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Basic Principles of Radio Propagation and Basic RF Knowledge

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Objectives
Upon completion of this course, you will be able to:

Get familiar with the propagation principles of

radio waves and make theoretical preparation for subsequent events such as link budget.
Understand the related knowledge about

antennas and the meanings of common counters.

Understand the basic RF knowledge, devices

and instruments that are often used in the wireless network planning and optimization.

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Contents

Chapter 1 Radio Wave Knowledge Chapter 2 Introduction to Antennas Chapter 3 Basic RF Knowledge

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Chapter 1 Radio Wave Knowledge

Section 1 Basic Principles Section 2 Propagation Features Section 3 Propagation Models Section 4 Propagation Model Calibration

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Basic Principles Wireless Spectrum

Frequency 3-30Hz 30-300Hz 300-3000Hz 3-30KHz 30-300KHz 300-3000KHz 3-30MHz 30-300MHz 300-3000MHz 3-30GHz 30-300GHz 300-3000GHz Classification Extremely Low Frequency Voice Frequency Very-low Frequency Low Frequency Medium Frequency High Frequency Very High Frequency Ultra High Frequency Super High Frequency Extremely High Frequency Designation ELF VF VLF LF MF HF VHF UHF SHF EHF

Frequencies in different bands have different propagation features.

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Basic Principles Propagation of Radio Waves

When radio waves are propagated in the space, the direction of the electric field changes regularly. This phenomenon is called the polarization of radio waves. The field direction of radio waves is called the polarization direction. If the direction of the electric field is vertical to the ground, the waves are called vertically-polarized waves. If the direction of the electric field is horizontal to the ground, the waves are called horizontally-polarized waves.

Dipole

Magnetic field

Magnetic field

Electric field

Electric field Propagation direction of waves

Electric field

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Basic Principles Propagation Path

Direct waves and ground-reflected waves (most common propagation path)

Troposphere-reflected waves (great randomness in propagation)

Mountain-diffraction waves (signal source of the shadow region)

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Ionosphere-reflected waves (trans-horizon communication path)

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Basic Principles Propagation Path

1. Building-reflected waves 2. Diffraction waves 3. Direct waves 4. Ground-reflected waves

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Chapter 1 Radio Wave Knowledge

Section 1 Basic Principles

Section 2 Propagation Features

Section 3 Propagation Models Section 4 Propagation Model

Calibration

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Radio Propagation Environment

The propagation of radio waves is affected by the terrain structures and

man-made environment. The radio propagation environment directly

determines the selection of the propagation models. The main factors affecting the radio propagation environment are:
Natural terrain (mountains, hills, plains and water areas) Number, distribution and material features of architectures

Vegetation features in this region Weather conditions Conditions of natural and manual electromagnetic noises

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Terrain Classification
Quasi-smooth terrain A quasi-smooth terrain refers to a terrain that has gently rolling surface and the rolling height is less than or equal to 20 m.

T
R

Irregular terrain According to the status, other terrains except the quasi-smooth terrain can be classified into: hilly terrain, isolated mountains, sloping terrain, mixed terrain of water and land.
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T
R

Signal Fading
Receive Power (dBm) 20

Fast fading Slow fading

40

60

10
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Distance (m)

Signal Diversity
Methods Against Fast Fading Diversity
Time Diversity

Symbol interleaving, error detection, error correcting codes and RAKE receiver technology
Space Diversity

Adopt the main and diversity antenna to receive signals. The receive signals of the main and diversity antenna do not have the feature of fading at the same time. The capability provided by the receiver of the BTS for balancing signals of different delays within a certain period is also a form of space diversity.
Frequency Diversity

The GSM network adopts the frequency hopping. The CDMA network adopts the frequency spread technology.

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Extension of Radio Waves Delay

It is originated in the reflection and mainly refers to the shared-frequency

interference caused by the difference between the main signals of the receiver and other multi-path signals in terms of the transmission time in space.
Transmitting signals come from an object that is far from the receiver antenna.

Solution

Balance and RAKE Technologies

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Diffraction Loss
Electromagnetic waves spread around the diffracted point. Diffracted waves cover all directions except obstacles. The diffraction loss is the most serious type of loss. The calculation formula is complicated and changes with the constants.

T R

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Penetration Loss (1)

Indoor signals depend on the penetration loss of the building. The penetration loss of signals near the window is greatly

different from the penetration loss of signals in the center of the building.
Materials of the building affect the penetration loss. The incidence angle of electromagnetic waves affects the

penetration loss.
w1 0 0

d D

w2 0 0

E2

E1
W dBm X dBm
Penetration loss = X W = B dB

Reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves penetrating the wall

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Penetration Loss (2)

The obstacle diffraction loss or penetration loss is:

Loss caused by the obstacle of a partition: 520 dB Loss caused by the obstacle of a floor: > 20 dB Indoor loss (which is a function of the floor height, 1.9 dB/floor) Loss caused by furniture and other barriers: 215 dB

