REPRODUCTIVE SYTEM

MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The scrotum is a sac of skin and superficial fascia that hangs outside the abdominopelvic cavity at the root of the penis and houses the testes Provides an environment three degrees below the core body temperature Responds to temperature changes: help maintain a fairly constant intrascrotal temperature and reflects the activity of two sets of scrotal muscles When it is cold, the testes are pulled closer to the warmth of the body wall, and the scrotum becomes shorter and heavily wrinkled to reduce heat loss When it is warm, the scrotal skin is flaccid and loose to increase the surface area for cooling, and the testes hang lower

TESTIS STRUCTURE

ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The testes are the primary reproductive organ of the male, producing both sperm and testosterone The testes are divided into lobules with seminiferous tubules inside, where sperm are produced
Each lobule converge to form a tubule that conveys sperm to the epididymis which hugs the external testis surface

Interstitial cells are found in the connective tissue surrounding the seminiferous tubules and produce testosterone

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF TESTIS

ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Spermatic cord: connective tissue sheath enclosing:
Testicular arteries Testicular veins Lymph vessels Nerves Vas (ductus) deferens

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF TESTIS

TESTIS STRUCTURE

MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Although testicular cancer is relatively rare, it is the most common cancer in young men (15-35) A history of mumps or orchitis (inflammation of the testis) increases the risk, but the most important risk factor for this cancer is cryptorchidism (nondescent of the testes)

ANATOMY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The penis is the copulatory organ, designed to deliver sperm into the female reproductive tract: The penis is made of an attached root, a free shaft or body that ends in the glans The prepuce, or foreskin, covers the penis and may be slipped back to form a cuff around the glans Removed in a procedure called circumcision Internally the penis contains the corpus spongiosum (surrounds the urethra) and the corpora cavernosum (paired dorsally), two erectile tissues: Spongy network of connective tissue and smooth muscle riddled with vascular spaces During sexual excitement, the vascular spaces fill with blood, causing the penis to enlarge and become rigid (erection) Enables the penis to serve as a penetrating organ

STRUCTURE OF PENIS

Male Duct System Epididymis

Epididymis consists of a highly coiled tube that provides a place for immature sperm to mature and to be expelled during ejaculation
Gain increased motility and fertilizing power

When a male is sexually stimulated and ejaculates, the smooth muscle in the epididymis walls contracts, expelling sperm into the next segment of the duct system, the ductus (vas) deferens Sperm can be stored in the epididymis for several months, but if held longer, they are eventually phagocytized by epithelial cells of the epididymis

Male Duct System Ductus Deferens and Ejaculatory Duct

The ductus deferens, or vas deferens, carries sperm from storage sites in the epididymis, through the inguinal canal, over the urinary bladder, and into the ejaculatory duct Each ejaculatory duct enters the prostate gland where it empties into the urethra Smooth muscles in its walls create strong peristaltic waves that rapidly squeeze the sperm forward

Male Duct System Ductus Deferens and Ejaculatory Duct

Vasectomy:
Minor operation in which a small incision is made into the scrotum and then cuts through and ligates (ties off/ cut) the ductus (vas) deferens
Sperm are still produced for the next several years, but they can no longer reach the body exterior
They deteriorate and are phagocytized

Vasectomy

Vasectomy

Vasectomy

Vasectomy

Male Duct System Urethra

The urethra is the terminal portion of the male duct system and carries both urine and sperm (not at the same time) to the exterior environment

MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Accessory Glands

The paired seminal vesicles: on the posterior urinary bladder wall: accounts for 60%of the volume of semen Fluid produced contains: An alkaline secretion: Neutralizes the acid environment of the males urethra and the females vagina, thereby protecting the delicate sperm and enhancing their motility Coagulating enzyme (vesiculase) Coagulates the semen after it is ejaculated Liquified by enzyme fibrinolysin Provides nearly all the nutrients Fructose, ascorbic acid Prostaglandins: decreases the viscosity of mucus guarding the entry (cervix) of the uterus and stimulates reverse peristalsis in the uterus, facilitating sperm movement through the female reproductive tract

MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Accessory Glands

The single prostate gland: milky fluid about 30% of semen Fluid produced:
A slightly acidic secretion Citrate: compound of citric acid and a base (nutrient source) Several enzymes:
Fibrinolysin: liquifies the coagulated mass due to the coagulating enzyme vesiculase
Enables the sperm to swim out of the mass and begin their journey through the female duct system

Hyaluronidase: breaks down covering of ovum Acid phosphate: demineralization or resorptioin of bone Prostate-specific antigen (PSA): increases sperm motility

MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM Accessory Glands

The paired bulbourethral glands,or Cowpers glands:
Produce a thick, clear mucus prior to ejaculation that neutralizes any acidic urine in the urethra and female vagina

MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

SEMEN
Semen is a milky white, somewhat sticky mixture of sperm and accessory gland secretions that provide nutrients, neutralizing agents, and transport medium for sperm:
Additional components:
Hormone relaxin: enhance sperm motility pH: 7.2-7.6
Helps neutralize the acid environment of the male urethra and the females vagina Very sluggish in acidic conditions (below pH 6)

Antibiotic: seminalplasmin
Destroys certain bacteria

2-5 ml per ejaculation (50-130 million sperm per millimeter)

MALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Male Sexual Response:

Erection, enlargement, and stiffening of the penis results from the engorgement of the erectile tissues with blood triggered during sexual excitement Ejaculation is the propulsion of semen from the male duct system triggered by the sympathetic nervous system

Erection

Enlargement and stiffening of the penis Results from the engorgement of the erectile bodies with blood Not sexually aroused: Arterioles supplying the erectile tissue are constricted and the penis is flaccid During sexual excitement: Parasympathetic reflex is triggered that promotes release of nitric oxide locally Nitric oxide (NO) relaxes vascular smooth muscle, causing these arterioles to dilate Allows the erectile bodies to fill with blood Expansion of the corpora cavernosa of the penis compresses their drainage veins, retarding blood outflow and maintaining engorgement Corpus spongiosum expands but not nearly as much as the cavernosa Its main job is to keep the urethra open during ejaculation Stimulates the bulbourethral (Cowpers) gland secretion which causes lubrication of the glans penis

Ejaculation
Propulsion of semen from the male duct system:
While erection is under parasympathetic control, ejaculation is under sympathetic control

