Teaching English: Linguistics and Literature Combined

Chapter 1. English Linguistic

Many people think of a linguist as someone who speaks many languages and works as a language teacher or an interpreter for the United Nations. In fact, these people are more accurately called polyglots. Many linguists are polyglots, but linguistics focuses on general language’s structure, use, and psychology.

1.1 Introduction

The term language can refer to various concepts/things, such as spoken or written language. In other words, you can talk about a particular language—for example, English, German, Swahili, etc., or such languages. We are interested in both disciplines; general linguistics focus on the latter and individual linguistics departments focus on a particular language, such as English linguistics. Another meaning of language is the style or type of words used by an individual or group, a widely studied sociolinguistics subject.

1.1.1 Languages as Human Communications

Most linguists will agree that many animals can convey many animals; they are actually language because people do it I do not have it. Birds are cat, dog bark and growls, monkeys, scream, and screaming, but they are not assumed to use these sounds as we do. Thus, Language is an important attribute we distinguish from the remaining animal world.

1.1.2 Linguistics

Linguistics is language science. It is generally a descriptive area, not as a directory. Still, a linguist does not take a quick and fast rule for using a specific language, but the rule (especially native) speaker, the internal light description, means explaining. That said, there are many ways to do linguistics. For example, you can focus on the language used at a particular time. 1989; This is called synchronic linguistics. Alternatively, you can look at the language from a synchronic point of view and analyze the development over a specific period—Middle English or 1950s, etc. Linguistics is a science that can be studied theoretically or more appliedly. For example, someone might be interested in knowing exactly how (= theoretically) a question is formed in English. Once this is known, knowledge shifts to, for example, foreign language education. This will (hopefully) allow teachers and students to learn the language more effectively.

1.1.3 Core field of linguistics

The order in which the core elements of linguistics are presented here may differ slightly from those found in many other traditional linguistics textbooks. Linguistics textbooks often start with the sound of the language and move on to the written format. After all, it makes sense because spoken language should be seen as the primary means of human communication ... but most people are accustomed to thinking about secretary-style languages. So it is the method that is generally treated in school and more generally in modern literary society. Many of the concepts described here are easier to understand, starting from written language.

Fig 1.1 English Language

•Form

•Morphosyntax

•Syntax

•Syntax 1: Format and function

•Syntax 2: Theory and Practice

•Semantics

•Semantics 1: Meaning

•Semantics 2: Distinguishing

•Semantics 3: Relationship

•Semantics 4: Context

•Semantics 5: Classification

•Phonetics and phonology

•Phonetics

•Phonology

•segment vs. Supra Segmen

•Text linguistics and pragmatics

•Text linguistics

•Pragmatics

1.1.4 Derivative field

Derivative linguistics is usually a field that employs a variety of core methods. Still, it may also borrow theories and methods from other sciences to study language use and language development characteristics.

•Applied Linguistics: Acquisition of first and second languages

•Historical linguistics

•Sociolinguistics and English variations

1.1.5 Language methods and applications

In contrast to the above derivations, linguistic methods and applications do not actually represent independent disciplines but support a number of different cores and derivations.

•Corpus linguistics

•Lexicology and lexicography

Everyone knows at least one language, whether spoken or sign language. Linguistics is the science of language, including sounds, words, and grammatical rules. Language words are finite, but sentences are not. This creative aspect of human language distinguishes it from animal language, which is essentially a response to stimuli.

Language rules, also known as grammar, are learned when learning a language. These rules include phonology, speech system, morphology, word structure, syntax, a combination of words into sentences, semantics, sound-semantic relationships, and lexicons or psychiatric dictionaries of words. .. If you know a language, you know the words in that language. A unit of the sound associated with a particular meaning. However, the sound and meaning of the word are arbitrary. There is no correlation between the way a word is pronounced (or signed) and its meaning in most cases. Knowledge of language covers the entire system, but that knowledge (called ability) is different from behavior (called performance). You can learn a language, but you can also choose not to speak it. Even if you don’t speak that language, you still know about it. However, if you don’t understand the language, you can’t talk at al. There are two types of grammar, descriptive and normative. Descriptive grammar represents the unconscious knowledge of the language. For example, an English-speaking person knows that I like apples is incorrect and I like apples is correct but may not be able to explain why. Descriptive grammar does not teach the rules of the language, but it does describe the already known rules.

