Remote Sensing Technology

Remote Sensing Technology

Remote Sensing Technology

Rajendra Asan

Remote Sensing Technology

Rajendra Asan

ISBN - 9789361527685

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Preface

Introduction to Remote Sensing is a basic textbook on remote sensing for all the students who wish to be introduced to the earth observation and earth sciences. Several questions collectively arise in the minds of various sections of humanity regarding the nature of our existence on this planet. Social well – being, environmental protection and equitable growth of the economy are major among them. For finding answers to all of these queries or even understand the scope of these problems, we need to have access to the right information regarding the right parameters at the right time. Among the variety of factors that would be needed for a proper, thorough investigation into these matters, the availability of geospatial data is one of the key factors as it enables us to study the changes that have been made to the environment because of our specific mechanical interferences. And more recently, the better and faster acquisition of the various geospatial data has gained traction among the various concerned entities around the world. This has resulted in a trend in technology that allows for access to detailed, timely, affordable and, most importantly, reliable data banks. And along with the increase in interest and the processing of these data, the technology facilitating the acquisition of the geospatial data is also fast expanding and improving, which has allowed for a vastly more rapid surge of information and communication technology.

Geospatial data acquisition through the use of remote sensing technology is one of the key fundamental parameters that guide the whole endeavor. Therefore, this book goes through the factors and technologies that have assisted in the field of earth observation. Earth observation refers to the process of acquiring and processing data regarding the chemical, biological, and physical properties of Earth and then distributing and studying the compiled information to assess the state of the environment, the changes that are ongoing to it and the scope of the effect that human intervention has on it. This peripherally also includes activities like cartography, weather forecasting and military surveillance. The process of Earth observation results in data that is known as geospatial data. The acquisition of this data, however, is not the end – all – be – all of the whole processes. This represents merely the first step in a long cyclical process, including processing, analyzing, making necessary changes, and then again acquiring data to study the changes made as a result of the changes that have been implemented. This is the cyclic nature of the field of Earth observation, the structure of which is only changing in its scope and effectiveness and never its functions.

There could be various applications for the specific geospatial data set, depending on the nature of the data and the intent of the observer. Sea levels, ocean temperature, the direction of sea currents are data sets that could be used by marine biologists, oceanographers, or weather forecasters. Spatial data regarding an urban population could be helpful for urban planners, disease centers for predicting the spread of a particular disease or even real estate businessmen. Ground elevation, inclination, soil moisture and vegetation cover could be helpful for forestry agents, developers, environmentalists, or for predicting forest fire spread. What these above examples tell us is that there could be various reasons for collecting and analyzing this data, but in today’s world, the acquisition of this data is of paramount importance both to maintain the sustainability of the various life forms on the planet and also for maintaining effective financial avenues. To accommodate these various needs, there is in use a wide variety of different methods and technologies for earth observation, which satisfy individual or multiple needs.

Remote sensing specifically refers to the observation of the various earth phenomena through the use of non–intrusive methods (generally, satellites or high flying airplanes).  For this book, however, Remote Sensing has been broadly defined as the process of observing earth-based objects, phenomena or processes through the use of airborne technology in a non–obtrusive manner of operation.  This definition clarifies both essential attributes of a Remote Sensing the remote part in its aerial non – obtrusive nature and sensing part in its observational and analytical functionalities. For sensing, there needs to be an input that is then processed to get a comprehensive medium of information sharing. In most cases, this initial stimulus turns out to be some sort of electromagnetic wave-like radio waves, Infrared waves, visible light waves, sound waves, etc. This stimulus is generally received on some kind of a sensor or film, which is then processed or developed into an effective medium of sharing, which facilitates the analysis and study of the information thus acquired. In the case of cameras, the stimuli are visible light, which is focused onto the film or sensor of the camera, which reacts to the presence of the focused light by capturing the scene. This is then either developed chemically (in case of old film cameras) or processed through an onboard computer (most digital cameras) and then reproduced in the form of a picture. This might be a description of the capture and reproduction of a visible light camera; however, the template and functionalities of the processes involved in the capture and reproduction of other electromagnetic stimuli are also similar.

