Educational Research Methods

Copyright © 2024 Madiane Reuben Masemola

Publiashed by Madiane Reuben Masemola at Smashwords

First edition 2024

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Madiane Reuben Masemola

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Preface

This book is intended for novice researchers, undergraduates and professionals in their pursuance of better researching. Chapter One explains concepts such as characteristics of research, science, scientific and non-scientific knowledge , philosophical assumptions of science and approaches to social sciences. Furthermore, this chapter explicates research methodology and the origins of research topics. Chapter Two deals with the interpretation of theory and forms of theory. Both the conceptual and theoretical framework are explained in this chapter. Variables are interpreted in their various forms.

In Chapter Three, detailed guidance regarding the interpretation of the problem statement is given. The origin of problem statement is interpreted, including the identification and selection of the problem. Factors that determine the selection of a research topic, such as experience and observation, are also explained.

Chapter Four deals with the hypothesis , which differs from the problem statement. A problem statement deals with qualitative research while a hypothesis is explained much better when you deal with quantitative research. The literature review is explained in Chapter Five. The types and of sources of literature , including both quantitative and qualitative literature, are explained in this chapter.

Qualitative research design is dealt with in Chapter Six, while in Chapter Seven, various types of qualitative techniques are explained. These techniques include action research, intervention and narrative research. The ethical conduct expected of researchers, investigators and participants is explained in Chapter Eight. The historical background of ethical research and its principles are explicated in this chapter. Quantitative research design is dealt with in Chapter Nine, with mixed methods research, its evolution and characteristics explained in Chapter Ten. Sampling and its components are explained in Chapter Eleven. In Chapter Twelve, quality assurance is explained in detail.

The concepts of reliability and validity are outlined in Chapter Thirteen, while data-collection methods such as observation are explained in Chapter Fourteen. Chapter Fifteen explains measurement scales. Chapter Sixteen is about qualitative data analysis and interpretation. This chapter explains amongst other things – criteria for qualitative assurance, criteria for trustworthiness and strategies for increasing credibility .

In Chapter Seventeen, quantitative data analysis is explained. It includes, amongst other things, statistical significance, methods and processes of analysis, scaling techniques and measurement indicators. Students will learn much on how to write a research proposal as explained in Chapter Eighteen and the research report is explained in detail in Chapter Nineteen.

Acknowledgements

To my late mother and father, Mallane Rebone Masemola and Ditedi Johannes Masemola, respectively.

I also thank Professor Lesiba Matsaung, a management and administration professor at the University of Limpopo – Turfloop in Limpopo Province, Republic of South Africa. He assisted me as a supervisor when I was doing my PhD degree.

About the Author

Madiane Reuben Masemola, PhD, is a retired principal who taught at different schools for thirty-six years. He worked in the Province of Limpopo, Sekhukhune District, in the Republic of South Africa throughout his career. He obtained his Master’s and Doctoral degrees in Educational Management and Administration from the University of Limpopo.

Chapter One

Scientific Research

Introduction

Social sciences research is a science that follows rational interpretation. Rational refers to the logical interpretation of events and situations in sequence. A sequential arrangement of facts that is based on data that has been scientifically proven to be the truth is rational. Mouton and Marais (1990:30) are of the view that the implementation of logical rules, that is, deductive and inductive inferences, is an essential criterion for ensuring the incorrigibility of scientific statements . Science is rational if it complies with the rules of logic . The scientific methods, approaches and strategies are instruments that, if well carried out, will unearth the reality of scientific research.

Science

According to Bhattacherjee (2012:01), the concept science refers to a systematic and organised body of knowledge in any area of enquiry that is acquired using the scientific method. The term science is derived from the Latin word scientia, which means knowledge . According to De Vos et al. (2011:03), science is an intellectual and practical activity that encompasses the scientific study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiment . Science indeed should predict natural phenomena that employ systematic observation and logical inferences.

Science is a way of examining, explaining, reflecting and predicting natural phenomena using systematic observation, experiment and logical inference. These methods are used to formulate and test hypotheses with the aim of establishing and confirming knowledge and the laws of nature (De Vos et al., 2011:03). Science is about formulating the procedures, the techniques, the alternatives and the instruments that can discover and obtain knowledge .