In contrast, normative grammar includes instructional grammar written to help teach a foreign language, dictating what the speaker’s grammar should be. There are about 7,000 languages in the world (approximate), and linguists have found that these languages are more similar than different. There are universal concepts and characteristics common to all languages, and these principles are embodied in the universal grammar that forms the basis of all possible human languages.

1.1.6 Define language

The phenomenon of language is complex, so it is not easy to give an accurate definition of language. By slightly modifying the definition given by Finegan and Besnier (1989), language can be defined as a finite system of elements and principles that allow the speaker to form sentences to accomplish a particular communication task. The part of the system that allows the speaker to create and interpret grammatical sentences is called grammatical ability. It involves knowing which speech sounds are part of a particular language and how they can and cannot be stitched together. Grammar abilities include knowing the meanings of different sound sequences in a language and combining the units of these meanings into words, phrases, and sentences. For example, grammatic abilities allow an English-speaking person to stitch together 21 sounds like a dog chased a cat into a tree, while another English-speaking person is a dog, a cat, what a tree is. You can understand what the hunt is and which is on top.

Fig 1.2 English Language and Linguistic

In addition, the grammatical ability allows these English speakers to share the understanding that dogs have hunted and that it is cats that have climbed trees. Of course, this doesn’t just apply to English. Grammar ability contributes to an understanding of all human languages as well. But humans do more than just use language to convey the literal meaning of grammatical sentences. For example, the phrase a dog chased a cat into a tree can be used to perform a variety of tasks. Tell a part of the story, complain to the dog owner, and help the cat owner find a pet. The second part of the definition of performing a special communication activity refers to communication ability.

The most common work that people do in a language is communicating with others. Without communication skills, grammatical skills are of little use for human interaction. In fact, much of the use of real language does not occur in sentences but in discourse units that are larger and smaller than sentences; they are grammatical (in the technical sense of formal linguistics), and so on. However, there is something that is not. To be effective, the speaker must combine grammatical abilities with knowledge of how to use grammatical sentences (and other parts of the language structure) appropriate for the immediate purpose and context. Both bring together communication skills. Communication skills (knowledge contained in grammar, plus the ability to use that knowledge to perform a wide range of communication tasks) make up a language.

1.1.7 Linguistics Diversity

Unlike other linguistic textbooks, each chapter of this book was written by a linguist who teaches and studies in this area. The field of linguistics is as broad and diverse as the phenomena of the language it studies, and linguists share some beliefs, for example, regarding descriptive approaches and functional equality of all linguistic variants. However, they differ in some assumptions for their analysis. Some chapters of this book (especially phonetics and phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics/pragmatics, historical linguistics) are understood to varying degrees, and the form of the language is independent of their use. I’m assuming it can be done. These chapters mainly deal with language formats. The themes of these chapters form what was considered the essential core of linguistics in the mid-20th century. Since then, the field has expanded significantly, and this book seeks to express that expanded scope.

1.1.8 Vowels

Vowels are more difficult to explain than consonants. Vowels, by definition, have an open vocal tract that prevents the tongue from touching the upper surface of the vocal tract at any particular point, and the terminology of the joint is not really appropriate. Instead, various vowels are described in tongue body and lip movements. Linguists classify vowels according to the height of the tongue, whether it is bundled in front of or behind the mouth, and whether the lips are round. If it is generally difficult to explain a vowel system, it is even more difficult to explain an English vowel. One reason is that there are many of them. The most common number of vowels in a language is 5. English writers use only 5 letters to encode vowels (relics of the old system), while English uses more than 12 different vowels. Another reason is that the exact number of vowels and the quality of the vowels vary from dialect to dialect and are much larger than for consonants. For example, for most speakers on the East Coast of the United States, the word caught and cot have two different vowels. But for most West Coast speakers, the two words have the same pronunciation.