When impulses provoking erection reach a certain critical level, a spinal reflex is initiated, and a massive discharge of nerve impulses occurs over the sympathetic nerves serving the genital organs (L1 and L2) causes:
Climax/orgasm:
The reproductive ducts and accessory glands contract, emptying their contents into the urethra The urinary bladder sphincter muscle constricts, preventing expulsion of urine or reflux of semen into the urinary bladder The bulbospongiosus muscles of the penis undergo a rapid series of contraction, propelling semen at a speed of up to 500 cm/s (200 inches/s) from the urethra

STRUCTURE OF PENIS

Spermatogenesis
A series of events in the seminiferous tubules that produce male gametes (sperm or spermatozoa) Every day, a healthy adult male produces about 400 million sperm

HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

Diploid (Somatic cells) chromosomal number (2n): 46
23 homologous pairs
One member of each pair from Mom One member of each from Dad

Therefore:
23 chromosomes from Mom 23 chromosomes from Dad

HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

Haploid (Monoploid) chromosome number (n): 23 Produced by Meiosis Homologous chromosomes separate
Each gametes contains only one member of each homologous pair

HUMAN LIFE CYCLE

Spermatogenesis
Meiosis consists of two consecutive nuclear divisions and the production of four daughter cells with half as many cells as a normal body cell:
Meiosis I: reduces the number of chromosomes in a cell from 46 to 23 by separating homologous chromosomes into different cells Meiosis II: resembles mitosis in every way, except the chromatids are separated into four cells

COMPARISON OF MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS IN A

MOTHER CELL WITH A DIPLOID NUMBER (2N) OF 4

MEIOTIC CELL DIVISION INTERPHASE

MEIOSIS I

MEIOSIS II

INTERNAL STRUCTURE OF TESTIS

SCANNING ELECTRON MICROGRAPH OF A CROSS-SECTIONAL VIEW OF A SEMINIFEROUS TUBULE

Mitosis of Spermatogonia
Outermost tubule cells, which are in direct contact with the epithelial basal lamina, are stem cells called spermatogonia:
Divide by mitosis Until puberty all their daughter cells become spermatogonia

SPERMATOGENESIS

Spermatogenesis Formation of Spermatocytes

Begins during puberty After (puberty), each mitotic division of a spermatogonium results in two distinctive daughter cells
Type A daughter cell:
Remains at the basement membrane to maintain the germ cell line (stem cell line)

Type B daughter cell:

Gets pushed toward the lumen, where it becomes a primary spermatocyte destined to produce four sperm

SPERMATOGENESIS

Meiosis: Spermatocytes to Spermatids

Each primary spermatocyte generated during the first phase undergoes: one replication followed by two divisions:
Meiosis I: forming two smaller secondary spermatocytes Meiosis II: secondary spermatocytes divide forming four early spermatids (n)
Closer to the lumen of the tubule Nonmotile

SPERMATOGENESIS

Spermiogenesis: Spermatids to Sperm

A streamlining process that strips the spermatid of excess cytoplasm and forms a tail resulting in a sperm with a head, a midpiece, and a tail Now is a sperm (spermatozoon) Head: contains the nucleus Acrosome:
Lysosome-like Produced by Golgi apparatus Contains hydrolytic enzymes
Enable sperm to penetrate and enter egg

Midpiece: mitochondria tightly packed around the contractile filaments Tail: typical flagellum produced by a centriole

TRANSFORMATION OF SPERMATID INTO SPERM

Role of the Sustentacular Cells Sertoli Cells

Throughout spermatogenesis, descendants of the same speramatogonium remain closely attached to one another by cytoplasmic bridges:
They are also surrounded by and connected to supporting cells of a special type, called sustentacular cells (Sertoli cells), which extend from the basal lamina to the lumen of the tubule

SPERMATOGENESIS

Role of the Sustentacular Cells Sertoli Cells

The sustentacular cells, bound to each other by tight junctions, divide the seminiferous tubule into two compartments
Basal compartment extends from the basal lamina to their tight junctions and contains spermatogonia and the earliest primary spermatocytes Adluminal compartment lies internal to the tight junction and includes the meiotically active cells and the tubule lumen

SPERMATOGENESIS

Role of the Sustentacular Cells Sertoli Cells

Tight junctions between the sustentacular cells form a blood-testis barrier that prevents membrane-bound antigens of differentiating sperm from escaping through the basal lamina into the bloodstream:
Because sperm are not formed until puberty, they are absent when the immune system is being programmed to recognize ones own tissues early in life The spermatogonia, which are recognized as self, are outside the barrier and thus can be influenced by bloodborne chemical messengers that prompt spermatogenesis

SPERMATOGENESIS

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE

According to some studies, a gradual decline in male fertility has been occurring in the past 50 years Some believe the main cause is environmental toxins, PVCs (polyvinyl chloride) used in plastics (water lines, etc), or especially compounds with estrogenic effects:
These compounds, which block the action of male sex hormones as they program sexual development, are now found in our meat supply as well as in the air

Common antibiotics such as tetracycline may suppress sperm formation; and radiation, lead, certain components of pesticides, marijuana, lack of selenium, and excessive alcohol can cause abnormal (two-headed, multiple-tailed, etc.) sperm to be produced Male infertility may also be caused by the lack of a specific type of Ca2+ channel (Ca2+ is needed for normal sperm motility), anatomical obstructions, and hormonal imbalances A low sperm count accompanied by a high percentage of immature sperm may hint a man has a varicocele (condition that hinders drainage of the testicular vein, resulting in an elevated temperature in the scrotum that interferes with normal sperm development)

Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproductive Function

Involves interactions between the hypothalamus, anterior pituitary gland, and testes, a relationship sometimes called the braintesticular axis:
1.The hypothalamus releases gonadotropinreleasing hormone (GnRH), which controls the release of the anterior pituitary gonadotropins, folliclestimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
Both FSH and LH were named for their effects on the female gonad

Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproductive Function

2. Binding of GnRH to pituitary cells (gonadotrophs) prompts them to secrete FSH and LH into the blood

Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproductive Function

3. FSH stimulates spermatogenesis indirectly: FSH stimulates the sustentacular cells to release androgen-binding protein (ABP) ABP prompts the spermatogenic cells to bind and concentrate testosterone, which in turn stimulates spermatogenesis Thus, FSH makes the cells receptive to testosterones stimulatory effects

Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproductive Function

4. LH, also called interstitial cellstimulating hormone (ICSH) in males:
Binds to the interstitial cells, prodding them to secrete testosterone (and a small amount of estrogen)
Locally, testosterone serves as the final trigger for spermatogenesis Testosterone entering the bloodstream exerts a number of effects at other body sites

Hormonal Regulation of Male Reproductive Function

5. Testosterone inhibits hypothalamus release of GnRH and acts directly on the anterior pituitary gland to inhibit gonadotropin release (negative feedback): Inhibin, a protein hormone produced by the sustentacular cells serves as a barometer of the normalcy of spermatogenesis (negative feedback): When the sperm count is high, inhibin release increases and it inhibits anterior pituitary release of FSH and hypothalamus release of GnRH When sperm count falls below 20 million/ml, inhibin secretion declines steeply and increases the pituitary FSH release and the hypothalamus GnRH release

BRAIN-TESTICULAR AXIS HORMONAL REGULATION OF TESTICULAR FUNCTION

Mechanism and Effects of Testosterone Activity

Testosterone is synthesized from cholesterol and exerts its effect by activating specific genes to transcribe messenger RNA molecules, which results in enhanced synthesis of certain proteins in the target cells Testosterone targets accessory organs (ducts, glands, and penis) causing them to grow and assume adult size and function In some target cells, testosterone must be transformed into another steroid to exert its effect: Prostate gland: converted to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) Certain neurons of the brain to estrogen Testosterone induces male secondary sex characteristics: pubic, axillary, and facial hair, deepening of the voice (enlargement of larynx), thickening of the skin and an increase in oil production, and an increase in bone and skeletal muscle size and mass Small amounts are produced in the adrenal cortex glands

BRAIN-TESTICULAR AXIS HORMONAL REGULATION OF TESTICULAR FUNCTION

ANATOMY OF THE FEMALE RERODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The ovaries, the female gonads, are the primary reproductive organs of the female The ovaries produce the female gametes (ova or egg) and the sex hormones (estrogen and progesterone) The accessory ducts (uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina) transport or otherwise serve the needs of the reproductive cells and a developing fetus

MIDSAGITTAL SECTION OF FEMALE PELVIS SHOWING ORGANS OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

OVARIES
The paired ovaries are found on either side of the uterus and are held in place by several ligaments:
Broad ligament: a peritoneal fold that tents over the uterus and supports the uterine tubes, uterus, and vagina
Encloses the following individual ligaments:
Ovarian ligament anchors the ovary medially to the uterus Suspensory ligament anchors the ovary laterally to the pelvic wall Mesovarium suspends the ovary in between

POSTERIOR VIEW OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

OVARIES
The arteries are served by the ovarian arteries, branches of the abdominal aorta and by the ovarian branch of the uterine arteries The ovarian blood vessels reach the ovaries by traveling through the suspensory ligaments and mesovaria

OVARIES
Like a testis, an ovary is surrounded externally by a fibrous tuncia albuginea, which is in turn covered externally by a layer of cuboidal epithelial cells called the germinal epithelium, which is continuous with the peritoneum Term germinal epithelium is a misnomer because this layer does not give rise to ova Outer cortex houses the forming gametes Inner medullary region contains the largest blood vessels and nerves

STRUCTURE OF AN OVARY

OVARIES
Embedded in the highly vascular connective tissue of the ovary cortex are many saclike structures called ovarian follicles:
Each consist of an immature egg, called an oocyte, encased by one or more layers of different cells:
Surrounding cells are called follicle cells if a single layer is present
Granulosa cells when more than one layer is present

STRUCTURE OF AN OVARY

OVARIES
Follicles at different stages of maturation are distinguished by their structure:
Primordial follicle: one layer of squamouslike follicle cells surrounds the oocyte Primary follicle: has two or more layers of cuboidal or columnartype granulosa cells enclosing the oocyte Secondary follicle: when fluidfilled spaces form between the granulosa cells of the Primary Follicle, it is now a Secondary Follicle
Fluid filled spaces coalesce to form a central fluid-filled cavity called an antrum

Mature vesicular follicle (Graafian follicle): bulges from the surface of the ovary

OVARIES
Each month in adult women, one of the ripening follicles ejects its oocyte from the ovary, an event called ovulation After ovulation, the ruptured follicle is transformed into the corpus luteum, which eventually degenerates If pregnancy has occurred, the corpus luteum continues with a new role

STRUCTURE OF AN OVARY

OVULATION

The Female Duct System Uterine Tubes

The uterine tubes, or fallopian tubes or oviducts, form the beginning of the female duct system
Receive the ovulated oocyte Provide a site for fertilization to take place

POSTERIOR VIEW OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

The Female Duct System Uterine Tubes

Distal portion of the uterine tube is expanded as it curves around the ovary forming the ampulla Ends in a funnel-shaped opening called the infundibulum: Contains ciliated projections called fimbriae: Create current in the peritoneal fluid that tend to carry the oocyte into the uterine tube Fertilization usually occurs in this area

POSTERIOR VIEW OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

The Female Duct System Uterine Tubes

Each uterine tube extends into the superolateral region of the uterus via a constricted region called the isthmus

The Female Duct System Uterine Tubes

The uterine tube contains sheets of smooth muscle, and its thick, highly folded mucosa contains both ciliated and nonciliated cells The oocyte is carried toward the uterus by a combination of muscular peristalsis and the beating of the cilia
Nonciliated cells of the mucosa have dense microvilli and produce a secretion that keeps the oocyte (and sperm, if present) moist and nourished

Externally, the uterine tubes are covered by visceral peritoneum and supported along their length by a short mesentery (part of the broad ligament) called the mesosalpinx

POSTERIOR VIEW OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

MIDSAGITTAL SECTION OF FEMALE PELVIS SHOWING ORGANS OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
The fact that the uterine tubes are not continuous with the ovaries places women at risk for ectopic pregnancy in which ovum, fertilized in the peritoneal cavity or distal portion of the fallopian tube, begins developing there
Such pregnancies naturally abort, often with substantial bleeding

Ectopic Pregnancy

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Potential problem of infection from other parts of the reproductive tract:
Gonorrhea bacteria and other sexually transmitted microorganisms sometimes infect the peritoneal cavity causing an extremely severe inflammation called pelvic inflammatory disease (PID)
If not treated: scarring of the narrow uterine tubes and of the ovaries leading to sterility