A scientific study is logical and systematic. Scientific methods are used to gather data that is relevant to the solution of a certain societal problem. Empirical evidence is the cornerstone of scientific research. By obtaining empirical evidence , one can conclude that, indeed, a particular problem exists and can be treated or solved in a particular way. Science can be categorised into two main groups: natural sciences and social sciences. The natural sciences include things such as light, thunder, earthquakes, objects, matter and organisms, to name a few. Social science, on the other hand, includes matters pertaining to human beings, such as organisations, cultures, human behaviour and economies of the world. Disciplines such as Psychology, Anthropology, Sociology and Education are the disciplines that explain social science.

Social Sciences

De Vos et al. (2011:04) show that social sciences is about the study of humans’ behaviour, their attitude , their way of life and their cultural activities. Mouton & Marais (1990:07) are of the view that social sciences research is a collaborative human activity in which social reality is studied objectively with the aim of gaining a valid understanding of it. Welman et al. (2005:171) are of the view that social behaviour , which social scientists study, is studied through methods such as observation to develop ideas and theories . Social scientists use inductive approaches with the aim of explaining social behaviour and social reality. Unlike the natural sciences, social sciences use ontological assumptions and interpretive stances that are anti-positivism can be followed (Maree, 2007:32) in unearthing the truth about human behaviour. Ontological assumptions are discussed under six philosophical assumptions of science below. This means that a qualitative approach is followed in social sciences than a quantitative approach that seeks objective outcomes of experiments. In social sciences, models are first constructed from the findings of empirical research and from the answers to the questions posed by the model (De Vos et al., 2011:40) and afterwards theories emerge in a fluid form. A model is according to Bailey (1987:317), a representation of a system, a replica or copy that specifies variables and their relationships. Social science research is about academic research in disciplines such as sociology, social policy and Criminology and seeks to draw the researcher’s attention to both theoretical and conceptual framework aspirations (Bryman, 2016:03). A research study is conducted by eminent companies and individual researchers after they have recognised a particular gap in society or an inconsistency or discrepancy that exists and needs to be fixed. The 21 July 2022 unrest in KwaZulu-Natal and parts of the Gauteng province in South Africa is an example of activities that require researchers and distinguished bodies to research and reveal the cause(s) of that unrest. Action research may be used in that regard because those activities occurred sporadically like wild fires.

Natural sciences

De Vos et al. (2011:40) explain that …in the natural sciences, theories are first developed, and models are then extracted from those theories in order to test certain aspects of the theory or generate new questions or hypotheses from the theory. The natural sciences embrace research methods such as closed questions, experiments and tests. In the natural sciences, the deductive method reigns supreme and the product of research is objective . Quantitative research is practised in the natural sciences, with statistical interpretation and analysis of data followed.

Properties of Scientific Research

Bless et al. (2013:08) list the properties of scientific research as follows:

■ Scientific research has to be empirical. Research is geared towards the unravelling of facts that are convincing, that have been tested, and that are reliable and valid.

■ Scientific research is logical. The logic of science means that the systems interact and predictions can be made on the basis that clear observations are made. In every research project, the investigator prepares the methods that will unequivocally collect the data that is relevant for the project and subsequently reveal the significance of the data that has been collected.

■ Scientific research is replicable. Since research is not an end in itself, any scientist wishing to pursue the findings that have been unravelled will reveal exactly the same information as that which has been revealed before.

■ Scientific research information undergoes reduction . After the researcher has gathered a mammoth amount of data in the search for the truth, some of the data collected may not to be important for the goal that was set for the research. All the data viewed as superfluous and as having the potential to derail the smooth running of the research is removed or omitted.

Bless et al. (2013:05-06) outline the following properties or characteristics of research:

■ Scientific research accommodates both natural and social laws . In science, an investigation is made into a particular phenomenon. After the notions of the phenomenon have been revealed, the researcher then explains and describes those facets that have been uncovered. The effects of the phenomenon on a particular situation are then determined and the researcher looks at their impact, influence, effectiveness and contributions in a particular climate. In this case, the investigator tries to determine the extent to which the facets that are unravelled are indeed causing an event to happen, how long their impact can be felt and whether they are the only facets contributing to the change. If the facets indeed cause a particular event, then a prediction can be made. The social situations interact with the natural laws in that the social laws are based on and formulated from the observations of natural phenomena.