1.1.9 Tone and Intonation

Tone Pitch contains a lot of information. You can tell whether the speaker is male or female, tall or short, old or young. The higher the pitch, the more you know that people are afraid. Gently that he/she is angry; however, this type of information is not really verbal but physical or emotional. The terms tone and intonation refer to the linguistic usage of the pitch. Tone refers to the use of pitch to convey word-level meaning. Intonation refers to pitch to convey meaning at the sentence or discourse level. Stress distinguishes between different types of sentences and focuses on specific words. For example, read the following sentence out loud (and dramatically):

Is it a cat?

Yes. It’s a cat.

"Is it a cat?

I thought it was a mountain lion! Words move the pitch of your voice in different directions. The pitch of the first cat goes up and asks a question. When the second pitch goes down, it indicates a statement or affirmation. In the third cat, a more complex fall pattern shows distrust. (In print, these different readings" are indicated by question marks, periods, and italics.) In each case, the sequence [khQt] refers to the same object, the cat. The difference in pitch only shows the role that references to cats play in the current conversation. Ask for, provide, or distrust the information provided about cats. Patterns and meanings vary from language to language, but all languages use some intonation.

1.2 Origin

Studying English history begins with a long and rich tradition, starting with an important old and middle-sized English text version of the middle of the 19th century. Society (see Text Edition). Linguistic research of the history of English history usually meets a series of traditional grammar in the 20th century. Since the 1970s, in developing language structures, speech, and functional and formal models of changes in dianon, changes in various historical English and Diyaren are phonetic, form, syntax, and It has become a change in the commercialization domain. Popular playgrounds of historical linguists. These aspects of aspects were riched by the recent increase of computer support corpus, including text corpus and various types of language information. This is a historical, social system and a new research method syntax and a new research method, and a new research method. Thus, the history of English has become a thriving field of study, to its full extent, taking advantage of both rich documentation and increasing linguistic and methodological sophistication.

Fig 1.3 Origin

1.2.1 Historical overview

Many introductory textbooks provide an overview of the main features of English at various historical stages and shed light on the grammatical development of English against its socio-cultural history. Barber et al. 2009 is an updated version of the classic barber textbook. Baugh and Cable 2002 is the fifth of another classic. It is rich in historical details and socio-cultural background and easily accessible to a wide audience. Cable 2002 is a companion book to Baugh and Cable 2002 that presents many fascinating exercises for beginners. The next choice consists of some relatively recent text. Fennell 2001 and van Gelderen 2006 are both convenient introductory books that can be read individually. While Fennell focuses on language development in a changing sociolinguistic environment, van Gelderen 2006 was created primarily from a linguistic perspective. Horobin 2010 is a short overview, with a short chapter focusing on some of the highlights of British history. McIntyre 2009 is a very different format, each offering treatments introduced at four different levels of depth in separate book sections. Moessner 2003 is a well-structured introductory guide. Moore and Palmer 2019 is a resource book primarily for educators. Rings 2006 is the first in a comprehensive history of four volumes of English, focusing on the pre-English stage. Ringe and Taylor 2014 is the second in these volumes and introduces the development of Old English. Smith 2005 is an accessible introductory text. Finally, Burnley 2000 is a very useful source of textual material of all ages.

1.2.2 Where everything started

Many of you will think that studying an English course consists of English grammar above all else English grammar serves to take courses to improve overall English while immersing yourself in mythical, fighting, and legend-influenced stories is only part of the overall curriculum. On the one hand, everyday life worked, while his different social class methods. According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, English actually took off in the British invasion of the 5th century. In search of new land to conquer, three Germanic tribes, the Jutes, the Saxons, and the Angles, came across from the North Sea. It should be noted that the English inhabitants spoke different dialects of Celtic, so the English we knew today and learned through various English courses had not yet been created. During the invasion, the native Britons were driven north and west into lands we now refer to as Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. England and English originated from the Old English word Englaland, literally meaning the land of the Angles where they spoke Englisc.

