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Chapter 3: Review of Basic Vacuum Calculations
Before we go any further, some time should be spent on some of the vocabulary
specific to vacuum technology.

Vacuum: from a practical sense, vacuum may be defined as the condition of a gas
under less than atmospheric pressure.
Table 3.1: Vacuum ranges
Vacuum Description Range
Low vacuum 25 to 760 Torr
Medium vacuum 10
-3
to 25 Torr
High vacuum 10
-6
to 10
-3
Torr
Very high vacuum 10
-9
to 10
-6
Torr
Ultrahigh vacuum 10
-12
to 10
-9
Torr
Extreme Ultrahigh vacuum below 10
-12
Torr

Vacuum technology is based upon the creation of an environment in which a process
(thin film deposition, electron beam welding, etc.) can be carried out. This normally
implies that one remove air from a system to some acceptable sub atmospheric
pressure by the use of some type of vacuum pumping equipment.

Atmosphere: The blanket of gases that surrounds the surface of the earth and extends
outward to a distance of about 25 miles is referred to as "air" or "the atmosphere". This
mixture of gases exerts a pressure that presses uniformly on all objects on the surface
of the earth. This pressure is about 15 pounds per square inch at sea level.

Table 3.2: Composition of Dry Air
Gas Partial Pressure [Torr] Percent [by volume]
nitrogen 593 78.1
oxygen 159 20.9
argon 7.1 0.934
carbon dioxide 0.25 0.033
neon 1.4 x 10
-2
0.0018
helium 4.0 x 10
-3
0.00053
methane 1.5 x 10
-3
0.0002
krypton 8.6 x 10
-4
0.00013
hydrogen 3.8 x 10
-4
0.00005
nitrous oxide 3.8 x 10
-4
0.00005
xenon 6.6 x 10
-5
0.0000087

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Properties of Systems Under Vacuum

If we remove some amount of atmospheric gas from a leak-free vessel we will have
created an environment that is drastically different in many respects: mechanically,
chemically and physically.

Mechanical Effects of Vacuum: Have you ever placed a half full 2 liter plastic soft
drink container that is at room temperature into a refrigerator, and noticed later after it
has cooled that its sides are distorted and pulled inwards? What you have inadvertently
done is create a condition in which the internal pressure of the plastic container was
reduced, causing its surface to buckle. Vacuum engineers are acutely aware of this
phenomenon, and design vacuum vessels to be sturdy enough to withstand the external
atmospheric pressure of 14.7 pounds per square inch (at sea level) in the absence of
compensating internal pressure. Structures and components that are particularly
susceptible to distortion under vacuum conditions include flat, unsupported surfaces,
thin sections, and flexible lines or bellows.

Sample Problem:
3.1 Calculate the approximate total force that will be exerted on a 4" diameter glass
view port used in a vessel under high vacuum conditions.

Chemical Effects of Vacuum: The removal of gases from a container will reduce the
number of gas atoms that are available to interact with materials in the container. For
this reason many materials that are hydroscopic (have a tendency to absorb water from
the atmosphere) are stored under vacuum. Materials that readily oxidize are also often
stored either under high vacuum, or in an inert atmosphere (nitrogen or argon gas) after
the air has been removed from the storage vessel.

Sample Problem:
3.2 List as many reactive elements or compounds that you know of which you would
consider storing under vacuum or inert gas conditions.

Physical Effects of Vacuum: Many of the physical properties of gases are strongly
affected by the pressure of the gas. Thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity,
propagation of sound, optical transmission, optical absorption are just a few. In addition
to the effect of reduced pressure on the physical properties of gases, under vacuum
solids and liquids also show markedly different behavior. Liquids, such as water, can be
made to boil in a vacuum vessel without the application of heat. This occurs as soon as
the vapor pressure of the water exceeds that of the vacuum environment.. Similarly,
atoms of solid material under vacuum conditions will spontaneously leave the surface of
the solid. The rate at which materials vaporize under vacuum is a function of the
pressure in the system and the vapor pressure of the material. A more in-depth
discussion of vapor pressure will be presented later.