■ Human beings build up social laws . Biological laws are natural laws that relate to the natural contexts in which human beings find themselves. For instance, on the basis of natural phenomena, such as winter, summer, the extent of heat, vegetation and animals, human beings can design ways of increasing the productivity of crops and other commodities through genetic engineering to produce genetically modified foods. The physical sciences that are applied to perform experiments on the feasibility of food production are created by humans but are based on natural vegetation and animals and the procedures follow natural phenomena.

■ Natural phenomena can only be explained by natural causes. Myths cannot be used to interpret natural causes of events. For example, it is believed that human beings have the ability to cause lightning strikes. Scientifically, lighting is caused by natural phenomena. So, belief systems depend on the cultures and traditions of people while natural phenomena are universal and depend on natural laws.

Characteristics of Educational Research

Educational research is characterised by a variety of methods that seek to unravel evidence in the quest to find the truth about a particular phenomenon . Educational research methods are methods that are used to collect and analyse data to determine the credibility and authenticity of facts so that they can be transferable to other situations. Research may be conducted quantitatively or qualitatively or both but should be logical and rational . Scientific procedures should not be compromised in the investigation of a problem. The following are characteristics of educational research, according to McMillan and Schumacher (2014:16-17):

■ Objectivity . Objectivity in research may refer to research that is unbiased or not subjective . Regarding research methods, objectivity refers to the collection and analysis of data from which a single interpretation can be made. An objective procedure is followed in the quantitative approach of establishing cause and effect. The results of an experiment do not have a double meaning but only a single interpretation. This is why a single interpretation of the results is arrived at. Instruments that are used in experiments should be reliable so as to produce the required results.

■ Precision . Precision means exactness and accuracy. A research hypothesis shows the variables that are related, the dependent and independent variables . The constant relationship between variables shows that the variables are both valid and reliable. It is through the effect that we can see the impact of the cause. A dependent variable is the effect, and the cause is an independent variable. The impact of the causative factor on another variable should be precise and should not produce a different result if the study is reproduced under similar circumstances.

■ Verification . The results of an experiment should be verified. Verification of the experiment in quantitative research tests its validity and reliability. Verification is important to show whether indeed the procedures and methods used were relevant and did not test any other phenomenon apart from the one that was intended to be tested. In qualitative research, verification is about finding out the authenticity and credibility of the research procedures. If the procedures were credible and authentic, then the information may be transferable and replicable.

■ Parsimonious explanation . The purpose of research is to come up with a single output of the interpretation of a particular phenomenon or research problem . The testing of a hypothesis must be conducted in a manner that will bring the desired and relevant results. A single interpretation of the results creates objectivity and trustworthiness. The aim of research is to reduce complex realities and pursue a parsimonious outcome. A frugal research outcome brings with it trustworthiness.

■ Empiricism . Empirical evidence in research goes along the lines of logic and rational thinking. The methods of research used to investigate a particular phenomenon should be in line with the hypothesis or statement of the problem. The variables that form the hypothesis should assist in establishing how the problem can be investigated. Empirical evidence will then be established well if the methods of research are used effectively in the population in which the phenomenon is located. Research is about evidence. If the evidence is concealed, the research will not be reliable and trustworthy . Empirical evidence is paramount in any research. The tools used in obtaining information should be designed in such a manner that they will indeed reveal and bring evidence to the fore.

■ Logical reasoning . Logical reasoning is paramount in any research. The facts collected should be chronological and logical. The researcher may commence from the known to the unknown, from the simple to the complex, from the general to the specific and vice versa.

■ Scepticism . It is always significant that logic in research reigns supreme so as to alleviate the contamination of irrelevant opinions and facts. People should not be sceptical or doubtful about the findings of an investigation. Irrelevant methods and procedures divert the purpose and results of the research. Different results in research diminish the integrity and significance of the research. Potential weaknesses in research should be eliminated prior to the commencement of the research. The hypothesis should always guide how research can be conducted to prevent any doubt about the outcomes of the research.