UTERUS
Hollow, thick walled muscular organ that functions to receive, retain, and nourish a fertilized ovum Size of a pear: larger in women who have borne children Body: major portion Fundus: rounded region superior to the entrance of the uterine tubes Isthmus: slightly narrowed region between the body and the cervix Cervix: cervical canal
Communicates with the vagina Mucosa of cervical canal contains cervical glands that secrete a mucus that fills the cervical canal
Presumably to block the spread of bacteria from the vagina into the uterus Cervical mucus also blocks the entry of sperm, except at midcycle, when it becomes less viscous and allows sperm to pass through

POSTERIOR VIEW OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

MIDSAGITTAL SECTION OF FEMALE PELVIS SHOWING ORGANS OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Cancer of the cervix:
Causative risk include:
Frequent cervical inflammations STDs Multiple pregnancies Virus: papillomavirus

Pap smear is the most effective way to detect this slow-growing cancer
Remove some epithelia cells from cervical tip

Uterus Supports
Supported:
Laterally by the mesometrium portion of the broad ligament Inferiorly by the lateral cervical ligaments Posteriorly by the paired uterosacral ligaments Anteriorly by the fibrous round ligament

POSTERIOR VIEW OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

ANTERIOR VIEW OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

HOMEOSTASIS IMBALANCE
Despite the many anchoring ligaments, the principal support of the uterus is provided by the muscles of the pelvic floor, namely the muscles of the urogenital and pelvic diaphragms These muscles are sometimes torn during childbirth Subsequently, the supported uterus may sink inferiorly, until the tip of the cervix protrudes through the external vaginal opening
This condition is called prolapse of the uterus

UTERINE WALL
Composed of three layers:
Perimetrium: outermost serous layer
It is the visceral peritoneum

Myometrium: bulky middle layer

Composed of interlacing bundles of smooth muscle
Contract rhythmically during childbirth to expel the baby from the mothers body

Endometrium:
Mucosal lining of the uterine cavity Simple columnar epithelium underlain by a thick lamina propria If fertilization occurs, the young embryo burrows (implants) and resides here for the rest of development

POSTERIOR VIEW OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

ENDOMETRIUM AND ITS BLOOD SUPPLY

UTERINE WALL ENDOMETRIUM

Two chief strata:
Stratum functionalis: functional layer
Undergoes cyclic changes in response to blood levels of ovarian hormones and is shed during menstruation (approximately every 28 days)

Stratum basalis: deeper and thinner

Forms a new functionalis after menstruation ends Unresponsive to ovarian hormones

Has numerous uterine glands that change in length as endometrial thickness changes

ENDOMETRIUM AND ITS BLOOD SUPPLY

UTERINE WALL ENDOMETRIUM

To understand the cyclic changes of the uterine endometrium, it is essential to understand the vascular supply of the uterus Uterine arteries arise from the internal iliacs in the pelvis, ascend along the side of the uterus, and send branches into the uterine wall

UTERINE WALL ENDOMETRIUM

Uterine branches break up into several arcuate arteries within the myometrium sending radial branches into the endometrium, where they in turn give off straight arteries to the stratum basalis and spiral (coiled) arteries to the stratum functionalis
These spiral arteries repeatedly degenerate and regenerate The spasms of these arteries actually cause the functionalis layer to be shed during menstruation

Veins are thin-walled and form an extensive network with occasional sinusoidal enlargements

ENDOMETRIUM AND ITS BLOOD SUPPLY

VAGINA
Thin-walled tube, 8-10 cm (3-4 inches) long Lies between the urinary bladder and the rectum Extends from the cervix to the body exterior Often called the birth canal Provides a passageway :
For delivery of an infant For delivery of menstrual blood Also receives the penis and semen during sexual intercourse (female organ of copulation)

POSTERIOR VIEW OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

MIDSAGITTAL SECTION OF FEMALE PELVIS SHOWING ORGANS OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

VAGINA
Distensible wall consists of three coats:
Outer fibroelastic adventita Smooth muscle muscularis Inner mucosa marked by transverse ridges (rugae) which stimulate the penis during intercourse
Made of stratified squamous epithelium adapted to withstand friction No glands, it is lubricated by cervical mucous glands Its epithelial cells release large amounts of glycogen, which is anaerobically metabolized to lactic acid by resident bacteria
Consequently the pH is normally quite acidic: Helps to keep the vagina healthy and free of infection, but it is also hostile to sperm Although vaginal fluid of adult females is acidic, it tends to be alkaline in adolescents, predisposing sexually active teenagers to STDs

POSTERIOR VIEW OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

MIDSAGITTAL SECTION OF FEMALE PELVIS SHOWING ORGANS OF FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

VAGINA
In virgins (females who have never participated in sexual intercourse), the mucosa near the distal vaginal orifice forms an incomplete partition called the hymen
It is very vascular and tends to bleed when it is ruptured during the first coitus (sexual intercourse):
However, it may be ruptured during sports activity, tampon insertion, or pelvic examination Occasionally, it is so tough that it must be breached surgically if intercourse is to occur

Stretches considerably during copulation and childbirth

EXTERNAL GENITALIA (VULVA) OF THE FEMALE

EXTERNAL GENITALIA
Also called the vulva or pudendum, includes the:
Mons pubis:
Fatty, rounded area overlying the pubic symphysis After puberty, covered with pubic hair

Labia:
Majora: larger lip folds
Homologous to the male scrotum (derived from the same embryonic tissue) Contain pubic hair Enclose the labia minora

Minora: smaller/thin lip folds

Homologous to the ventral male penis Hair-free Enclose a recess called the vestibule Contains the openings of the urethra more anteriorly as well as that of the vagina

EXTERNAL GENITALIA
Vestibular glands: NOT ILLUSTRATED Flank vaginal opening Homologous to the bulbourethral gland in males Release mucus into vestibule and help to keep it moist and lubricated, facilitating intercourse

EXTERNAL GENITALIA
Clitoris: homologous to the male penis Small, protruding structure, composed largely of erectile tissue Exposed portion is called the glans: Hooded by a skin fold called the prepuce of the clitoris, formed by the junction of the labia minora folds Richly innervated with sensory nerve endings sensitive to touch: Becomes swollen with blood and erect during tactile stimulation, contributing to a females sexual arousal

EXTERNAL GENITALIA
Perineum: dashed lined area
Soft tissues overlie the muscles of the pelvic region which support the pelvic floor