Sample Problem:
3.3 We have suggested that physical changes in the thermal and electrical
conduction of gases are brought about by a decrease in pressure. What are the trends
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you would expect in these two physical characteristics as pressure is decreased from
atmospheric? (Increase or decrease?)

Gas Laws
Gases are composed of independent, randomly moving atoms or molecules that
spontaneously expand to fill any container. The collective behavior of these atoms or
molecules in a contained volume can be described when one knows any three of the
four following quantities:

1. Pressure: The force per unit area a gas exerts on its surroundings. (in our
calculations we will use primarily Torr or atmospheres).

2. Volume: The internal capacity of a container, or vessel. (Liters)

3. Temperature: The temperature of a gas is a function of its kinetic energy, that
is, how vigorously the gas atoms are vibrating. Temperature
must be specified in terms of an absolute temperature scale.
We will use the kelvin scale (K=C + 273).

4. Amount: The number of gas atoms in a volume (can be in terms of atoms
or moles). {A mole of material is 6.02 x 10
23
particles}.

Boyle's Law: Under conditions of constant temperature, Boyle's Law gives the
relationship between volume and pressure for a fixed quantity of gas.

P
1
V
1
= P
2
V
2

Let's do a thought experiment to demonstrate Boyle's Law. Imagine a system of two
leak-free vessels as shown below.


Vacuum Vessel
2
TC2

Vacuum Vessel
1
TC1


Figure 3.1

Assuming that the temperature is constant everywhere in our system, and that we can
accurately measure the pressure in both vessels, we should be able to apply Boyle's
law to calculate the volume of vacuum vessel 2.
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If we know that at the beginning of our experiment the volume of vessel 1 is 120 liters,
and the pressure of gas inside vessel 1 is 760 Torr, and that vacuum vessel 2 has been
rough pumped to about 10 mTorr we can write:

P
1
= 760 Torr
V
1
= 120 Liters

Now, if we open the valve between vessels 1 and 2, and allow sufficient time for the
system to equilibrate, we read pressures at TC1 and TC2 to be 500 Torr.

(760 Torr)(120Liters)=(500 Torr)(V
2
+120 Liters)

Solving for V
2
we find the second vessel has a volume of 62 liters (note that we include
the tubulation to the right of the valve as part of the volume of vessel V
2
.).

Sample Problem:
3.4 What would be the volume of vessel 2 in figure 3.1 if the final pressure read on TC1
and TC2 was 350 Torr rather than 500 Torr?

Charles' Law: Under conditions of fixed volume and amount of gas, Charles' Law
describes the relationship between the temperature and pressure of a gas.


P
1
T
1
=
P
2
T
2
If we raise the temperature in a closed leak-free vessel
containing a gas initially at pressure P
1
the pressure will
rise to P
2
, following Charles' Law.


Vacuum Vessel
at T1
TC1

Vacuum Vessel
at T2
TC1


Figure 3.2

Sample Problem:
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3.5 If the initial pressure and temperature of the leak-free vessel in figure 3.2 were 50
mTorr and 25 C respectively, and the vessel was heated uniformly to 100 C
what would be the new pressure reading?


The Ideal Gas Law: The relationship between pressure, volume, amount of gas and
temperature of gas for "ideal" gases is given by the Ideal gas law. Fortunately, most
gases behave "ideally" under subatmospheric conditions.


PV nRT =

P= pressure [Atmospheres]
V=volume [Liters]
n=moles of gas [moles]
R=Ideal gas Law constant
(0.08206 L-atm/K-mole)
T=absolute temperature [Kelvin]

Sample Problem:
3.6 If a 100 liter vessel at room temperature is evacuated to a pressure of 50 mTorr,
how many moles of gas are in the vessel? How many molecules is this? How
many molecules per cubic centimeter is this?