Non-Scientific Knowledge

Welman et al. (2005:03) place the following non-scientific elements in the category of non-scientific knowledge : authority , opinions , traditions and debate . De Vos et al. (2011:11-12) add personal experience, common sense and media myths as non-scientific knowledge .

Traditions

Traditions are sources of non-scientific knowledge that is carried over from one generation to another (Welman et al., 2005:03). Traditional knowledge is based on previous authority , customs and habits (De Vos et al., 2011:11) and is repeated over and over again across many years. Traditions such as mountain circumcision schools are still followed vigorously without questioning their importance to educational and societal development and to economic advancement. Some of its implications are the bringing of terror to those who dislike the idea of attending these schools in the form of teasing, dissociation, gossiping and irresponsible behaviour from those who have undergone mountain school. Traditions, nonetheless, are not entirely negative, but are rather a source of knowledge about what was happening in past years. The traditional leaders actually hold their customs intact and play a significant role in maintaining their custodianship.

Authority

According to Welman et al. (2005:03), non-scientific knowledge is often accepted merely on the basis of the authority of its source. Brink et al. (2018:04) are of the opinion that authorities can offer specialised expertise, experience and power and are able to influence opinions and behaviours. For instance, in governmental and institutional structures, policies for running the various departments are put in place so as to show leadership, guide the employees, delegate work and control the employees. The laws, guidelines and the rules of each department are, however, not absolutely and always in line with human rights and ethics. The sense that they are human products that are susceptible to bias and inconsistencies may to a minimal degree be against the constitutional frameworks. Sometimes the rules of government remain unchanged for a lengthy period of time without innovations and relevant changes being made in line with human developmental needs and aspirations. They therefore become irrelevant and outdated authority instruments that are likely to cause societal friction. De Vos et al. (2011:11) state that something can be accepted as true just because someone who is in authority puts it forward or because it has been written in an authoritative publication. However, authority does not imply that something that has been written in a particular publication, such as the Bible, is wrong. In certain Black traditions in South Africa, such as in Limpopo Province, South Africa, people do not hold wedding feasts or celebrations in the month of July because they believe that this may bring bad luck to the families. During mountain circumcision schooling, in Limpopo Province, people are not allowed to beat drums even in churches or hold wedding feasts, and certain areas are made sacred for the particular individuals who have been circumcised on the mountain. So, authority prohibits certain activities from taking place, not necessarily because those activities are anti-developmental but because someone in authority wants to impose his or her authority on the subjects without proper justification or scientific assessment and evaluation . Someone just wishes their authority to be felt.

Opinions

Opinions that are non-scientific could lead to misunderstanding and distortion of information. Non-scientific knowledge can be acquired by merely asking friends (Welman et al., 2005:03) to express an opinion on a particular subject without gauging its true representations and verifications. Opinions are not tested and may lack logic . Over-the-counter medication in pharmacies may be dangerous at times because pharmacists rely on the opinion of the patients about their illness. Pharmacists do not diagnose the disease but dispense medicines on the basis of the patient’s opinion without obtaining empirical evidence . This excludes prescriptions by qualified medical practitioners.

Experience

Experience is a functional knowledge source. The past is full of knowledge from which people can derive formulas, ideas, social cohesion and behaviour related to politics, education, traditions and family lifestyles. Experience can assist even scientists to derive knowledge in building their scientific developments for future use. Personal experience is, however, limited to the person and lacks a wide support of generalisation (De Vos, et al., 2011:11). Individual experience, while limited and restricted, for the purpose of generalisation is informed by our values (Brink et al., 2018:06). Scientific generalisation seeks to obtain a combination of the same ideas from a wide range of communities. This is acceptable and can have more advantages than disadvantages for the purpose it is meant to support. For instance, some pharmaceutical medicines do have side effects and pharmaceutical experience has shown that side effects may cause allergies. However, personal knowledge does not necessarily imply that it is without relevance and reliability. One person can discover fossils of bones in sedimentary rocks. These may later be tested by other scientists to check their authenticity and age. This means experience can yield positive outcomes in other fields.

