Mathematics for Real Applications

Mathematics for Real Applications

Mathematics for Real Applications

Amaranaath Mehra

Preface

Sitting in front of the computer and writing a nonfiction book about an important problem plaguing the world today is a massive task. It is a concern very close to my heart and mind and always wanted to bring it to the notice of the audience or the general public. Written in simple language, so that even a non-specialist can understand it, the book is for the masses as it is for the authority and the people concerned. It is a discipline which has to be practiced by the populace and the people in power who can initiate laws and rules. also for scientists involved in research and analytical work.

This book works on the principles of controlling environmental pollution caused by various means and certain ways in which it can be curtailed. The primary aim is to make the public aware of different air pollutants and their harmful effects. How the masses contribute to aggravating the air pollution scenario and what each individual’s duty is in curbing it by their responsible actions. The detailed study of different air pollutants effect on human health and the result in the totality of air pollution on the world environment and landscape.

A lot of research went into the detailing where a hands-on approach was applied. Actual sites visited and methods seen and understood and data collected. Together with my inputs and suggestions have come up with unique and novel ways to combat air pollution and its survival. Any solution has to be long lasting, in particular when it relates to human health and mortality rates. So it’s an ongoing process where researchers and environmentalists, keep studying the subject to come up with innovations and improvising on the present methodology.

The inspiration of the book came when I came across people suffering from asthmatic attacks and severe lung problems due to air pollen or allergic to chemicals floating in the environment. Also the depletion of the ozone layer and global warming due to which world temperatures were changing affecting the lives of living beings and vegetation as well-propelled me to pen my thoughts.

The world atmosphere is changing because of the disposal of wastes in the wrong way and continuous emission of harmful gas from vehicles and industries. Ignorance of the masses regarding the use of plastics and burning of fossil fuels, releasing hazardous chemicals and gases into the atmosphere is what this book is about. It brings into forefront the still inadequate measures taken for the world environment which are not helping it in a full proof way. Lots need to be done to give a much cleaner and healthy air for our future generations to breathe in. For this, an oath has to be taken by the public to obliterate the use of plastics and be very careful when it comes to disposal of wastes. Throwing it in drains and water basins ruins the ecological balance and leads to clogging and destroying marine lives. Also, improper burning of wastes and fuels releases carbon dioxide into the air and other poisonous gases in the substrate of the atmosphere resulting in rapid air pollution.

With growing urbanization, industries and power plants have sprouted everywhere, which do not adhere to environmental protection laws, add to the air pollution by emitting toxic gases like sulfur dioxide and nitrogen dioxide in the environment. These lead to further environmental degradation.

The book helps in bringing to light the different air pollution control engineering methods as well as laws implied for controlling air pollution along with the data regarding the emissions from power plants and human endeavor. The purpose is to enlighten the public and also bring to their notice the ongoing work done by environmentalists and engineers alike to reduce air pollution and bring it to desired levels for humans and plants in totality.

Deforestation for the building of cities and infrastructure has taken a toll on the world environment as trees are a significant source of oxygen needed for human breathing. Plants take in harmful carbon dioxide and release oxygen during photosynthesis. This helps in maintaining the ecological system in general, but with the cutting of trees oxygen level has come down filling the air with harmful toxic gases. Resulting in acid rain and disturbance of the ecosystem.

This book is a unique take on issues disturbing the world environment and its possible solutions and outcomes. A book for the people implementing laws in regards to harmful emissions from industries and students who want to take this field as their study options.

The book is divided into chapters with different segments dealing with various issues of air pollution control. Each segment has subheadings making it easier for you to go to the relevant topic. Each topic has been researched broadly, and the applicable data collected and analyzed and then converted into the book to make it easier for the reader to read and understand it.

The first chapter deals with air pollution and its effect on human health and the landscape in general. It also tackles how the United States dealt with it and its policies towards it. The environmental governing bodies and the removal of air pollutants from the air.