Table 3.3: Quantities, Symbols and Units
Quantity Symbol Unit
length L cm, m
area A cm
2
, m
2

volume V cm
3
, m
3

diameter d cm, m
mass m g
time t sec,minute,hour
amount of substance n mole
thermodynamic temperature T k
speed of particles in flow c cm/s,m/s
dynamic viscosity

kg/m-s
thermal conductivity

W/m-k
pressure (gas) P Torr, mTorr
molar heat capacity (const press) C
p
J/k-n
molar heat capacity (const volume) C
v
J/k-n
Reynolds number RE
Knudsen number Kn
Avogadro constant N
A
6.02 x 10
23
particles
Gas Law constant R 0.059 L-atm/k-n
velocity v cm/s, m/s
mass flow rate q
m
g/s, kg/s
impingement rate Z
A
cm
-2
-s
-1

volume impingement rate Z
V
cm
-3
-s
-1

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volumetric flow rate q
V
cm
3
/s, m
3
/s
quantity of gas (PV value) G Torr-L
pumping speed (Volumetric flow) S L/s
mass flow rate Q Torr-L/s
conductance C L/s
leak rate q
l
Torr-L/s
molecular weight M g/n
mean free path L cm
number density of particles N cm
-2


Kinetic Description of the Behavior of Gases
As the name may suggest, the kinetic theory of gases has to do with describing how
gases behave under the influence of external forces that induce motion. There are four
basic assumptions that provide the foundation of the kinetic theory of gases:

1) Gases are comprised of a large number of extremely small particles
(atoms or molecules).

2) These gas molecules are in constant, rapid motion in a chaotic manner.

3) The distances between individual gas molecules are large compared with
the diameter of the molecules.

4) The molecules exert no force on one another, or on the walls of a
container except during collisions.

Velocity of Gas Molecules: The speed at which gas molecules travel is independent of
pressure, but is a function of the temperature and molecular weight of the gas.

4
1.455 10
sec
m
T cm
v x
W
(
=
(


v= average molecular velocity [cm/sec]
T= absolute temperature [K]
M= molecular weight of gas [grams/mol]

Sample Problem:
3.7 Calculate the velocity of a nitrogen molecule at 100 C. (to convert from
centigrade to kelvin, add 273).

Mean Free Path: The distance a gas molecule can travel (on the average) is a function
of total pressure and the diameter of the gas molecules.


2
1
[ ]
2
L cm
PNd
=

L=mean free path [cm]
N=number density of particles [cm
-3
]
d=molecular diameter [cm]
P=pressure, Torr

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Sample Problem:
3.8 For a vacuum system at room temperature having a volume of 50 liters, and
containing nitrogen gas at a pressure of 5 x 10
-6
Torr, find the number density, N, and
the mean free path, L {the molecular diameter of N
2
is 3.8 or 3.8 x 10
-8
cm }

For most clean vacuum systems the majority of the gas load may be assumed to be
nitrogen, and at room temperature the following approximation may be used to calculate
the mean free path for N
2
molecules:


3
5.0 10 x
L
P

=

L= mean free path [cm]
P= pressure [Torr]



Collisions of Gaseous Species: Gas molecules travel in straight lines between
collisions and tend to strike all exposed internal surfaces of the vessel in which they are
contained. Pressures that we measure using various types of gauges (more on this in
chapter 5) are the result of the collective impacts of these gas molecules on the inner
surfaces of the containing vessel. The rate of impact (or impingement rate) of gas
molecules per second per square centimeter of surface area is a function of the speed
of the molecules and the gas density
N= molecular density, [cm
-3
]
v= molecular velocity [cm/sec]
I = impingement rate [cm
-2
-sec
-1
]



Usually, the quantities that we can easily measure are pressure and temperature, so,
the same equation expressed in terms of these units is:

22
2
1
3.5 10
sec
m
P
I x
cm
W T
(
=
(

Sample Problem:
3.9 What is the impingement rate for nitrogen molecules on the inner surface of a
vacuum vessel having a pressure of 5 x 10
-6
Torr and a temperature of 25 C?
What is I for the same system at 5 x 10
-9
Torr?