Debate

A debate as a source of knowledge is an exchange of ideas and opinions of two or more people in a particular place and time about a particular issue that concerns people. A debate may not necessarily be objective but can on some occasions become subjective . People’s particular interests may take centre stage in a debate, in this way deviating from the real issue. For instance, the issue of expropriating land without compensation is a debate that seeks to compensate the Black people in South Africa who were dispossessed of their land in the previous colonial rule. This debate does not necessarily refer to Whites’ land only. It may in some way affect the Black kings and chiefs’ land. So, a debate does not in fact take place because there is a value attached to it but because someone wants to benefit politically. It is indeed significant for the debate to have logic (Welman et al., 2005:04) so as to give the flow of facts a chance .

Observation

Observation is a qualitative research method and assists the researcher (Maree, 2019) in gaining a deeper insight into the phenomenon being studied. Observation , as a tool to gain knowledge , should be controlled in a manner that will result in outcomes that are authentic. Observation can be structured and/or unstructured. Selective observation becomes intuitive because not all the things that are to be observed are observed. When this happens the findings will not be accurate and will compromise the research entirely. Accidental observation also brings inefficient data, because people who went to the event (like a soccer match) will not narrate or describe the situation with precision. When selective observation is carried out, people only pay attention to the information that supports their presumptions and ignore the opposite (Welman et al., 2005:05).

Scientific Knowledge

Replication

Welman et al. (2005:05) are of the view that researchers must make scientific knowledge replicable by making sure that similar results can be obtained by other researchers who use different respondents in other situations or circumstances. Bryman et al. (2021:56) point out that researchers need to make their research methods explicit so that it is possible for other researchers to replicate their conditions in their original studies. Replication also assists quantitative researchers to reproduce each other’s research project as an important determinant of the validity of their research findings (Bryman & Bell, 2011:40). Novice researchers find replication worthwhile in their efforts to emulate and duplicate appropriately what has been deemed to be a fountain of knowledge . Replication eases the decisions required of them in conducting an enquiry (Fouché et al., 2021:95). Because scientific knowledge is replicable and transmittable, observation and logical explanation will be the logical methods used to arrive at the same conclusion and prediction (Bless et al., 2013:08).

Transferability

According to Fouché et al. (2021:393), transferability of research findings refers to the extent to which the study’s findings can also be applied in other studies. Transferability refers to the extent to which the results obtained from the research can be applied to others in similar situations (Bless et al., 2013:237). The researchers can then compare the results of both contexts in which the research studies were conducted, the type of interviews conducted and the questionnaires circulated amongst the participants . Transferability should not be confused with generalisation as in external validity, but instead simply means that the results obtained from a specific situation can be used in or transferred to another situation (Fouché et al., 2021:393; Bryman et al., 2021:63).

Basic Assumptions of Science

Graziano and Raulin (1997:28) have created a picture which shows that science, like any other discipline, is established and developed on several assumptions and ideas that are tentatively accepted as truthful without investigating them further. These assumptions, in terms of science, should be thoroughly and rigorously investigated to find out the rational and the empirical evidence that provide the truth about natural phenomena. The basic assumptions that researchers agree on are as follows:

• The physical universe exists;

• Life in the universe is unpredictable and happens randomly in an orderly system according to the rules of nature;

• Scientific research is the type of research that explores and discovers the orderly system of the universe;

• Scientific investigation is always incomplete. New knowledge is established and developed from previous historical knowledge .

Cohen et al. (2000:10-11) advance the following assumptions about the nature of science:

• Determinism . Events in nature have causes; they don’t just happen. Events happen because certain prevailing circumstances lead to their happening. Scientists therefore intend to uncover the link between the cause and the effect. Events happen in a logical and regular way in nature. It is therefore incumbent upon scientists to study the events with their causes by formulating the rules that will enable the investigator to find out the link that exists between the cause and the effect.