The second chapter is a synopsis about the impacts it has on the economy and human health. Majorly on the different body systems, it affects human anatomy like the reproductive system, visibility, lungs, etc.

The third chapter is a summary of the laws, rules and regulations and the legislation passed by the government to control air pollution

In the fourth chapter, it’s a mathematical analysis of air pollution measurements, emission data, air quality index and also emissions from different sources. Also, it deals with an active and passive sampling of air pollutants.

The fifth chapter is about meteorological aspects, the atmosphere and the vertical and horizontal movements for air pollution control engineers.

In the sixth chapter, we come across various models to check air pollution concentration, the quality of air pollutant formation and decaying in the environment

The seventh chapter is about resource recovery and the fate of air pollutants and how to control them.

In the eighth, it is all about primary and secondary air pollutants and their particulate size distribution. The behavior of particulates in the atmosphere and their effect on human health.

The ninth is about the different methods employed in cutting air pollution levels. Processes like wet scrubbing, fabric filters or baghouses, the absorption are discussed in detail.

In the tenth chapter, it is all about volatile organic compounds [VOC], how to control them and what are their sources and dangers to children health.

The eleventh chapter is about sulfur oxides and their negative impacts on the atmosphere and the health of the public. Methods of removing it and other control technologies.

This chapter is all about nitrogen oxides, their sources, effects on the environment and human health and technologies used to remove it.

The thirteenth chapter deals with understanding the different ways of emission of harmful gases like tailpipe emissions, storage, and transfer emissions and their control. The use of direct sustainable energy like bio, hydroelectric solar energy to save the world environment.

In the fourteenth, it is about air pollutants and the effect on the global ecosystem. Climate changes, acid rain, global warming, and their potential solutions are looked into.

The last chapter deals with the general mix of toxic gases, their names and their effects on the atmosphere. Various types of poisonous air pollutants, indoor and outdoor and their effects on human health and the ecological balance is also discussed in it.

Air pollution is volcanic like issue facing the world today and needs to be tackled efficiently and adequately. With innovations and new research and the government’s worldwide taking a keen interest in it, it is also the responsibility of the common man to do his bit to handle air pollution.

Chapter 1

A Brief About Air Pollution Control

Air pollution is the infliction of the atmospheric air with foreign particles, gas emissions, dirty smoke or biological degradation which chokes human and animal breathing causing wide-scale harm to all living beings. It is the degradation of the natural air prevalent in the sub-atmospheric level harmful for human existence. Clean air is an essential requirement for breathing to prevent all kinds of diseases and infections.

The environment is mainly contaminated by two pollutants, one which gets directly emitted in the air and the second which gets emitted in the air due to some chemical reactions. First are known as primary pollutants and the latter ones are known as secondary pollutants.

Pollution from greenhouse gas emissions and climatic reactions are other factors contributing to an increase in the pollution levels. So there arises a need to control air pollution for the survival of the human race.

Air pollution control aims at controlling pollution at both these levels. Primary pollutants are much easier to manage than secondary pollutants because in the secondary one, the chemical reaction which forms it has to be studied and the compound which triggers it along with its source. This is a problematic area where atmospheric substrata reactions have to be minutely gauged. It gets further complicated if the formation of the secondary pollutant has taken place due to a complex irregular combination of the sources. This is an area of extensive field and laboratory research work involving mathematical analysis which is then simulated on air quality model to learn their effect on air pollutants as they spread and react in the atmospheric air.

Fig. 1.1: Classification of Air Pollutants

Air pollution is also caused by deforestation as well as with the depletion of the ozone layer. Contamination of water and land constructions add up to the pollution levels. Gasses emitted from industries, power, and heat generators waste products, plastics, fuel combustion, and engines.