Mammary Glands
Are present in both sexes but usually function only in females to produce milk to nourish a newborn baby Mammary glands are modified sweat glands that are really part of the integumentary system Each mammary gland is contained within a rounded skin-covered breast within the superficial fascia, anterior to the pectoral muscles of the thorax

Mammary Glands
Slightly below the center of each breast is a ring of pigmented skin, the areola, which surrounds a central protruding nipple:
Large sebaceous glands in the areola make it slightly bumpy and produce sebum that reduces chapping and cracking of the skin of the nipple Autonomic nervous system controls of smooth muscle fibers in the areola and nipple cause the nipple to become erect when stimulated by tactile or sexual stimuli and when exposed to cold

Mammary Glands
Internally, each mammary gland consists of 15 to 25 lobes that radiate around and open at the nipple: The lobes are padded and separated from each other by fibrous connective tissue and fat Within the lobes are smaller units called lobules: Contain glandular alveoli that produce milk when a woman is lactating: These alveolar glands pass the milk into the lactiferous ducts, which open to the outside at the nipple: Each duct has a dilated region called a lactiferous sinus where milk accumulates during nursing

Mammary Glands
Interlobar connective tissue forms suspensory ligaments that attach the breast to the underlying muscle fascia and to the overlying dermis Natural support for the breast

Mammary Glands
In nonpregnant woman, the glandular structure of the breast is largely undeveloped and the duct system is rudimentary; hence breast size is largely due to the amount of fat deposits

Breast Cancer
Usually arises from the epithelial cells of the ducts, not from the alveoli
Grows into a lump in the breast from which cells eventually metastasize

70% have no known risk factor

Early onset menses and late menopause No pregnancies or first pregnancy later in life Previous history of breast cancer Family history of breast cancer

FEMALE BREAST WITH LACTATING MAMMARY GLANDS

Mammary Glands

a: Normal breast b: Breast with tumor

MAMMOGRAM

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Oogenesis is the production of female gametes called oocytes, ova, or eggs
A females total egg supply is determined at birth and the time in which she releases them extends from puberty to menopause (about the age of 50)
Total supply of eggs is already determined by the time she is born

Oogenesis
Meiosis, the specialized nuclear division that occurs in the testes to produce sperm, also occurs in the ovaries Female sex cells are produced, and the process is called oogenesis Process takes years to complete In the fetal period the diploid stem cells of the ovaries, the oogonia, multiply rapidly by mitosis and, then enter a growth phase and lay in nutrient reserves Gradually, primordial follicles begin to appear as the oogonia are transformed into primary oocytes and become surrounded by a single layer of flattened cells The primary oocytes begin the first meiotic division, but become stalled late in prophase I and do not complete it By birth, a female has her lifetime supply of primary oocytes Of the original 7 million oocytes approximately 2 million of them escape programmed death and are already in place in the cortical region of the immature ovary Since they remain in their state of suspended animation all through childhood, the wait is a long one10 to 14 years

Oogenesis
At puberty, perhaps 400,000 oocytes remain and beginning at this time a small number of primary oocytes are activated each month However, only one is selected each time to continue meiosisI Producing a secondary oocyte and a polar body: Polar body undergoes meiosis II and produces two polar bodies Secondary oocyte arrests in metaphase II and it is this cell that is ovulated (not a functional ovum): If not fertilized by a sperm, it deteriorates If penetrated by a sperm, it quickly completes meiosis II, yielding one large ovum and a tiny second polar body

FLOWCHART OF MEIOTIC EVENTS CORRELATED WITH FOLLICLE DEVELOPMENT AND OVULATION IN THE OVARY

Oogenesis
The unequal cytoplasmic divisions that occur during oogenesis (I ovum and 3 polar bodies) ensure that a functional egg has ample nutrients for its seven-day journey to the uterus Without nutrient-containing cytoplasm the polar bodies degenerate and die Since the reproductive life of a female is at best 40 years (11-51) and typically only one ovulation occurs each month, fewer than 500 oocytes out of her estimated pubertal potential of 400,000 are released during a womans lifetime

FLOWCHART OF MEIOTIC EVENTS CORRELATED WITH FOLLICLE DEVELOPMENT AND OVULATION IN THE OVARY

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The ovarian cycle is the monthly series of events associated with the maturation of the egg:
The follicular phase is the period of follicle growth typically lasting from day I to 14 Ovulation occurs when the ovary wall ruptures and the secondary oocyte is expelled The luteal phase is the period of corpus luteum activity, days 14-28

FLOWCHART OF MEIOTIC EVENTS CORRELATED WITH FOLLICLE DEVELOPMENT AND OVULATION IN THE OVARY

OVARIAN CYCLE DEVELOPMENT AND FATE OF THE OVARIAN FOLLICLES

Ovarian Cycle
Hormonal Regulation of the Ovarian Cycle:
During childhood, the ovaries grow and secrete small amounts of estrogen that inhibit the release of gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) until puberty, when the hypothalamus becomes less sensitive to estrogen and begins to release GnRH in a rhythmic manner
The monthly series of events associated with the maturation of an egg is called the ovarian cycle
Two consecutive phases: Follicular phase: period of follicle growth (day 1-day 14) Luteal phase: period of corpus luteum activity (day 14-day 28) Ovulation occurring at mid-cycle

Ovarian Cycle Follicular Phase

Maturation of a primordial follicle to the mature state occupies the first half (day 1 day 14) of the cycle Primordial Follicle Becomes a Primary Follicle:
1. The primordial follicles are activated (process directed by the oocyte), the squamouslike cells surrounding the primary oocyte grow, becoming cuboidal cells, and the oocyte enlarges 2. The follicle is now called a primary follicle

Ovarian Cycle Follicular Phase

Primary Follicle Becomes a Secondary Follicle 3. Follicular cells proliferate, forming a stratified epithelium around the oocyte: As soon as more than one cell layer is present, the follicle cells take on the name granulosa cells Granulosa cells and the oocyte are connected by gap junctions, through which ions, metabolites, and signaling chemicals are passed between both They guide each others development Oocyte grows

OVARIAN CYCLE DEVELOPMENT AND FATE OF THE OVARIAN FOLLICLES

Ovarian Cycle Follicular Phase

4. A layer of connective tissue condenses around the follicle, forming the theca folliculi As the follicle grows, the thecal and granulosa cells cooperate to produce estrogen (inner thecal cells produce androgens, which the granulosa cells convert to estrogen)
At the same time, the granulosa cells secrete a glycoprotein-rich sunstance that forms a thick transparent membrane, called the zona pellucida, around the oocyte