Motion of Gas Molecules: As collisions occur between gas molecules and the inner
exposed surfaces of a vessel, the molecules are "diffusely" reflected, that is there is no
relationship between the arrival angle and the departure angle following a collision. The
angle of departure from a planar surface has been studied and was observed to follow a
cosine distribution as shown in figure 3.4

2
1
4 sec
Nv
I
cm
(
=
(

Las Positas College Vacuum Technology 60A & 60B
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100
97
87
71
50
26
90
75
60
45
30

Figure 3.4: Cumulative probability of departure angles of gas molecules departing a
smooth surface. For example, 50% of particles will depart with an angle of 30 or less.

Flow of Gas Through an Orifice: Let's do another thought experiment. Imagine a leak
free vacuum system comprised of two vessels separated by a closed valve. One vessel
contains nitrogen gas at a pressure of 5 x 10
-5
Torr and the other vessel is under
extreme high vacuum (5 x 10
-10
Torr). Both vessels are at room temperature. If we
suddenly open the valve what will happen during the pressure equilibration time? Only
those molecules that randomly impinge {molecular flow, right?} upon the opening
between the vessels will leave the vessel at higher pressure and move into the vessel at
lower pressure. Let me make the point clear by stating the reverse: those molecules in
the vessel at initially higher pressure that don't impinge upon the opening between the
vessels can not leave the vessel they are in. What this suggests is that the flow rate for
gas molecules leaving a vessel is a function of the collision rate of molecules per unit
surface area. The number of gas molecules leaving is:

2
1
4 sec
Nv
I
cm
(
=
(

The volume of gas leaving may be
calculated by dividing the number of
gas molecules leaving by the number
of molecules per unit volume (N)

The volumetric flow rate of gas
through a hole is independent of the
gas pressure; but depends on the
gas velocity, v, which is a function of
temperature and molecular weight.
For the situation in which the mean free path of gas molecules is greater than the
diameter of the opening in the wall of the chamber, the volumetric flow rate (s) is given
by:

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4
1.455 10
4
m
v T
S x
W
= =

S= volumetric flow rate [L/s]
T= absolute temperature [K]
W
M
= molecular weight [g/mole]

Modes of Gas Flow Under Various Vacuum Conditions
The three modes of gas flow that we will be interested in describing are: turbulent (or
viscous), laminar (or transition) and molecular flow.
The flow regime created when air is induced to move through cylindrical tubes is a
function of the tube diameter and the average pressure.

For these equations, D is the inside
diameter, in inches, and P
bar
is the
average pressure in Torr

Criteria for Viscous Flow Regime

Criteria for Molecular Flow Regime

Criteria for Transition Flow Regime



Upon initiating a pump down, the flow of gas molecules is often turbulent, exhibiting
eddies and currents much like a raging rapid.



Figure 3.5 Viscous flow of gas molecules during pump down.

0.18 DP
0.004 0.18 DP
0.004 DP
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Figure 3.6 Gas molecules in transition flow conditions. Mean free path is roughly
equivalent to the pipe diameter.



Figure 3.7 Gas molecules in molecular flow conditions. Mean free path is greater than
1.5 times the pipe diameter.
Gas Flow Rates

Volumetric: Flow rate (S) is the volume amount of gas that passes by a point per unit
time. Examples of units are: liters/second or cubic feet/ minute. The volumetric flow rate
may be considered to be the pumping speed of a system at a specified point in the
conductance path.
Quantitative: Flow rate (Q) is the amount of gas that passes by a point per unit time.
Units are: Torr-liters/second. The quantitative flow rate is also referred to as the
throughput, or mass flow, and is constant everywhere in the vacuum system, unless gas
is leaking or is being captured or condensed along the path.
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foreline
valve
Q
Q
Vacuum Chamber
TC1
TC2
IG1
vent valve chamber
rough valve
head gate
valve
chamber vent
DP vent
IG2
TC3


Figure 3.8 Gas flowing through a vacuum system beginning at the inlet to the vacuum
vessel and exiting at the exhaust of the roughing pump. At all locations in the vacuum
circuit the quantitative flow rate (Q) is the same.


