jurisdiction … the bishop of Rome was simply vested with the presidency, as the senior bishop, the first among equals. ¹⁶.

Christ, as the affirmed head of the church, is said to be personified within the Orthodox clergy and those clergy alone (as distinguished from other members or laity of the church). This is the premise upon which the above statements are based, where an episcopos, or bishop, elevated above a priest or elder (as the Orthodox view the Scriptures), was established and given authority to preside first over a community of congregations in a given area, and later over larger cities and provinces. Below are a few more quotes confirming the Orthodox ideology that their clergy do indeed have divine sanction and responsibility to lead their respective congregations as Christ personified:

All members of the Church are called to lead a life worthy of God (1 Thess. 2:12), but in a complementary way, the Church is distinguished between clergy, laity, and monastics. The clergy trace their descent by uninterrupted succession from the apostles and through them from our Lord Jesus Christ. (An Outline of the Orthodox Faith, 8/25/90). ¹⁷.

As the apostles received the special gift of God to go forth and make Christ present to men … so the clergy of the Church receive the gift of God’s Spirit to maintain and to manifest Christ’s presence and action in the churches. It is the doctrine of the Church that the clergy must strive to fulfill the grace given to them with the gift of the laying on of hands in the most perfect way possible. (OCA Vol. II – Worship; The Sacraments; Holy Orders). ¹².

Bishop Irinej, bishop of Eastern America Diocese

The Orthodox Church claims that its clergy have received special gifts, including God’s Holy Spirit, through apostolic succession by the laying on of hands. These gifts allow them to impart the presence of Christ in all aspects of their ministries to the laity. The clergy includes the bishop (episkopos in Greek), the leading Church ministry, overseeing particular churches or dioceses as well as the Universal Church to their constituents. A bishop of the chief city of a region which has within it other bishops with their own particular dioceses is usually called the metropolitan or archbishop. Metropolitan merely means bishop of the metropolis, the main city. The title of archbishop means leading bishop of an area. The title of patriarch belongs to the bishop of the capital city of a region containing other metropolitanates and dioceses. Today this usually means a national church. ¹².

Next in line is the priest, also called the presbyter, who is called to assist the bishop in his work. Priests act as pastors of the local churches or parishes, presiding at the celebration of the Eucharist, exercising the ministries of forgiveness and healing, along with teaching, preaching, and counseling. The priests in the Church are assigned by the bishop and belong to the specific congregations which they serve. Apart from his bishop and his own particular parish community, the priest has no powers and, indeed, no services to perform. Thus, on the altar table of each Christian community headed by the priest as pastor, there is the cloth called the antimension signed by the bishop which is the permission to the community to gather and to act as the Church of God. Without the antimension, the priest and his people cannot function legitimately, and the actions of the assembly cannot be considered as being authentically of the Church." ¹².

Finally, the third of the Orthodox clergy rankings, the deacon, who in times past functioned only to serve the bishops and priests in the service of divine liturgy or eucharist, the diaconate … may now not only assist the priest and bishop in liturgical services, but will often head educational programs and youth groups, do hospital visitation and missionary work and conduct projects of social welfare.¹².

The bishops, priests, and deacons of the Church have no other function or service than to manifest the presence and action of Christ to his people. (OCA Vol. II – Worship; The Sacraments; Holy Orders). ¹².

The only organization to be found in Christ’s church is in the local churches, where Scripture sanctions oversight by a plurality of elders within each local congregation. Each congregation is seen as autonomous, independent from, and nonaccountable to any other church body, group, or individual, except for Christ and His teachings:

And when they had preached the gospel to that city and made many disciples, they returned to Lystra, Iconium, and Antioch, strengthening the souls of the disciples, exhorting them to continue in the faith, and saying, We must through many tribulations enter the kingdom of God. So when they had appointed elders in every church, and prayed with fasting, they commended them to the Lord in whom they had believed. (Acts 14:21–23)

For this reason I left you in Crete, that you should set in order the things that are lacking, and appoint elders in every city as I commanded you. (Titus 1:5)

Neither the establishment nor the development of the Lord’s church, as described in Scripture, matches what the Orthodox Church has done. In the first place, the apostles never established parishes wherever they went, ordaining by laying on of hands bishops, presbyters or priests, and deacons. The Scriptures indicate the apostles appointed elders in every church, in every city; they did not lay hands on them to pass on divine gifts. That’s simply not what the Scriptures say. There were times—for instance, in Ephesians 4:11—when our Lord gave, from His ascended residence in heaven, special gifts, including to elders, for the equipping of the saints for a period of time, till proper unity of the faith was reached; and the apostles did pass along the Holy Spirit on occasion—for instance, in Acts 8:14–17, where the brethren in Samaria needed a special portion of the Spirit, and Peter and John laid hands on them to supply them with this gift. That’s not, however, what we’re talking about here. Regardless, passages such as 1 Corinthians 13:8 simply preclude these gifts from being carried forward from the apostles to now; this passage says, They will fail … cease … vanish away.