OVARIAN CYCLE DEVELOPMENT AND FATE OF THE OVARIAN FOLLICLES

Ovarian Cycle Follicular Phase

5. Clear liquid accumulates between the granulosa cells and eventually coalesces to form a fluid-filled cavity the antrum The presence of an antrum distinguishes the new secondary follicle from the primary follicle

OVARIAN CYCLE DEVELOPMENT AND FATE OF THE OVARIAN FOLLICLES

Ovarian Cycle Follicular Phase

A Secondary Follicle Becomes a Vesicular Follicle:
The antrum continues to expand with fluid until it isolates the oocyte, along with its surrounding capsule of granulosa cells called a corona radiata, on a stalk on one side of the follicle

6. When a follicle is full size, it becomes a vesicular follicle and bulges from the external ovarian surface:
This usually occurs by day 14 Primary oocyte completes meiosis I to form the secondary oocyte and first polar body Granulosa cells halt meiosis Stage is set for ovulation

Ovulation
7. Occurs when the ballooning ovary wall ruptures and expels the secondary oocyte (still surrounded by its corona radiata) into the peritoneal cavity:
Some women experience a twinge of pain in the lower abdomen when ovulation occurs
Caused by the intense stretching of the ovarian wall during ovulation

There are always several follicles at different stages of maturation but only one becomes the dominant follicle
The others degenerate and are reabsorbed

In 1-2% of all ovulations, more than one oocyte is ovulated:

Can result in multiple births

Luteal Phase
After ovulation, the ruptured follicle collapses, and the antrum fills with clotted blood
This corpus hemorrhagicum is eventually absorbed 8. The remaining granulosa cells increase in size and along with the internal cells increase in size and along with the internal thecal cells they form a new, quite different endocrine gland, the corpus luteum

Luteal Phase
8. Corpus luteum (yellow body) begins to secrete progesterone and some estrogen 9. If pregnancy does not occur, the corpus luteum starts degenerating in about 10 days and its hormonal output ends 9. In this case, all that ultimately remains is a scar called the corpus albicans (white body)

Luteal Phase
If the oocyte is fertilized and pregnancy ensues, the corpus luteum persists until the placenta is ready to take over its hormone-producing duties in about 3 months

Hormonal Regulation of the Ovarian Cycle

During childhood, the ovaries grow and continuously secrete small amounts of estrogens which inhibit hypothalamic release of Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) As puberty nears, the hypothalamus becomes less sensitive to estrogen and begins to release GnRH in a rhythmic pulselike manner GnRH stimulates the anterior pituitary to release Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing Hormone (LH), which act on the ovaries Eventually 4-6 years the adult cyclic pattern is achieved as GnRH levels continue to increase

Hormonal Interactions During the Ovarian Cycle

1. On day 1 of the cycle, rising levels of Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus stimulates increased production and release of Follicle stimulating hormone (FSH) and Luteininzing hormone (LH) by the anterior pituitary

Hormonal Interactions During the Ovarian Cycle

2. FSH and LH stimulate follicle growth and maturation, and estrogen secretion FSH exerts its main effects on the follicle cells, whereas LH (at least initially) targets the thecal cells As the follicles enlarge, LH prods the thecal cells to produce androgens:
These diffuse through the basement membrane, where they are converted to estrogens by the granulosa cells

FEEDBACK INTERACTIONS INVOLVED IN THE REGULATION OF OVARIAN FUNCTION

Hormonal Interactions During the Ovarian Cycle

3. Rising levels of estrogen in the plasma exert negative feedback on the anterior pituitary, inhibiting release of FSH and LH Inhibin, released by the granulosa cells, also exerts negative feedback controls on FSH release during this period

FEEDBACK INTERACTIONS INVOLVED IN THE REGULATION OF OVARIAN FUNCTION

Hormonal Interactions During the Ovarian Cycle

4. Although the initial small rise in estrogen blood levels inhibits the hypothalamic-pituitary axis, high estrogen levels have the opposite effect Once estrogen reaches a critical blood concentration, it exerts positive feedback on the brain and anterior pituitary

FEEDBACK INTERACTIONS INVOLVED IN THE REGULATION OF OVARIAN FUNCTION

Hormonal Interactions During the Ovarian Cycle

5. High estrogen levels exerts positive feedback on the anterior pituitary resulting in a burst of LH ( and, to a lesser extent, FSH)

FEEDBACK INTERACTIONS INVOLVED IN THE REGULATION OF OVARIAN FUNCTION

Hormonal Interactions During the Ovarian Cycle

6. The LH surge stimulates the primary oocyte of the dominant follicle to complete the first meiotic division, forming a secondary oocyte that continues on to metaphae II

Hormonal Interactions During the Ovarian Cycle

6. LH also triggers ovulation at or around day 14 Blood stops flowing through the protruding part of the follicle wall and within 5 minutes, that region of the follicle wall bulges out, thins, and then ruptures
Role of FSH is still unclear

Shortly after ovulation, estrogen levels decline

FEEDBACK INTERACTIONS INVOLVED IN THE REGULATION OF OVARIAN FUNCTION

Hormonal Interactions During the Ovarian Cycle

7. The LH surge also transforms the ruptured follicle into the corpus luteum (hence the name: luteinizing hormone), and stimulates the newly formed endocrine gland to produce progesterone and estrogen almost immediately after it is formed

FEEDBACK INTERACTIONS INVOLVED IN THE REGULATION OF OVARIAN FUNCTION

Hormonal Interactions During the Ovarian Cycle

8. Rising plasma levels of progesterone and estrogen exert a powerful negative feedback effect on anterior pituitary release of LH and FSH
Corpus luteum release of inhibin enhances this inhibitory effect

Declining gonadotropin levels inhibit the development of new follicles and prevent additional LH surges that might cause additional oocytes to be ovulated

Hormonal Interactions During the Ovarian Cycle

8. As LH blood levels fall, the stimulus for luteal activity ends, and the corpus luteum degenerates:
As goes the corpus luteum, so go the levels of ovarian hormones, and blood estrogen and progesterone levels drop sharply

Hormonal Interactions During the Ovarian Cycle

The marked decline in ovarian hormones at the end of the cycle (days 26-28) ends their blockage of FSH and LH secretion, and the cycle starts anew