Q SP =


Q= quantitative flow rate [torr-liters/sec.]
S= volumetric flow rate [liters/sec]
P= pressure [Torr]

Conductance in a Vacuum System:
Gases moving through conductance elements (pipes, tubes, vessels, and orifices) in a
vacuum system encounter resistance to their motion. At higher pressures, this
resistance is a function pressure differnce and geometry of the conductance element.


1 2
P P
Z
Q

=

Z= resistance [sec/liter]
P= pressure [Torr]
Q=flow rate [Torr-L/s]

Conductance is the inverse of resistance and therefore,


1 2
1 Q
C
Z P P
= =

C= conductance [liter/sec]

Even very simple vacuum systems are comprised of many conductance elements,
some are connected in series, some in parallel. Let's examine how to calculate the
effect of various components in simple systems.
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Vacuum
chamber
valve trap
pump
90 elbow
C1 C2
C3


Figure 3.9 Conductance elements connected in Series


1 2 3
1 1 1 1 1
...
T i
C C C C C
= + + + =


C
T
= total conductance for elements C
1
,
C
2
, C
3
that are connected in Series


C1
Vacuum
chamber
C2


Figure 3.10 Conductance elements connected in parallel.


1 2 3
...
T i
C C C C C = + + + =

C
T
= total conductance for elements C
1
, C
2
,
etc.

which are connected in Parallel in
figure 3.10

Sample Problems
3.10 For the vacuum system shown in figure 3.9, if C
1
= 50 L/s, C
2
=100 L/s and C
3
=
100 L/s what is the total conductance of the three elements?

3.11 In figure 3.10, if C
1
and C
2
, have the same values as in the previous problem,
what is the net conductance of the assembly?


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Calculation of Conductance
In this section we will present several "general use" formulas for calculation of
conductance's under commonly encountered situations.

Viscous Flow: For the situation in which the mean free path, L, is approximately the
same as the diameter of the conductance element; the throughput, Q
v
, for dry air is
given by:

4
1 2
3000
( )
sec
v
PD Torr liters
Q P P
L

(
=
(


P= average pressure
(P
1
+P
2
)/2
D= tube diameter [inches]
L= tube length [inches]

Conductance for this situation is given by:


1` 2
( )
v
v
Q
C
P P
=

4
3000
sec
v
PD liters
C
L
(
=
(



{Note: conductance element length and diameter (L and D , respectively) are in inch
units.}

Molecular Flow: For the situation in which the mean free path of molecules is much
larger than the diameter of the conductance element, the relationships for throughput, Q
and conductance, C
m
are given by:

3
1 2
80
( )
m
D
Q P P
L
=



1 2
( )
m
m
Q
C
P P
=

3
80
m
D
C
L
=


Now let's apply this information to the calculation of pumping speeds in a simple
vacuum system.

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Q
P1 P2
S
S
C
t
p

Figure 3.11: A simple vacuum system.

At any location in the vacuum circuit the volumetric flow rate or pumping speed at that
point can be found if we know the pressure at that point, the pressure at the pump, and
the conductance of the path connecting these two. At the chamber side of the system
P
1
= Q/S
t
, and similarly at the pump side, P
2
=Q/S
p
. We will make use of the relationship
between mass flow (Q), pressure drop (P
1
-P
2
), and conductance (C):


1 2
( ) Q P P C =


Substituting Q/S
t
for P
1
and Q/S
p
for P
2
we get:
t p
Q Q
Q C
S S
| |
=
|
|
\ .


Dividing both sides of the equation by QC we get:
1 1 1
t p
C S S
=


Now we can solve for S
t
, the pumping speed at the chamber orifice.