RS, as defined in the book, can be used for a variety of purposes like architecture, urban planning, archaeology, sub-terrestrial mapping, etc. However, for this book, the main focus of our discussion in terms of remote sensing shall be related to the observation related to the various environmental factors that affect the earth itself. And under the purview of this study comes the basic understanding of light as an electromagnetic wave, the interactions of light with matter, fundamentals of camera technology, fundamentals of various kinds of light and their imaging properties, development of earth observation satellites and their uses along with the possible future needs and respective technology developments in the sector.

Even though there are so many textbooks written in this context of remote sensing, this book will provide a rudimentary idea about the concept. Firstly, the book is prepared by considering the target students’ knowledge of the English language. It provides an introduction to the methods/ techniques which acquire subsurface attributes. Being a book on the fundamentals of remote sensing, it endeavors to inspire abstract and conceptual thinking by facilitating and interpreting some simple but fundamental equations. Introduction to Remote Sensing aims at providing an objective approach concerning traditional remote sensing and photogrammetric topics: three types of sensors, viz., multispectral scanner, aerial camera and radar. Lastly, when compared to the conventional introductory books on which predominantly emphasizes the techniques, Introduction to Remote Sensing introduces to processes as well. In this context, it facilitates an appropriate framework when more detailed subjects on the same topic are being dealt with.