Also, there is indoor air pollution along with the outdoors. The components contributing to indoor pollution are organic compounds, natural elements, fuel by-products and the gasses emitted like carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, etc. These poisonous gasses also cause outdoor pollution along with sulfur dioxide, ozone, nitrogen oxide, lead, and other degradable substances. Most of us are aware of outdoor pollution, but in the 80’s, we acknowledged the presence of indoor pollution.

1.1 How Air Pollution can Affect Us

•Reduces the quality and quantity of agricultural products

•Animal and poultry life are reduced.

•Soil gets contaminated

•The vision of humans is affected.

•It leads to breathing problems and diseases of the lungs.

It has so many health hazards to humans and animals alike and is equally dangerous for plant and crop life that it poses a severe threat to humankind. So, air pollution needs to be tackled at the grass root level itself. Human life is of primary importance and then comes the rest. There is high congestion of pollution in certain places like highways, truck shops, toll booths, etc. Also in slums and minority community’s toxin levels be high and is a matter of concern.

Health concerns relating to pollution are neurological, vascular, cardiac, pulmonary disorders. Mortality rates have been directly induced by it. The places where air pollution concentration is high, the cases of asthma attacks are reported more. This can continue for 2 to 3 days and are generally associated with short term exposure but where there is long term exposure to pollutants risk of cancer and other chronic diseases increases. Different races of mankind have been found to react in various measures to exposure to pollutants. Also, old people and small children are adversely affected by it.

Land, water and coastal ecosystems are severely damaged due to the contamination. Water gets contaminated by acidic deposition which results in loss of aquatic balance. Air also deposits chemicals like mercury in water which is hazardous for marine life and if it gets cycled in the food chain forms the major poisonous substance for all living organisms.

Invisibility problems in forests become acute due to air pollution. A smoky film envelops the landscape and makes it hazy and indistinct from far off. The air pollutants present in the air absorbs light and reduces the clarity of sight and reduces brightness. In the wild, these air pollutants generate major visibility problems and also endanger wild species.

Due to this, rules and regulations to control and prevent the emission of toxic gases along with other poisonous substances were implied by various governments, across the world which will help in reducing the air pollution levels. To do so, several research centers and observatories have been established for the betterment of our environment and human health. Industrial and traffic rules are made where strict rules have to be followed regarding harmful gas emission. Air quality is tried to maintain by various means and strategies to improve the ecosystem in general. Scientific research and technical inputs are undertaken to bring the air pollution levels to controllable limits.

1.2 Rules and Regulations for Air Pollution Control in the US

Air pollution control policies came into existence way back in the USA when the government realized the effects of it. In the fifties, cities like Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles, with alarming rates of air pollution caught the eye of the governors of the United States. They immediately formed rules and regulations to control it. Then the sixties and seventies saw air pollutants in the air rising due to vehicle gas emissions and smokes from factories and industries. Warning signals came from acid rains as a cross-boundary issue as forests in Germany were getting destroyed increase in the acid levels of water bodies in Scandinavian countries. Emission from minor sources like fuel combustion, carbon dioxide production, community inherent emissions added to the destruction of the environment. The seventies saw the invisible air pollutants increasing in the USA which resulted in accidents which made the US government stand up and take action.

Due to the increased levels of air pollution across the world as per the incidents reported, the governments were forced to take strong actions to control it. In Donora Penn, in 1948 the toxic gas emissions caused a fog like conditions for 4 days and almost 700 people fell sick, and 20 people died in the US. Another mishap which occurred in the Three Mile Island USA due to radiation of radionuclide made the US government inculcate new legislation and preventive measures.

1.2.1 Studies and Research Done for Air Pollution Control in the USA

After knowing the adverse effects of air pollution, the US government took several strict steps to control it. The history of control goes back a long time when the US Congress came into action and set up committee’s and passed rules. In 1970, an iconic year when the US Congress Amendment bill – Clean Air Act was passed and approved to curb air pollution. It further translated into setting up of the country’s air quality standards. This Clean Air Act is a country level exercise to control the pollution in the air and is a Federal Law of the state. The most potent environmental bills, the first of its kind and one of the most compact laws to control air pollution. Administered by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency in association with the local, tribal and state governments it implements the rules and regulations in it.