• Empiricism . …the tenability of a theory or hypothesis depends on the nature of the empirical evidence for its support (Cohen et al., 2000:10). Empirical evidence is evidence that can be verified by means of direct observation. Observational experiences can be recorded for future reference and exploration. The following five steps have been identified by Cohen et al. (2000:10) in the process of dealing with empirical evidence :

o Experience. Experience here informs us about the starting point of direct observation of the world that is to be researched. Direct observation indicates and assists in establishing the weight of the information, where and how the information can be found, what steps can be used to obtain more information of that nature and how the information can be related to other processes in nature.

o Classification . After researchers have uncovered the required information through direct observation, they then classify it as belonging to either the physical or the social sciences. The researchers can again classify the information that can be investigated using qualitative or quantitative approaches.

o Quantification . In quantification, the measurement of the acquired information is executed to detect its validity and reliability. Again, the aim is to establish whether the information gathered can be analysed adequately to find out whether it represents the relevant population or can produce the anticipated results in a laboratory experiment .

o Discovery of relationships. Cause and the effect, if indeed they co-exist, should explicitly show a causal relationship . The dependent and independent variables should have a mutual relationship. For, instance, light energy is a requirement for photosynthesis to take place. So, light can be considered the cause of photosynthesis.

o Approximation to the truth. Taking the above example further, if the leaves of plants are not exposed to light, the leaves will not manufacture carbohydrates. After the analysis of the facts about a particular phenomenon such as photosynthesis, the scientist reaches a conclusion that indeed the two variables relate to one another or are mutually exclusive because they don’t show any relationship .

• Parsimony . The phenomenon being studied should basically be interpreted in an understanding, economical way by using one or two concepts to explicate that phenomenon. If researchers prefer to explain a phenomenon in various ways that use multiple concepts, this may bring confusion to the understanding of events.

• Generality . The competing views of deductive and inductive reasoning should in the end bring knowledge together so as to discover the relationships that exist between the variables being studied. The relationship between logic and empirical evidence should show a continuum of events.

SIX PHILOSOPHICAL ASSUMPTIONS OF SCIENCE

Epistemology

Bryman and Bell (2011:12) hold the view that epistemology is concerned primarily with the issue of what is regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline. According to Du Plooy-Cilliers et al. (2014:23), the term ‘epistemology’ comes from the Greek words episteme, which means ‘knowledge ’ and logos, which means the ‘study of ’. Epistemology means the study of knowledge . In epistemology, the nature of knowledge , the how the knowledge , is obtained and the different ways of knowing are dealt with. All the different disciplines that study the existence of knowledge contribute together in different ways to build a body of knowledge . Maree (2007:55) shows that knowledge can be viewed objectively or subjectively. In epistemology, arguments are brought forward to indicate whether the knowledge revealed can be universally generalised and therefore applied or whether that knowledge can be applied to specific cultural and historical places. The natural sciences use their methods of studying science as well as the methods of the social sciences to uncover knowledge . The elements of epistemology are positivism, realism and interpretivism (Bryman et al., 2021:32).

Ontological Assumption

The ontological issues address the nature of the reality that is constructed by individuals involved in the research environment. According to Du Plooy-Cilliers et al. (2014:23), ‘ontology’ is a compound word derived from the Greek words ontos, which means ‘being’, and logos, which means ‘the study of’. Researchers and philosophers define and interpret reality differently according to the perspectives from which they operate. Ontology is the study of nature and its form. It is therefore the study of being, the study of existence and reality. From the positivist view, objectivity is the only means through which reality can be observable. In terms of the physical sciences , ontological assumptions are primarily based on the view that the social world is external to the positivist’s assumption and the world consists of tangible, hard objects that can be studied using fixed rules because the phenomena are fixed as well. From the perspective of qualitative research, human beings create the world in which they live, but in quantitative research, where physical laws are observed, the world appears to be independent from human beings. These natural laws make the world function and these laws can only be discovered and proven scientifically in an objective manner. It is therefore necessary for a natural scientist to discover and describe these natural phenomena and explain their relationships according to natural laws.

Axiological Assumption

Du Plooy-Cilliers et al. (2014:24) explain that ‘axiology’ is a compound word derived from the two Greek words axios, meaning ‘worthy’, and logos, meaning ‘the study of’. The worthiness relates to values and value judgement. The world in which researchers find themselves has values and norms (Du Plooy et al., 1987:144). It is absolutely essential that researchers should, at no given stage, be influenced by any material means, but rather they should seek the authentic and objective truth. A research study has to encompass values and ethics. Values such as respect and dignity need to be attended to or taken into cognisance when research is conducted. The participants in research should enjoy the respect of the investigator , and the success of a research study lies in the proper interaction between the researcher and the respondents . In terms of positivism, the values of trust and personal integrity (Du Plooy-Cilliers et al., 2014:26) reign supreme. Positivist assumptions reflect that in a study, the researcher should trust the findings that are arrived at because they have been objectively and truly discovered in a representative reality and can predict the future of peoples’ events.