Table of Contents

1 Introduction to Remote Sensing Concepts and Systems 1

1.1 Concepts of Remote Sensing 1

1.2 Stages of Remote Sensing 3

1.3 Benefits of Remote Sensing 4

1.4 Drawbacks of Remote Sensing 4

1.5 Common Terminology 5

1.5.1 Electromagnetic Energy or Radiation 5

1.5.2 Electromagnetic Spectrum 7

1.5.3 Remote Sensing Systems 8

1.5.4 Spectral Reflectance Curves 10

1.6 Sources of Remote Sensing Information 12

1.6.1 USGS Earth Explorer 12

1.6.2 GLOVIS 12

1.6.3 LANDSAT 12

1.6.4 ESA’s Sentinel Data 13

1.6.5 NOAA Digital Coast 13

1.6.6 Satellite Pour I’Observation de la Terre (SPOT) 13

1.6.7 LANCE 14

1.6.8 RADARSAT 14

1.6.9 European Resource Satellite 15

1.6.10 Marine Observation Satellite 15

1.6.11 Indian Remote Sensing Satellite 15

1.6.12 Advanced Very High-Resolution

Radiometer (AVHRR) 16

1.7 Hyper-spectral Scanning Systems 17

1.8 Multispectral Imaging Systems 17

1.9 Image Characteristics 18

1.10 References 19

2 Photographs from Aircraft and Satellites 21

2.1 Interactions between Light and Matter 21

2.2 Film Technology 24

2.3 Characteristics of Aerial Photographs 26

2.4 Photo-mosaics 29

2.5 Stereo Pairs of Aerial Photographs 30

2.6 Low-sun-angle Photographs 31

2.7 Black-and-white Photographs 32

2.8 Color Science 34

2.8.1 Additive Coloring 35

2.8.2 Subtractive Coloring 35

2.9 Normal Color Photographs 36

2.10 Color in Electronic Displays and Prints 38

2.11 IR Color Photographs 41

2.12 Normal Color and IR Color Photographs Compared 43

2.13 High-Altitude Aerial Photographs 45

2.14 New Technology 47

2.15 References 47

3 Visual Image Interpretation 48

3.1 Introduction 48

3.2 Aerial Photo Interpretation 51

3.3 Image Interpretation Tasks 55

3.4 Specific Elements of Visual Image Interpretation 57

3.4.1 Tone 57

3.4.2 Shadow 58

3.4.3 Pattern 59

3.4.4 Size 61

3.4.5 Site 61

3.4.6 Shape 62

3.4.7 Association 63

3.5 Minimum Mapping Unit 64

3.6 References 64

4 Digital Interpretation of Aerial Imagery 66

4.1 Introduction 66

4.2 Image 67

4.3 Digital Image 67

4.4 Digital Image Processing 69

4.5 Advantages of Digital Image Processing 71

4.6 Elements of the Digital Image Processing System 72

4.6.1 Aprocessing device (Computers,

Smart Phones, etc.) 72

4.6.2 Image Processing Software 72

4.6.3 Display Terminal 73

4.6.4 Printing Device 73

4.6.5 Storage Device 73

4.7 Procedural Steps in Digital Image Processing 73

4.7.1 Image Pre-processing 73

4.7.2 Image Enhancing 74

4.7.3 Image Transformation 74

4.7.4 Categorized Information Extraction 74

4.8 Common Terminologies 75

4.8.1 Digital Number 75

4.8.2 Pixel Depth 75

4.8.3 Band 75

4.9 References 76

5 Earth Resource and Environmental Satellites 77

5.1 Introduction 77

5.2 Various Orbital Patterns of the Earth Orbiting Satellites 78

5.3 SPOT Satellite, France 80

5.3.1 SPOT 1, 2 and 3 81

5.3.2 SPOT 4 82

5.3.3 SPOT 5 82

5.3.4 SPOT 6 and 7 82

5.4 JERS-1 Satellite, Japan 84

5.5 Indian Remote Sensing Satellites 86

5.5.1 IRS - 1A 86

5.5.2 IRS - 1B 88

5.5.3 Other Programs 89

5.6 Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites 89

5.7 Polar Orbiting NOAA Environmental Satellites 90

5.8 Remote Sensing Satellite Systems (Current and

Future Analyzed) 91

5.9 References 93

6 Landsat Images 95

6.1 Introduction 95

6.2 Landsat 1, 2, and 3 96

6.3 Landsat 4 and 5 98

6.4 Orbit Patterns 99

6.5 Selecting and Ordering Images 101

6.6 Regional Interpretation, Saudi Arabia 101

6.7 Landsat Mosaics 102

6.8 Changing Scenario of the Natural World 103

6.9 Lineaments 107

6.10 Plate Tectonic Interpretations 108

6.11 References 109

7 Radar Technology and Terrain Interactions 110

7.1 Introduction 110

7.2 Uses of Radar Systems 111

7.3 Radar Systems 113

7.3.1 Components 113

7.3.2 Imaging Systems 114

7.3.3 Typical images 115

7.3.4 Depression Angle 117

7.4 Characteristics of Radar Images 118

7.4.1 Radar Image Acquisition 118

7.4.2 Roughness and Radar Image Brightness 120

7.4.3 Other Factors Affecting Radar Brightness 121

7.5 Sources of Radar Imagery 123

7.6 References 125

8 Digital Image Processing 126

8.1 Structure of Digital Images 126

8.2 Image Processing Overview 131

8.3 Image Restoration 133

8.4 Noise Removal 140

8.5 Block-matching Algorithms 145

8.5.1 Random Field 145

8.5.2 Deep Learning 145

8.5.3 Software Programs 145

8.6 Image Enhancement 146

8.7 Information Extraction 147

8.8 References 149