In addition, the word for elder, "presbyteros, is connected to the same individual in Titus 1:5–7 as bishop or episcopos which also means overseer. And elder, overseer, and shepherd (or poimen), also meaning pastor," are tied together in both Acts 20:17, 28 and 1 Peter 5:1–2. The Orthodox have added a third position here (similar to the Catholic Church): an overseeing bishop, or episcopos, and under him, what they perceive as an elder or priest—and under him, a deacon. These are all specialized clergy, supposedly ordained by other bishops and clergy—all without Scriptural mandate.

This episcopos is supposedly justified, as Jesus presided at the Last Supper (what they consider the first liturgy) as presiding head, giving license to a single monarchical episcopate being established. Tying this to their theology of apostolic succession, whereby their clergy maintain a direct link back to the divine gifts of the apostles and, in turn, the presence of Jesus Himself, this position thus was established. Not only was it established for one congregation; it was established for a community, which could involve multiple congregations. The Scriptures tell us elders are to be appointed. With the initial congregations of the Lord’s church, the apostles did this, but subsequent to this, up to and including today, elders are appointed by the Christians within each congregation, according to a list of qualifications outlined in Scripture (1 Timothy 3:1–7; Titus 1:5–9). Also, deacons are to be appointed within each congregation; again, qualified men are submitted from among the Christians within each congregation of the Lord’s church to meet a list of qualifications (1 Timothy 3:8–13) and appointed accordingly.

This whole idea that individuals within the clergy can receive divine gifts through apostolic succession by the laying on of hands simply cannot be supported by Scripture. The miracles we see in the first century were done predominately to confirm Jesus as the Christ, the true Son of God. The several examples we see in Scripture, including Luke 4:40, where Jesus heals the sick by the laying on of hands; Acts 8:17, where the Holy Spirit is bestowed by the apostles; and 1 Timothy 4:14, where Timothy receives special gifts to help in his ministry, also by the laying on of hands, are all examples of things done to confirm Jesus and the validity of His church to an unbelieving world at that time.

As stated previously, these miracles ceased (along with the miracle of divine gift-giving via laying on of hands) toward the end of the first century, as the church was established and confirmation of Jesus by this method was no longer necessary. Any argument that Peter (as the first supposed pope, envisioned by the Catholic Church) or an assembly of bishops (as envisioned by the Orthodox Church) initiated this supposed divine succession cannot be supported.

The development of the Orthodox Church from the first century onward is also foreign to New Testament mandate. Upon altering the Scriptural pattern of individual congregations to be under the leadership of appointed elders assisted by appointed deacons into one of a senior bishop presiding over multiple congregations and ordaining other priests or elders and deacons, these congregations evolved into a hierarchy, creating separation and dependency between clergy and laity within each congregation. As well, the clergy, particularly the bishops, were ranked according to secular conditions, including city size. According to the document The History of the Orthodox Church, the church was aware that such ranking of one bishop versus another was done by common consensus and without any ecclesiastical legislation to support it. The problem was solved by the fathers or bishops of the ecumenical councils, who later sanctioned this ranking.

Because the Roman Catholic and Orthodox Churches were essentially one and the same through the first millennium, this development applies to both: a bishop or group of bishops first established control over a small group of congregations (community), then a larger geographical area (city or province); finally, a universal bishop was considered First among Equals, or pope in Rome. All of this falls outside of what we see in Scripture. This hierarchy, being ultimately sanctioned by the First Ecumenical Council of 325, is also a non-Scriptural event; these councils do not have Divine authority.

Scripture attests that Christ is the head of His church (not a First among Equals, not a pope, not a patriarch of a country, not a bishop or archbishop of a portion of that country). Jesus stated, I also say to you that you are Peter, and on this rock [Peter’s confession that Jesus was indeed the Christ, the Son of the living God] I will build My church … (Matthew 16:18). Paul affirms in Ephesians 1:22: "And He put all things under His feet, and gave Him to be head over all things to the church."

In addition, individual Christians are not without knowledge and thus totally dependent upon Orthodox clergy, who profess to be their exclusive pathway to Christ. In fact, the Scriptures teach that as one repents, confesses, and is baptized into Jesus, one receives the gift of the Holy Spirit: Then Peter said to them, Repent, and let every one of you be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ for the remission of sins; and you shall receive the gift of the Holy Spirit" (Acts 2:38).

Also, Paul, speaking to the Christians in Rome, explains that not only the Spirit but Christ is in them, which discounts this idea altogether: "But you are not in the flesh but in the Spirit, if indeed the Spirit of God dwells in you … And if Christ is in you, the body is dead because of sin, but the Spirit is life because of righteousness" (Romans 8:9–10).

One last point before we leave this section – the assumed power of the bishop to sanction a church assembly to meet or not meet based on his blessing. As mentioned above, each local congregation must have either a bishop present or a cloth called the antimension, draped over the altar of that church, signed by the priest – otherwise, the church does not have permission to