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

Although the uterus is where the young embryo implants and develops, it is receptive to implantation only for a very short period each month Uterine (menstrual) cycle is a series of cyclic changes that the uterine endometrium goes through each month in response to changing levels of ovarian hormones in the blood
These endometrial changes are coordinated with the phases of the ovarian cycle, which are dictated by gonadotropins released by the anterior pituitary

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

1. Days 1-5: Menstrual phase: (d) In this phase, menstruation, the uterus sheds all but the deepest part of its endometrium At the beginning of this stage, ovarian hormones are at their lowest normal levels and gonadotropins are beginning to rise Then FSH levels begin to fall The thick functional layer of the endometrium detaches from the uterine wall, a process that is accompanied by bleeding for 3-5 days The detached tissue and blood pass out through the vagina as the menstrual flow By day 5, the growing follicles are starting to produce more estrogen

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

2. Days 6-14: The Proliferation (preovulatory) phase: Is the time in which the endometrium is rebuilt once again becoming velvety, thick, and well vascularized
Endometrium rebuilds itself under the influence of rising blood levels of estrogen
The basal layer of the endometrium generates a new functional layer

Estrogens induce synthesis of progesterone receptors in the endometrial cells, readying them for interaction with progesterone

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

2. Days 6-14: The Proliferation (preovulatory) phase:
Normally, cervical mucus is thick and sticky, but rising estrogen levels cause it to thin and become crystalline, forming channels that facilitate the passage of sperm into the uterus

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

2. Days 6-14: The Proliferation (preovulatory) phase:
Ovulation:
Takes less than 5 minutes Occurs in the ovary at the end of the proliferative stage (day 14) in response to the sudden release of LH from the anterior pituitary LH also converts the ruptured follicle to a corpus luteum

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

3. Days 15-28: Secretory (postovulatory) phase:
The endometrium prepares for implantation of an embryo Rising levels of progesterone from the corpus luteum act on the estrogen-primed endometrium, causing it to prepare for implantation

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

3. Days 15-28: Secretory (postovulatory) phase:
Increasing progesterone levels also cause the cervical mucus to become viscous again, forming the cervical plug, which blocks sperm entry Rising progesterone (and estrogen) levels inhibit LH release by the anterior pituitary

Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle

If fertilization has not occurred, the corpus luteum begins to degenerate toward the end of the secretory phase as LH blood levels decline Progesterone levels fall, depriving the endometrium of hormonal support, and the spiral arteries kink and go into spasms Denied oxygen and nutrients, the lysosmes of the ischemic endometrial cells rupture, and the functional layer begins to self-digest, setting the stage for menstruation to begin on day 28 The spiral arteries constrict one final time and then suddenly relax and open wide
As blood gushes into the weakened capillary beds, they fragment, causing the functional layer to slough off

The menstrual cycle starts over again on this first day of menstrual flow

Ovarian/Uterine Cycle

Notice how the Ovarian and Uterine (Menstrual) Cycles fit together

CORRELATION OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY AND OVARIAN HORMONES WITH STRUCTURAL CHANGES OF THE OVARIAN AND UTERINE CYCLES

CORRELATION OF ANTERIOR PITUITARY AND OVARIAN HORMONES WITH STRUCTURAL CHANGES OF THE OVARIAN AND UTERINE CYCLES

Extrauterine Effects of Estrogen and Progesterone

Rising estrogen levels promote oogenesis and follicle growth in the ovary, as well a growth and function of the female reproductive structures Estrogens supports the growth spurt at puberty that makes girls grow much more quickly than boys during the ages of 12 and 13 But his growth is short-lived because rising estrogen levels also cause the epiphyses of the long bones to close sooner, and females reach their full height between the ages of 15 and 17 years In contrast, the aggressive growth of males continues until the age of 19 to 21 years The estrogen-induced secondary sex characteristics of females include: Growth of breasts Increased deposition of subcutaneous fat in the hips and breast Widening and lightening of the pelvis Growth of pubic and axillary hair Metabolic changes: Maintaining low total blood cholesterol levels (and high HDL levels) Facilitating calcium uptake, helping sustain the density of the skeleton Progesterone works with estrogen to establish and help regulate the uterine cycle, and promotes changes in cervical mucus

PHYSIOLOGY OF THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

In the female sexual response:
The clitoris, vaginal mucosa, and breasts become engorged with blood The nipples erect Vestibular glands lubricate the vestibule and facilitates entry of the penis increase in activity The final phase is orgasm:
Muscular tension increases throughout the body Pulse rate and blood pressure rise Uterus contracts rhythmically Not followed by a refractory period (as in males):
So females may experience multiple orgasm during a single sexual experience

A male must achieve orgasm and ejaculate if fertilization is to occur, but female orgasm is not required for conception
Some women never experience orgasm, yet are perfectly able to conceive

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs) VENEREAL DISEASES (VDs)

Gonorrhea is caused by Neisseria gonorrhoeae bacteria, which invade the mucosae of the reproductive and urinary tracts Spread by contact with genital, anal, and pharyngeal mucosal surfaces Commonly called the clap Most frequent symptom in males is urethritis, accompanied by painful urination and discharge of pus from the penis Symptoms vary in females, ranging from none (20%) to abdominal discomfort, vaginal discharge, abnormal uterine bleeding, and occasionally, urethral symptoms similar to those seen in males Untreated:
Urethral constriction and inflammation of the urinary system In women, it causes pelvic inflammatory disease and sterility

Strains resistant to antibiotics are becoming increasingly prevalent

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs) VENEREAL DISEASES (VDs)

Syphilis is caused by Treponema pallidum, a bacteria that easily penetrate intact mucosae and abraded (worn by friction/irritated) skin, and enter the lymphatics and the bloodstream
Within a few hours of exposure, an asymptomatic (without symptoms) bodywide infection is in progress Incubation period is typically 2-3 weeks, at the end of which a red, painless primary lesion called a chancre appears at the site of bacterial invasion
Primary lesion ulcerates and becomes crusty; then it heals spontaneously and disappears after one to a few weeks

Can be contracted congenitally from an infected mother:

Fetuses infected with syphilis are usually stillborn or die shortly after birth

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs) VENEREAL DISEASES (VDs)

Syphilis: if untreated:
Secondary signs appear several weeks later but disappear spontaneously in 3-12 weeks
Pink skin rash all over the body is one of the first symptoms Fever and joint pain are common

Then the disease enters the latent period

Detectable only in blood test May last a lifetime May be killed by the immune system