9 Meteorological, Oceanographic and Environmental Applications 150

9.1 Meteorological Applications 150

9.1.1 Weather Forecasting 151

9.1.2 Aviation Meteorology 152

9.1.3 Agricultural Meteorology 152

9.1.4 Military Meteorology 152

9.1.5 Environmental Meteorology 153

9.1.6 Maritime Meteorology 153

9.1.7 Nuclear Meteorology 153

9.1.8 Hydro Meteorology 153

9.1.9 Renewable Energy 154

9.2 Oceanography 154

9.2.1 Branches 154

9.2.2 Ocean Currents 155

9.2.3 Ocean Heat Content 155

9.3 UV Radiation and Ozone Concentration 156

9.3.1 Ozone Depletion and UV Related Health Effects 157

9.4 Climate and Weather 157

9.5 Ocean Productivity 159

9.6 Sea Ice 162

9.6.1 Why is Sea Ice So Important? 162

9.6.2 Difference Between Sea Ice, Glaciers,

Icebergs, and Lake Ice 163

9.7 Bathymetry 164

9.7.1 Measurement 165

9.8 Environmental Pollution 165

9.8.1 Types of Pollution 167

9.9 References 168

10 Oil Exploration 169

10.1 Introduction 169

10.2 Sudan 171

10.3 Papua New Guinea 174

10.3.1 Achievements 175

10.4 Oil Exploration Research 176

10.4.1 Development of Research and Technology

in the Oil and Gas Sector of Norway 178

10.4.2 PETROMAKS 2 179

10.4.3 DEMO2000 179

10.5 Other Energy Resources 180

10.5.1 Coal 181

10.5.2 Uranium and Nuclear 182

10.5.3 Hydro Power 183

10.5.4 Wind 184

10.5.5 Bio-energy and Waste 184

10.5.6 Energy Effectiveness 185

10.6 References 185

11 Mineral Exploration 186

11.1 Introduction 186

11.2 Regional Lineaments and Ore Deposits of Nevada 189

11.3 Regional Lineaments and Ore Deposits of

South Africa and Australia 191

11.4 Local Fractures and Ore Deposits 193

11.5 Mapping Hydrothermally Altered Rocks 195

11.6 Goldfield Mining District, Nevada 197

11.7 Porphyry Copper Deposits 198

11.8 Collahuasi Mining District, Chile 200

11.9 Strategy for Mineral Exploration 201

11.10 References 202

12 Natural Hazards 203

12.1 Introduction 203

12.2 Causes of Natural Disaster 204

12.3 Earthquakes 205

12.4 Landslides 206

12.5 Impacts of Landslides on the Surface of the Earth 207

12.5.1 Submarine Landslides 209

12.6 Forest and Range Fires 209

12.6.1 Types of Forest Fire 210

12.6.2 Forest Fire Mitigation Measurements 211

12.7 Floods 211

12.8 Land Subsidence 213

12.8.1 Dissolution of Limestone 213

12.8.2 Subsistence Related to Groundwater 214

12.8.3 Earthquake 214

12.8.4 Seasonal Effects 215

12.8.5 Mining 215

12.9 Volcano 215

12.10 Tsunami 217

12.10.1 Tidal Wave 218

12.10.2 Seismic Sea Wave 218

12.10.3 Causes 219

12.11 References 219

13 Comparing Image Types 220

13.1 Introduction 220

13.2 Multilayer Image 221

13.3 Multispectral Image 221

13.4 Super Spectral Image 222

13.4.1 Death Valley 223

13.4.2 Physical Environment 226

13.4.3 Plant and Animal Life 227

13.4.4 Death Valley National Park 228

13.5 Summary 229

13.6 References 229

Index 230

Chapter

1 Introduction to Remote Sensing Concepts and Systems

1.1 Concepts of Remote Sensing

The concept of remote sensing can be defined as the process of gathering information regarding the objects or the areas through electromagnetic radiation without keeping any physical contact with the object. It has turned out to be the everyday business for people, which is applied through a sense of smell, vision and hearing. The process of remote sensing is assuming the surface parameters from the electromagnetic radiation measurements that are originated from the surface of the earth. The electromagnetic radiation can be effused or revolved from the surface of the earth. The concept of remote sensing can be understood as the method of measuring and investigating the reflected or emitted electromagnetic energy that originates from different objects, which proves to help recognize and categorize the class, spatial distribution and substance of these objects. Human eye remote sensing activities mainly include observing cars driving from very close, reading newspapers, staring at the lecturer during the class etc. The solar light which gets reflected from these objects is being registered by the human eyes, which further helps in interpreting the variations intensity, colors and grey tones. The data originated from this human eye observation are then translated into more functional information. It provides a source of noticing large objects at a great dimension and time-related frequencies. Without touching an object, the process of acquiring information and data is termed as remote sensing.