Sociological Assumption

According to Mouton and Marais (1990:09), sociologists emphasise the fact that scientists operate in the realm of a clearly defined scientific community. Scientists belong to recognisable paradigms and use particular literature to research certain societal challenges that impact both directly and indirectly on their communities. The sociological assumption of reality is entrenched in ethics. Ethics provide a foundation that seeks to focus researchers on pursuing moral values in their engagements with participants . Issues such as the right to privacy , the right to dignity and the right to access of information are but some of the salient rights that the individual participants should be ensured by the researcher. Espoused researchers are sometimes tempted by companies with huge sums of money to research particular matters on their behalf. Researchers should not be conflicted. Accepting these offers promotes quality research and quality products in the company. Nonetheless, researchers, whether senior or novice, should not in any way be tempted to adopt a quick fix of the fluidity and procedures of research because of financial gains. Compromising research leads to the compromising of research outputs, which weakens further research in particular areas. Weakened research is tainted and blemished and becomes invalid and consequently unreliable. Mouton and Marais (1990:11) are of the view that …the personality of researchers, their idiosyncratic interest and motivation, thinking strategies, and cognitive preferences are important factors in the practice of social sciences, and that more research on the part of sociologists and psychologists of science is necessary.

Teleologial Dimension

The Greek concept telos means a ‘goal’ or ‘aim’ (Mouton & Marais, 1990:13) while logos refers to the ‘study of’. The teleological dimension is primarily concerned with the desire to study and acquire knowledge . Human increasing desire to learn has led some scientists to study and acquire knowledge about reality. According to Mouton and Marais (1990:13), knowledge empowers people to change social reality. Reality is plagued by depravation, sickness, deterioration of human life and, of late, unresolved and perpetual corruption. Scientific knowledge is necessary. Scientists need to be equipped with scientific research instruments to unearth the deeper meaning of reality through systematic observation and experimentation coupled with the study of natural phenomena, with the view of exposing and enlightening communities about deterrents that plague societal development and, in particular, human life.

Assumption Paradigm

De Vos et al. (2011:513) describe a paradigm as a framework or viewpoint that is based on philosophies and assumptions about the social world and the nature of the knowledge . It also concerns how the researcher views and interprets material about reality and guides the consequent action to be taken. A paradigm is a way of doing things. It (paradigm) is a construct that represents an archetype of how professions achieve what they set out to perform at a peculiar and specific time (Fouché et al, 2021:05). Bryman et al. (2021:36) suggest that a paradigm is a …cluster of beliefs and dictates that influence what should be studied by researchers, how research should be done, and how results should be interpreted in the field of study. According to De Vos et al. (2011:40), the concept of the paradigm has its roots in Thomas Khun’s (1970) book The Structure of Scientific Revolution and can be elucidated as a …normal scientific endeavour which is followed by a scientific revolution and followed by consecutive period of normal scientific activity. According to Bryman (2016:474), a paradigm is a cluster of beliefs and dictates that for scientists in a particular discipline influence what should be studied, how research should be done and how research should be interpreted.

Bhattacherjee (2012:17) discusses how the word ´paradigm’ was made popular by Thomas Khun in his book The Structure of Scientific Revolution. Kuhn argued that current research paradigms are continuously challenged by revolutionary periods because many research findings are inconsistent with current assumptions and well-established findings (Bryman et al., 2021:36). While paradigms prescribe what is acceptable within communities and professions, they are indeed susceptible to change when the community of professionals in a particular discipline finds it fit and proper for that paradigm to change (Fouché et al., 2021:04). This is what is called a paradigm shift . A paradigm shift emerges as a result of inconsistence between the old paradigm and a new paradigm that arises because of new research findings. The paradigm becomes a norm for the pursuance of current ways of doing things.