Sample Problem:
3.12 For the simple vacuum system pictured in figure 3.11, calculate the pumping speed
at the chamber if the pump has a speed of 200 L/s, the pressure at the vacuum
pump is 5 x 10
-6
, and the conductance element is a tube 30" long by 2" in
diameter.

Conductance of apertures will become important when performing vacuum system
calculations when tube diameters abruptly change diameter by a factor of two or more
(see picture below).

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8"


While accurate equations for aperture flow are complex in the viscous flow regime, this
approximation is often reasonably valid:

A = Area of circular or nearly square aperture.
C
v
= Conductance in l/s in viscous regime

In the molecular flow regime the following is valid for Nitrogen near room temperature:

A = Area of circular or nearly square aperture.
C
v
= Conductance in l/s in molecular regime

Before purchasing components for and building an expensive vacuum system,
calculations are generally performed that provide information as to the amount of time
that will be needed to evacuate the vacuum system to a certain pressure. Typically the
calculation is broken (partitioned) into five or more "pressure intervals" and at each
interval the conductance of the tubulation between the vessel and pump is calculated.
The pump speed delivered to the vessel is calculated, and finally, the time to pump from
the upper pressure limit of the interval to the lower pressure limit of the interval is
computed. The calculation is performed in segments because both conductance (in
viscous flow) and pump speed change as pressure decreases. Plots on the following
page give the general behavior of tube conductance and vacuum pump speed as a
function of pressure.


t = time to pump from pressure P
1
to P
2,
(sec)
V = Chamber volume, incl. tubulation, (liters)
St = delivered pump speed, (liters/second)


Pressure Interval 1: Time required to pump from 760 Torr to 100 Torr.
A. Calculate the conductance of the tube between the pump and vessel (be sure to
check for viscous or molecular flow conditions).
B. Use a pump efficiency curve to determine the volumetric pumping speed of the
pump for the pressure interval of interest.
C. Calculate the delivered pump speed.
D. Calculate the time to pump from P
1
to P
2
.

Repeat steps A through D for the following pressure intervals:

Pressure Interval 2: Time required to pump from 100 Torr to 10 Torr.
Pressure Interval 3: Time required to pump from 10 Torr to 1 Torr.
130
v
C A =
75
m
C A =
1
2
ln
t
P V
t
S P
| |
=
|
\ .
3"
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Pressure Interval 4: Time required to pump from 1 Torr to 0.1 Torr.
Pressure Interval 5: Time required to pump from 0.1 Torr to 0.01 Torr.
C
o
n
d
u
c
t
a
n
c
e

Pressure
molecular flow
viscous flow
transition flow
C=
3000 PD
L
4
C=
80 D
L
3
C=
3000 PD
4
L
80 D
3
+

Figure 3.1 Conductance vs. pressure for dry air being pumped through a tube of
circular cross section.
1000 100 10 1 .1 .01
.1
1
10
100
Pressure [Torr]
P
u
m
p

S
p
e
e
d

[
L
i
t
e
r
s
/
s
e
c
]

Figure 3.2 Pump speed vs. pressure for an oil sealed mechanical pump.
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For Further Reading:

Kinetic theory of gases-
High Vacuum Technology, Hablanian, Marsbed, M., Marcel Dekker, INC., New York,
New York. 1990.

Vacuum system calculations-
High Vacuum Technique, Yarwood, J., Chapman and Hall, Ltd., 11 New Fetter lane,
London, 1967.

High Vacuum Technology, Hablanian, Marsbed, M., Marcel Dekker, INC., New York,
New York. 1990.

A User's Guide to Vacuum Technology, O'Hanlon, John F. John Wiley & Sons New
York, New York. 1980.

Practical Vacuum Systems, LaPelle, Roland R. , McGraw-Hill Book Co. New York, New
York. 1972.

Answers to Chapter 3 Sample Problems
3.1 4" view port has a surface area = x r
2
=3.14 x 4 = 12.6 sq. in.
12.6 sq. in x 14.7 lbs/sq. in = 185 lbs.