On 17th December, the 88th Congress of the US enacted the Clean Air Act of 1963

The Air pollution Control Act of 1955 was the first U.S. Federal Legislation that addressed air pollution. Funds were allocated for research work related to air pollution, which was followed by the 1963 clean air act – a genuine endeavor to control air pollution. A federal program within the U.S. Public Health Service was started which was authorized to do research work into the technicalities of controlling and studying air pollution.

In 1965, the Motor Vehicle Air Pollution Control Act was passed as an amendment to the previous bill which directed the federal governments to set limits for controlling the emission of pollutants from automobiles.

In 1967, a second amendment was passed which investigated the air pollution from transport between states and standing source inspections. It also started more research into this matter of pollutant emission inventories’ and ways to control it. More funding was allocated to the states so that by 1970, all 50 states had air pollution control monitoring in place. Regulations were set in for the standard amount of air pollutant emission from both industrial pollution source (stationary) and mobile pollution source (vehicles).

Amendments to the Air Pollution Act was made in 1990 to look into the increasing problems of ozone layer depletion, acid rain due to deforestation and other poisonous gas emissions. New amendments set Reid vapor pressure (RVP) which studies evaporative emissions from gasoline and formulated new ways for gasoline production.

President George Bush in his tenure under the leadership of William Reilly passed the amendment to the 1990 clean air act as his most notable accomplishments.

The Clean Air Act was the first and very important environmental law passed in the US which also has a clause for a citizen suit. Following this most of the states and their local administration have passed federal laws or legislation for enacting the clean air act.

1.3 Revolutionary Years in U.S. Environmental Protection Act – 1969-1970

On 28 January 1969, on drilling an oil well in Santa Barbara, California, there was an outpouring of gassy grey mud with an ear-deafening sound splashing the workers with mucus like substance. The well was sealed for the time, and the matter was finished, but after some days, gas bubbles were seen polluting the water close by. Oil at an approximate rate of 210,000 gallons per day was flowing across the ocean floor, was cutting it and creating a gap and rising to the top of the ocean waves. The residents of this town were alarmed at seeing their beaches spoilt by oil and dead seabirds covered with oil.

This came in the notice of the local government and the country at large by newspapers and television. Loud protests and rallies were held by the activists and environmentalists alike to stop the excavation of oil in the Santa Barbara area. Richard Nixon was newly appointed the president of America and on hearing about this incident came on a tour of that place and talked to reporters from the beach. This brought the focus of this oil spill on the national level which is a great danger to the environment. He assured America that he would do everything possible to prevent it.

This incident was the turning point in the history of the American environmental act. It changed the mindset of an entire generation of Americans towards air pollution. Before it was hardly a topic in the government circles, but now there was a growing concern among the authorities regarding air pollution and environmental issues.

The incident happened way back in 1969 which led the nation to focus on the adverse effects of air pollution as well as the destruction of the environment. There were several legislations made before too related to air quality and pollution, but the federal government started giving real efforts in 1969, resulting in the implementation of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), in 1970, by an executive order of resident Richard Nixon. The law brought the issue to the forefront of the law enforcing agencies. The clean air act amendments in 1970 further accentuated the need for national air quality standards.

Around 1960 environmentalists with the help of air pollution control calculators started noticing an enormous amount of sulfur and acid in the snow and rain at that time. There was even a disturbing element of the disappearance of fishes in rivers and lakes linked to it. It happened due to the increased issue of acid rain. This reiterated the attention of the public, the media and the federal government on the issues of air pollution and environmental cleanup and its implications on people’s health and the animals as well.

So in 1969, Greenpeace was formed. It was started as a nuclear testing combat organization, but it was turned into an international movement to control air pollution and preserve the air quality and restore the balance in the environment.