1.2.3 Old English (5th to 11th century)

Albert Baugh, a notable English professor at the University of Pennsylvania notes amongst his published works that around 85% of Old English is no longer in use; however, surviving elements form the basis of the Modern English language toda. Old English can be further subdivided into the following:

•Prehistoric or Primitive(5th to 7th century) – available literature or documentation referencing this period is not available aside from limited examples of AngloSaxon runes;

•Early Old English (7th to 10th century) – this period contains some of the earliest documented evidence of the English language, showcasing notable authors and poets like Cynewulf and Aldhelm, who were leading figures in the world of AngloSaxon literature.

•Late Old English (10th to 11th century) – can be considered the final phase of the Old English language, which was brought about by the Norman invasion of England. This period ended with the development of English towards early Middle English.

1.2.4 Early Middle English

During this period, English, especially English grammar, began to develop, paying particular attention to the syntax. The syntax is the arrangement of words and phrases to form formal sentences in a language, where the British government and its wealthy citizens Anglicized the language. At the same time, Norman and French remained until the 14th-century language remained. You can see that the influence was dominant. Interestingly, this period became associated with the loss of the end of the case, eventually replacing the inflection mark with more complex speech features. The end of the case is a suffix of an inflectional noun, pronoun, or adjective, indicating its grammatical function.

Charles Lawrence Barber commented:

Similarly, John McWhorter said that the Norsemen and their English counterparts could understand each other in their speaking style, but eventually, the flexion changed because the Norsemen were unable to pronounce the endings of various words. He points out that the ending has been lost. It reminds me of my colleague Lisp, and I wonder: if it was hundreds of years ago and we were in medieval England, we would be surprised that language disorders now look again in modern history. Did you imagine it would make a difference? Things to think about ...

1.2.5 Middle English Late

In the 14th century, another dialect (known as East Midlands) began to develop in the London region.

1.2.6 Early Modern English

The changes in English during this period occurred from the 15th century to the middle of the 17th century, meaning not only changes in pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar itself but also the beginning of the British Renaissance. The English Renaissance had a much quieter base than its pan-European cousin, the Italian Renaissance, and appeared in the late 15th century. It is associated with the resurgence of social and cultural movements, celebrating the glory of the Elizabethan era, although it was slow to gain momentum in the early stages. The innovation of William Caxton’s early printing press made Early Modern English mainstream. This is something we should be grateful for as English learners. The printing press was important in standardizing English by disseminating the English Bible. Caxton’s publication of Thomas Malory’s Le Morte d’Arthur is considered the first bestseller of printed matter. Mallory interprets the various stories surrounding the legendary King Arthur and the Knights of the Roundtable in his own words, and the resulting popularity indirectly guarantees that modern English will stay here. During Henry VIII’s reign, British citizens were finally able to read the Bible in the language they understood, which helped spread the general public’s dialect. In the second half of the 16th century, the first complete translation of the Catholic Bible was made. It had no major impact but played an important role in the further development of English, especially among English-speaking Catholics worldwide. From the late 16th century to the early 17th century, the work of actor and playwright William Shakespeare swept the world.

Why was Shakespeare’s influence so important at the time? Shakespeare began writing at a time when English changed significantly due to contact with other countries through war and colonization. These changes were further enhanced by Shakespeare and other emerging playwrights who realized that they couldn’t express their ideas in the English language currently in circulation. As a result, the adoption of words and phrases in other languages has been changed and added to English, creating a richer experience. In the early 17th century, we saw the establishment of the first successful British colony in a place known as the New World. Jamestown, Virginia, also saw the dawn of American English when English colonists took native words and added them to English. The constant influx of new blood from spontaneous and involuntary (i.e. slave) migration in the 17th, 18th, and 19th centuries gave rise to various English dialects, including West African, American Indian, Spanish and European influences.