These new and established findings are incommensurable because a phenomenon may be studied using different methods and approaches. If the approaches and methods are not consistent with the previous or old methods and approaches, bias in reliability and validity may possibly emerge. If the quality of data-collecting methods is deliberately compromised, then the outcomes of the research will not be comprehensible and will bring inconsistence in the findings. In mixed methods research, if the qualitative and quantitative approaches are not well carried out, an infringement of quality findings will emerge. A phenomenon studied previously with old methods that may be deemed obsolete may not be measurable using the current research methods. For instance, the phenomenon ‘performance of educators’ may not be measured using old methods of evaluating educators, as these methods may bring unreliable outcomes. In South African schools, the Integrated Quality Management System (IQMS) in teaching has been replaced by the Quality Management System (QMS). This has been done because the education department wishes educators to be properly assessed and not fall astray as a consequence of the inclusion of issues related to whole school evaluation .

A paradigm shift is important in improving research so that new policies and methods of research can meet current expectations. A paradigm dictates how procedures should be followed in a particular discipline and profession. A profession is a concept that can be traced back to the Latin word profiteri, which means to ‘declare things publicly’ (Fouché et al., 2021:05). From a religious point of view, a profession simply means a ‘calling’ or ‘vocation’. So, it is significant and relevant for researchers to follow a particular paradigm in the investigation of a particular phenomenon . A paradigm shift provides opportunities to bring particular order to the world and imposes order through the frameworks that researchers work in. Although professions are interdependent, paradigms bring diversity to them and dictate how these professions should be studied using different approaches and methods.

According to Bailey (1987:24), a paradigm is a perspective, a model and a frame of reference for viewing the social world. It consists of concepts and assumptions . The researcher looks at the world from a particular angle of life and forms mental images about what he or she sees from a particular perspective. Two researchers may not see one issue in the same way. A physical scientist may explain energy as being transported by electrons while a human scientist may explain energy as the power that can be used to cook, to transport people and commodities, and to improve the lives of people. The concepts and assumptions that are used in paradigms are also not the same, with sociologists using sociology concepts while psychologists use psychological concepts and assumptions to interpret issues. Paradigms not only differ in their concepts but in the research problems they are applied to as well. The research problem dictates the approaches to be used, for example quantitative and qualitative.

SIX MAIN APPROACHES TO SOCIAL SCIENCES

Positivism

Positivism is primarily used in natural sciences (Bryman & Bell, 2011:12) where knowledge is exposed deductively and is universally generalised inductively through the quantitative approach. Using the positivist approach, the researcher starts from the unknown and moves to the known. The scientist studies what can be genuinely observed and verified through the senses. In this instance, the purpose of theory is to generate hypotheses that can be tested, with the idea of assessing the validity of the propositions . The assessment of the validity of the propositions is executed through the use of a deductive approach while the gathering of facts that form part of a particular knowledge that provides the basis for universal propositions is conducted inductively. Creswell (2009:55) is of the opinion that in positivism, knowledge can be revealed and discovered through the use of the scientific method. Again, Creswell (2009:53) intimates that there is only one reality that is observable by the researcher, who has little or no impact whatsoever on the object being observed. This indicates that the positivist inclination of reasoning and its view of the real world suggest that the social world is external to the comprehension and cognition of the individual and the world is made of hard and tangible objects. That knowledge that is discovered through physical sciences will inevitably assist us to provide possible explanations about the causes of things that happen in the real world. The physical sciences use experiments, observations, measurements, reliability and validity in research. In some cases, the laboratory is used to carry out tests under controlled circumstances.

Qualitative researchers, by contrast, believe that the world is made up of people with their own assumptions , intentions, attitudes, beliefs and values. The qualitative approach holds that the way to know reality is to explore the experiences of others regarding a specific phenomenon – an attempt to see how others have constructed reality by asking questions about it. In qualitative research, we look at human events in a more holistic way that attempts to locate individual actions in their cultural contexts. This means that human activities must be investigated in terms of meanings – why people say this, do this, or act in this way or that way – and must be interpreted by linking them to other human events to enable greater understanding. Qualitative research therefore acknowledges an interactive relationship between the researcher and the participants as well as between the participants and their own experiences and how they have constructed reality on the basis of those experiences. These personal experiences, beliefs