The role of remote sensing has catered huge importance in the broader scale of environmental aspects like zoology, forestry, geography, botany, geology, oceanography, agriculture & civil engineering. To gather necessary information regarding the environmental processes like water quality, crops, urban growth, land cover etc., earth observation satellite remote sensing is widely used. It is extensively used for civil engineering activities involving hydrological modeling, watershed studies, fluxes simulation, for disaster management services such as urban planning, drought and flood warning & monitoring etc. Remote sensing plays a useful role in developing a better understanding of the concept related to the ecological system of the earth. It has multiple uses in the real day to day business activities through which it gathered its importance in several fields. It is used for agricultural practices to detect nutrient or water shortage and crop development.

Remote sensing is also known as earth observation, which is mainly referred to as the method, technique or instrumentation, which is applied to sense or observe the earth’s surface by developing an image in a position at a distance, which is very much remote from the earth surface. Remote sensing plays a vital role in measuring the ozone hole in the atmosphere, understanding different types of ozone concentration dynamics in the atmosphere, and to identify the differences of the ozone concentration between the northern hemisphere and the southern hemisphere. The use of remote sensing is comparatively very high, which serves to meet the various purposes of the business activities. Valuable information is collected through remote sensing, which is used for forest maintenance and monitoring the natural reserves of the forests.

1.2 Stages of Remote Sensing

The process of remote sensing undergoes through different stages. The important stages of remote sensing mainly include:

• Release of electromagnetic radiation

• Energy circulation from the source to the object

• EMR interactivity and successive emission and reflection

• Energy transmission from the object to the sensor

• Noting of energy or radiation by a sensor

• Noted information is transferred to the ground station

• Data processing into hard copy or digital image

• Performing the data analysis

Figure 1.1: Stages of remote sensing

1.3 Benefits of Remote Sensing

There are numerous benefits of remote sensing. Some of the few advantages of remote sensing are given below:

• Remote sensing helps in gathering data over different resolutions and scales.

• Remote sensing permits wide-area coverage, which allows regional surveys on different types of identifications and themes are holding numerous features.

• While gathering data on a variety of themes like agricultural fields, water etc., remote sensing entitles automatic coverage.

• The remote sensing data are digital, which can be easily analyzed and processed on a computer.

• Remote sensing enables map revision at a scale of small to medium that turns it faster and less expensive.

• Through the process of remote sensing, the data that are collected are further analyzed and evaluated at the laboratory by lowering down the amount of work that needs to be undertaken on the field.

• In remote sensing, the synoptic view can be obtained.

• The data that is remotely sensed can be analyzed and processed in a very easy and fast manner with the help of a computer, which is further used for several other purposes.

• Through remote sensing, one can easily locate forest fire or floods that can spread over a wide region. This, in turn, proves to help make plans to rescue the mission easily.

• Remote sensing helps in generating the color composition from three individual band images than a single band image or photograph by way of rendering in-depth details of the area.

• It furnishes data of every unreachable and remote region.

1.4 Drawbacks of Remote Sensing

Apart from its advantages, remote sensing systems also hold some of the disadvantages in its functioning process. The below-mentioned points are some of the drawbacks of the remote sensing system.

• The information that is derived from the remote sensing data may be temporary and incomplete.

• Remote sensing data collection sometimes incomplete because most of the time large-scale engineering maps cannot be made from the satellite data.

• The areas or objects can be confused or misclassified.

• Confusion may arise as the data are mostly collected from multiple sources.

• For gathering the small area details, the method of remote sensing does not prove to be cost-effective and cheap. It is an expensive process.

• For analyzing and interpreting the data of remote sensing, skilled persons are needed.

• Most of the satellite imagery is expensive.

• While analyzing the imagery, the availability of clouds can result in an