3.2 Sodium (reactive metal), pure iron (oxidizes rapidly in moist air), and lithium
(reactive metal).
3.3 As pressure decreases, thermal conductivity and electrical conductivity of air
should both decrease.
3.4 140 liters.
3.5 63 mTorr.
3.6
A. Solve for the number of moles, n in the vessel.
step 1: convert pressure 50 mTorr/760 Torr = 6.58 x 10
-5
atm
step 2: convert temperature 25 C + 273= 298k
step 3: PV=nRT (6.58 x 10
-5
atm)(100 L)=n(0.08206L-atm/k-mol)(298k)
n= 2.69 x 10
-4
moles of gas molecules.
B. Solve for the number of molecules in the vessel.
{there are 6.02 x 10
23
molecules per mole}
(2.69 x 10
-4
moles)(6.02 x 10
23
molecules per mole)=1.62 x 10
20
molecules.

C. Solve for the number of molecules per cubic centimeter.
(1.62 x 10
20
molecules/100 liters)/100=
1.62 x 10
18
molecules/liter.
(1.62 x 10
18
molecules/liter)/1000 cubic centimeters/liter=
1.62 x 10
15
molecules/cubic centimeter
3.7 T=373k, M=28g/mole. V=53,100 cm/sec.

Las Positas College Vacuum Technology 60A & 60B
Page 50 Rights Reserved, Biltoft, Benapfl, and Swain Fall 2002
3.8 Given: T=25 C, V=50 liters, P=5 x 10
-6
Torr.
A. Solve for the number of moles of gas, using the ideal gas law.
step 1: convert pressure (5 x 10
-6
Torr)/760 Torr = 6.7 x 10
-9
atm.
step 2: convert temperature 25 C + 273= 298k
step 3: PV=nRT
(6.7 x 10
-9
atm)(50 L)=n(0.08206L-atm/k-mol)(298k)
n= 1.36 x 10
-8
moles of gas molecules in 50 liter volume.
B. Calculate the number of molecules in the 50 liter volume.
(1.36 x 10
-8
moles)(6.02 x 10
23
molecules per mole)= 8.2 x 10
15
molecules.
C. Calculate the number of molecules in one cubic centimeter.
(8.2 x 10
15
molecules/50 L)/50 L=1.64 x 10
14
molecules/L
(1.64 x 10
14
molecules/L)/1000 cubic centimeters/L=
N=1.64 x 10
11
molecules/cubic centimeter.
D. The mean free path, L =
3.9 I=1.92 x 10
15
molecules/sec-cm
2
.
3.10 C=25 L/s.

3.11 C=150 L/s

3.12 First calculate the conductance of the conductance element.given: tube is 30" long,
2" in diameter, assume molecular flow. C= 80 x (4")
3
/30"=21.33 L/s = 171 L/s.
Then use 1/S
1
=1/C + 1/S
2
to solve for S
1.
S
1
= 92 L/s.

Laboratory Exercise 3.1:
Measurement of pumping speed at the vacuum chamber

Experimental set-up: Select a working rotary vane mechanical pump and the
appropriate gages, tubulation, and fittings to assemble a vacuum system as shown in
figure 3.13 First, assemble the system with a short conductance element between the
chamber and pump. Calculate the conductance of the element using formulas
discussed in this chapter. Evacuate the chamber, allowing the mechanical pump to
achieve its base pressure. Record P
1
and P
2
, and using the calculated value of C, and
the manufacturer's value of pump speed, solve for the pumping speed at the chamber.
Repeat the experiment for a much longer conductance element of the same diameter.

Las Positas College Vacuum Technology 60A & 60B
Page 51 Rights Reserved, Biltoft, Benapfl, and Swain Fall 2002
Q
P1 P2
S S
C
TC2 TC1
t
p


Figure 3.13 Experimental setup for measurement of pumping speed at the vacuum
chamber.

Discussion:
Did the change in conductance element length between the pump and chamber
cause the expected change in pumping speed as measured at the chamber?
Why or why not?