Meanwhile, the English Civil War, which began in the mid-17th century, caused political turmoil and social instability. At the same time, after the execution of Charles I, British Puritan muscles increased. After being censored and victorious in parliament during the war, Puritan promoted a strict lifestyle in response to what was considered an excess of the previous administration. Britain was able to withstand more than a decade under Puritan control before the coronation of Charles II. His reign, effectively the resurrection of the Stuart dynasty, will usher in a period of revival with the rise of poetry and philosophical writing. Classical literature such as John Milton’s Paradise Lost was published during this period and is believed to be related to this period.

1.2.7 Late modern English

The Industrial Revolution and the rise of the British Empire in the 18th, 19th, and early 20th centuries brought them the spread of English. Advances and discoveries in science and technology during the Industrial Revolution required new words, phrases, and concepts to describe these ideas and inventions. Due to the nature of these works, scientists and scholars have created words with Greek and Latin roots. Bacteria, histology, nuclei, biology. You may be shocked to read that these words were invented, but you can still learn many new facts through the English course!

Colonialism brought it a double-edged sword. It can be said that the countries under the rule of the British Empire saw the introduction of English as a way to learn, engage in, and hopefully benefit from the influence of overseas languages. Scientific and technological discoveries were part of the shared benefits. Still, colonial Britain was not only teaching the language but also a way to convey its culture and traditions to backward-thinking societies, especially in Africa and Asia. I was thinking.

This idea may have backfired, as English has escaped into many foreign languages that are now a staple of English. For example, shampoos, candies, cribs, and much more are from India!

1.2.8 21st Century English

When studying the various English courses taught today, there are few direct similarities between Modern English and Old English. The English grammar is much more sophisticated (although smartphone messaging ridicules English itself), and the perfect living example is that of the current British royal family. This gave many impressions that speaking English was a bit Snoopy and noble. Before you ridicule, think about what you just read. The basic history and development of the language literally rose from the embers of the war fought between barbaric civilizations. Imagine all that our descendants have experienced, their trials and tribulations, and their willingness to give up everything to achieve freedom of speech and expression.

1.3 History

English is a Western Germanic language derived from Afthelaxon migrants from Germany, South Denmark, and North West. Food fell from the middle of the 19th century on the UK Island and ruled the UK in the southern United Kingdom. Their languages, called at least an old English, are at least middle-aged in the medieval UK and east Scotland. As a group of Anglo-Loman languages for at least the setting (and probably perhaps) of the United Kingdom Latin). So it was as long as it was. Old English reflects various origins of the Antlosaxon kingdom, established in various parts of the United Kingdom. West Saxon dialect was finally dominant. Subsequent Important Impacts in the English Design is conquered in the 8th and 9th centuries from the 8th and 9th-century contact with the North Germani language of the UK’s North Europe. Syntax simplification LED. The Anglian dialect has had a major impact on middle-aged English. After Norman Conquest in 1066, old English was replaced as a language for Anglo-Norman French. At this point, it is believed to identify the end of the English or Anglovaxonian era. At this point, English is strongly affected by Anglo-Norman. Conquerement Normans spoke romantic Langue d’oğl named old Norman developed in Anglonorman’s UK. In local languages, many Norman and French human terms occurred in a vocabulary related to the church, hoaf system, and government. Because the descendants of the Norman are from Viking that France penetrated, Norman French is influenced by the former Norse, and many Nordic loan words in English came directly from French. Inside English was spoken in the late 15th century. Olsolography built in the middle-aged English era is very much there today. The change in pronunciation changes later, but there is a variety of foreign snail acceptances, but it means that the spelling of modern English words appears very irregular.

Early Modern English (the language used by William Shakespeare) dates back to around 1500. This included borrowing Renaissance from Latin and ancient Greek and borrowing from other European languages such as French, German, and Dutch. Significant pronunciation changes during this period included the ongoing great vowel shift, which affected the quality of most long vowels. However, by the late 17th century, real modern English, which in many respects was similar to what is being spoken today, existed.