In January 1970, an agreement to form the National Environment Policy Act, (NEPA) is signed. It is a resolution which passes mandates for the effect it will have on the environment when a new construction project for the setting up of new power-plants or highways or industries is undertaken. This was formed after the outcry of the public regarding air pollution and looks after construction, policies, and programs of the government as well as the private parties.

On 22nd April 1970, Earth Day was formed by environmentalists and the government officials. A huge number of Americans almost approximately twenty million marked the Earth Day which was undertaken as an appeal to the world regarding the need to conserve the environment and the health hazards of polluted air. So, it was a public declaration to protect the environment at any cost for the future generation. The day was marked by massive rallies, demonstration, lectures, and environmental protection work as a way to increase awareness among the general public regarding the benefits of conserving the environment.

And then in December 1970, EPA (Environment Protection Agency) was created by the then president Richard Nixon. This act was the result of the Earth Day and the NEPA agreement which set a precedent for the setting of this landmark and historic legislation. This was also the cumulative effect of the environmental issues floating in the air everywhere and was the precursor for many amendments to follow later on to restrict air pollution.

A huge hue and cry of the public in the 1969s and 1970s regarding dirty water, the continuous spoiling of the American continent, pollution, smog was killing the nation’s appeal and creating innumerable health problems. Emission from auto fuels was too high and could lead to congenital disabilities. Some cities started emitting a foul smell, and the clean oxygen air was getting depleted.

The U.S. was high up in the world in environmental degradation which was sweeping the world all over. The population of the U.S. was 5.7% of the global population in the 1970s but was consuming 40% of the natural resources. This was pretty high in relation to the normal consumption. The reason cited was that the heavy consumption was above the mere economic ability to consume since the idea behind the building up of the U.S. was its vast natural landscape and its virgin territory. This brought to the public domain that what resources they had thought to be infinite was in fact limited and also the land was getting exhausted. There was a significant backlash from all sides to prevent the exploitation of the environment at the hands of some people and industries.

These events, public demand, the voice of the environmentalists, the media, all came to a head in the 1970s and reached the ears of the president, Richard Nixon which forced him to take adherence of this growing environmental concern. It was a degree of concern for the nation which made him set up the advisory committee to take heed of air pollution problems and its possible solutions.

1.4 Policies for Removal of Polluted Air and Gas Emission

Dirty air is calculated by different air pollution indices and is carried by the pollution regulatory agencies. The EPA has determined the Pollutant Standard Index (PSI) find out the air quality information in the United States. Dirty air is formed with five main pollutants which are nitrogen dioxide, sulfur dioxide, ozone, carbon monoxide along with the total suspended particulate. The calculation is based on a scale of 0-500 where the measurement above 100 implies possible health hazards while the real alerts are declared when the scale goes above 200, 300 and 400 levels. If the range is below 100, air quality is acceptable and within reach.

We calculate the pollutants emitting from specific sources and measure the quantity of gas emitted from that source. It includes emission from specific plants in operation along with the equation of ambient air pollutant concentrations to definite sources. Gas emission from petrol driven cars and two-wheelers is the most difficult to control.

The U.S. government has endeavored to protect public health since 1970. EPA together with regulatory programs and voluntary partnership programs does its bit in protecting the environment and toxic fuel emission. The clean air combination programs aim at decreasing hazardous greenhouse gas emissions, increase energy utility, bring down the regular air pollution.

Clean air act has reduced air pollution for more than forty-five years now as industrialization has grown and the economy has risen in the U.S. This has brought down tremendously, environmental loss from dirty air. Health concerns for humans have decreased. They inhale a much cleaner air than the highly polluted one and so chronic health issues related to polluted air has reduced like an asthmatic attack. Also, the expenses for maintaining clean air is less than the accrued benefit.

Restrictions imposed on fuel emission from vehicles like new cars, trucks and non-road engines have greatly improved the environment. To control the emission of dirty air, State of the art techniques are employed. Industries