May be followed by tertiary syphilis

Characterized by gummas
Destructive lesions of the CNS, blood vessels, bones, and skin

Treatment: antibiotics

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs) VENEREAL DISEASES (VDs)

Chlamydia is the most common sexually transmitted disease in the U.S. and is caused by the bacteria Chlamydia trachomatis
Bacteria with viruslike dependence on host cells Incubation period about one week Symptoms:
Male:
Urethritis (painful, frequent urination and thick penile discharge) Rectal or testicular pain Painful intercourse Arthritis Urogenital tract infection 80% no symptoms Vaginal discharge Abdominal , rectal pain Painful intercourse Irregular menses sterility

Female:

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs) VENEREAL DISEASES (VDs)

Chlamydia:
Largely unrecognized, silent epidemic that infects 4-5 million people yearly
Most common sexually transmitted disease in the U.S. Responsible for:
25-50% of all diagnosed cases of pelvic inflammatory disease 1 in 4 chance of ectopic pregnancy Each year more than 150,000 infants are born to infected mothers Newborns infected in the birth canal tend to develop conjunctivitis and respiratory tract inflammations including pneumonia 20% of males and 30% of females infected with gonorrhea are also infected by Chlamydia trachomatis, the causative agent of Chlamydia

Treatment: antibiotics

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs) VENEREAL DISEASES (VDs)

Genital warts are caused by a group of about 60 viruses known as the human papillomavirus (HPV)
Responsible for the sexual transmission of genital warts About 1 million Americans infected each year Increases the risk for certain cancers
Penile Vaginal Cervical Anal

Treatment:
Difficult and controversial:
Some prefer to leave the warts untreated unless they become widespread Many recommend wart removal by cryosurgery or laser therapy

GENITAL WARTS

SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDs) VENEREAL DISEASES (VDs)

Genital herpes is generally caused by the herpes simplex virus type 2 (Epstein-Barr virus), which is transferred via infectious secretions
Most difficult human pathogen to control Remain silent for weeks or years and then suddenly flare up, causing a burst of blisterlike lesions Painful lesions that appear on the reproductive organs Congenital herpes infections can cause severe malformations of a fetus Has been leaked to cervical cancer Most people who have genital herpes do not know it, and it has been estimated that to of all Americans harbor the type-2 herpes simplex virus

Treatment:
Antiviral acyclovir: speeds healing of the lesions and reduces the frequency of flare-ups Inter Vir-A: antiviral ointment, provides some relief from the itching and pain that accompany the lesions

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: CHRONOLOGY OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Embryological and Fetal Events

Sex is determined by the sex chromosomes at conception; females have two X chromosomes and males have an X and a Y chromosome
A single gene on the Y chromosomethe SRY geneinitiates testes development and hence maleness
Thus, the father determines the genetic sex of the offspring

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Nondisjunction during meiosis
Abnormal combinations of sex chromosomes
Female XO: Turners syndrome
Never develop ovaries

Male YO: die during embryonic development Female XXX: normal intelligence
Four or more X chromosomes Mentally retarded and underdeveloped ovaries and limited fertility

Male XXY: Klinefelters syndrome

1 out of 500 live male births Most common sex chromosome abnormality Sterile Normal intelligence but, the incidence of mental retardation increases as the number of X sex chromosomes rises One Y but three or more Xs

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Probably the most striking male-female meiotic difference is the fact that spermatogenesis stops when faced with meiotic disruption, whereas female meiosis marches on Hence, female meiosis I seems to be especially error prone
Of the 10-25 % of human fetuses that have the wrong number of chromosomes, some 80-90% result from nondisjunction during meiosis I of the female

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: CHRONOLOGY OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Sexual Differentiation of the Reproductive System

The gonads of both males and females begin to develop during week 5 of gestation During week 7 the gonads begin to become testes in males, and in week 8 they begin to form ovaries in females The external genitalia arise from the same structures in both sexes, with differentiation occurring in week 8

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNAL REPRODUCTIVE ORGANS

EMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT OF EXTERNAL GENITALIA

HOMEOSTATIC IMBALANCE
Any interference with the normal pattern of sex hormone production in the embryo results in bizarre abnormalities If the embryonic testes do not produce testosterone, a genetic male develops the female accessory structures and external genitalia If the testes fail to produce AMH (causes the breakdown of the paramesonephric ducts which give rise to the female duct system: oviducts and uterus) both the female and male duct systems form, but the external genitalia are those of the male If a genetic female is exposed to testosterone (if mother has an androgen-producing tumor of the adrenal gland or uses testosterone), the embryo has ovaries but develops the male ducts and glands, as well as a penis and an empty scrotum It appears that the female pattern of reproductive structures has an intrinsic ability to develop and in the absence of testosterone it proceeds to do so, regardless of the embryos genetic makeup Individuals with accessory reproductive structures that do not match their gonads are called pseudohermaphrodites Many seek sex-change operations to match their outer selves (external genitalia) with their inner selves (gonads) True hermaphrodites are rare and possess both ovarian and testicular tissue

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: CHRONOLOGY OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

About two months before birth the testes begin their descent toward the scrotum, dragging their nerve supply and blood supply with them

DESCENT OF THE TESTES

DEVELOPMENTAL ASPECTS OF THE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM: CHRONOLOGY OF SEXUAL DEVELOPMENT

Puberty is the period of life, generally between the ages of 10 and 15 years, when the reproductive organs grow to adult size and become functional Ovarian function declines gradually with age; menstrual cycles become more erratic and shorter until menopause, when ovulation and menstruation stop entirely

Menopause
Normally occurs between the ages of 46 and 54 years Considered to have occurred when a whole year passes without menstruation Although ovarian estrogen production continues for a while after menopause, the ovaries finally stop functioning as endocrine organs Without sufficient estrogen the reproductive organs and breasts begin to atrophy, the vagina becomes dry, and vaginal infections become increasingly common Other sequels due to the lack of estrogen include irritability and depression (in some); intense vasodilation of the skins blood vessels, which causes uncomfortable sweat-drenching hot flashes; gradual thinning of the skin and loss of bone mass Slowly rising total blood cholesterol levels and falling HDL levels place postmenopausal women at risk for cardiovascular disorders Some physicians prescribe low-dose estrogen-progesterone preparations to help women through this often difficult period and to prevent the skeletal and cardiovascular complications HOWEVER, there is still controversy about whether the estrogen component increases the risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women and the cardiovascular benefits hoped for are questionable at best