English as we comprehend it nowadays got here to be exported to different elements of the sector via British colonization, and is now the dominant language in Britain and Ireland, the US and Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and plenty of smaller former colonies, in addition to being extensively spoken in India, elements of Africa, and elsewhere. Partially because of impacting the US and its globalized efforts of trade and technology, English took on the reputation of a worldwide lingua franca withinside the 2nd 1/2 of the twentieth century. This is particularly genuine in Europe, in which English has in large part taken over the previous roles of French and (plenty earlier) Latin as a not rare language used to behavior commercial enterprise and diplomacy, proportion medical and technological information, and in any other case talk throughout countrywide boundaries. The efforts of English-talking Christian missionaries have ended in English turning into the 2nd language for plenty of different groups.

The global version amongst exclusive English dialects and accents stays full-size nowadays. Scots, a shape of English historically spoken in elements of Scotland and the north of Ireland, are handled as a separate language from time to time.

1.3.1 Old English

First of all, the Germanic settlers withinside the British Isles spoke some of the exclusive dialects, which could change into a language that got here to be known as Anglo-Saxon, or now extra normally Old English. It displaced the indigenous Brittonic Celtic (and the Latin of the previous Roman rulers) in elements of the regions of Britain that later shaped the Kingdom of England, whilst Celtic languages remained in a maximum of Scotland, Wales, and Cornwall, and plenty of compound Celtic-Germanic location names survive, hinting at early language mixing. Old English persevered to showcase nearby versions, the remnants of which stay discovered in dialects of Modern English. The 4 foremost dialects had been Mercian, Northumbrian, Kentish, and West Saxon; the closing of those shaped the idea for the literary well-known of the later Old English length, even though the dominant styles of Middle and Modern English could broaden particularly from Mercian.

Old English was first written the usage of a runic script known as the futhorc; however, this became changed via way of means of a model of the Latin alphabet delivered via way of means of Irish missionaries withinside the eighth century. Most literary outputs became in both the Early West Saxon of Alfred the Great’s time or the Late West Saxon (appeared because the classical shape of Old English) of the Winchester faculty stimulated via way of means of Bishop Æthelwold of Winchester and accompanied via way of means of such writers because of the prolific Ælfric of Eynsham (the Grammarian). The maximum well-known surviving painting from the Old English length is the epic poem Beowulf, composed via way of means of an unknown poet.

The advent of Christianity across the 12 months of six hundred endorsed the addition of over four hundred Latin mortgage phrases into Old English, inclusive of the predecessors of the present-day priest, paper, and faculty, and a smaller quantity of Greek mortgage phrases. The speech of Japanese and northerly elements of England became a concern additionally to sturdy Old Norse have an impact because of Scandinavian rule and agreement starting withinside the ninth century.

Fig 1.4 History

Despite the fact that about half of the most commonly used words in modern English have roots in Old English, most native English speakers today feel that they cannot understand Old English. Old English grammar was much more utilized than modern English, combined with more liberal word order, and in some respects was very grammatically similar to modern German. For example, there were demonstrative pronouns (and their equivalents) in this language but no definite articles. The Old English era is believed to have evolved into the Middle English era after the conquest of Norman in 1066. At this time, the language was greatly influenced by the new dominant class, the old Norman language.

1.3.2 Scandinavian influence

The current Vikings from Norway and Denmark began to attack parts of England in the second half of the 8th century. However, in 865, a large-scale invasion was initiated by what the Anglo-Saxons called the Great Heathen Army, eventually putting most northern and eastern England (Danelaw) under Scandinavian control. Most of these areas were retaken from the British under King Edward in the early 10th century, but York and Northumbria were not permanently retaken until Eric Bradax died in 954. The assault on Scandinavia resumed during the reign of Ezelred II in the second half of the 10th century, and Sweyn I was finally briefly declared King Igiris in 1013, followed by his sons Knut and Knut’s son in 1016. From 1035, he extended the reign of Harold I and Harthacnuts. By 1042. Scandinavian, or Scandinavian, spoke the North Germanic dialect known as the Old Scandinavian. Therefore, Anglo-Saxons