Loss caused by thick glass: 610 dB

Penetration loss caused by a railway compartment: 1530 dB Penetration loss caused by an elevator: about 30 dB Penetration loss caused by thick leaves: 10 dB

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Chapter 1 Radio Wave Knowledge

Section 1 Basic Principles

Section 2 Propagation Features Section 3 Propagation Models Section 4 Propagation Model Calibration

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Common Propagation Models

Propagation model in the free space Okumura/Hata model COST231-Hata model

COST231 Walfish-Ikegami model

Keenan-Motley model Computer-aided calculation model

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Propagation Model in the Free Space

Lo = 91.48 + 20lgd, for f = 900 MHz

Lo = 97.98 + 20lgd, for f = 1900 MHz Lo = 99 + 20lgd, for f = 2100 MHz
The propagation model in the free space applies to the radio

environment that has isotropic propagation medium (such as vacuum). It is a theoretical model. This environment does not exist in reality, but the air medium is similar to the isotropic medium.

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Okumura-Hata Model
Application scope: Frequency range f: 150 MHz to1500 MHz Height of BTS antenna Hb: 30 m to 200 m Height of mobile station Hm: 1 m to 10 m Distance d: 1 km to 20 km

Applicable to the macro cell model Applicable to the scenario when the height of BTS is higher than the surrounding buildings Not applicable to prediction within 1 km Not applicable to cases that the frequency is higher than 1500 MHz

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COST 231-Hata Model

Application scope:

Frequency range f: 1500 MHz to 2000 MHz

Height of BTS antenna Hb: 30 m to 200 m Height of mobile station Hm: 1 m to10 m Distance d: 1 km to 20 km

Applicable to the Macro cell model Height of BTS antenna is higher than surrounding buildings

Not applicable to forecast within 1 km

Not applicable if the frequency is higher than 2000 MHz or lower than 1500 MHz
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COST 231 Walfish-Ikegami Model

Application scope: Frequency range f: 800 MHz to 2000 MHz Height of BTS antenna Hbase: 4 m to 50 m Height of mobile station Hmobile: 1 m to 3 m Distance d: 0.025 km
Height of buildings Hroof (m) Width of roads w (m) Spacing between buildings b Street direction relative to the direction of direct waves a ()

Applicable to the environment in the city, macro cell or micro cell Not applicable to the suburb or country environment
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Radio Propagation Model

Model of ASSET Planning Software Ploss = K1 + K2lgd + K3 (Hms) + K4lg (Hms) + K5lg (Heff) + K6lg (Heff) lg(d) + K7 + Kclutter
K Parameter
K1 K2

Reference Value
152/1800 M Urban 44.90 2.55

Path loss: path loss (dB) K1: constant related to the frequency K2: constant of distance fading K3, K4: calibration coefficient of the height of mobile station K5, K6: calibration coefficient of the height of BTS antenna K7: calibration coefficient of diffraction Kclutter: calibration coefficient of features d: distance between the BTS and the mobile station (km) Hms, Heff: effective height of the mobile station and BTS antenna (m)

K3

K4
K5 K6 K7

0.00
13.82 6.55 0.80

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Radio Propagation Model

Model of U-net Planning Software Ploss = K1 + K2logd + K3log (Heff) + K4Diffraction + K5log (d) log (Heff) + K6 (Hmeff) + Kclutterf (clutter) + K (hill, los)
K Parameter Reference Value 52.92

Path loss: path loss (dB) K1: offset constant K2: constant of distance fading K3: calibration coefficient of the height of BTS antenna K4: multiplier of diffraction calculation (must be a positive number) K5: multiplier of log (HTxeff) log(d) K6: calibration coefficient of the height of mobile station Kclutter: calibration coefficient of features K(hill, los): calibration factor of mountain area (Nlos = 0) d: distance between the BTS and the mobile station (m) Hmeffs, Heff: valid height of the mobile station and BTS antenna (m)

K1

K2
K3 K4 K5 K6

68.6
5.83 1 6.55 0

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Chapter 1 Radio Wave Knowledge

Section 1 Basic Principles

Section 2 Propagation Features

Section 3 Propagation Models Section 4 Propagation Model

Calibration

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Model Calibration
The meaning of model calibration is as follows:

The propagation model is a basis for the cell planning of a mobile network. Whether the cell planning is proper and whether the carriers can meet user requirements with economical and reasonable investment all depend on the accuracy of the propagation model. Therefore, the propagation model calibration is required to obtain the radio propagation model that fits the practical environment in this region, improve the predicted coverage accuracy and lay a good foundation for the network planning.

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Basic Principles and Process of Model Calibration

Target propagation environment Propagation model selection

CW data collection

Parameter configuration

Measurement of propagation path loss

Forecast of propagation Path loss

Comparison

Does the error meet the demand?

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Location Selection of the BTS

The rules for selecting the location of the BTS are as follows:

a. The antenna is higher than 20 m. b. The antenna is at least 5 m higher than the nearest obstacles. c. The obstacle here refers to the highest building on the roof where the antenna is located. The building selected as the location of the BTS is required to be higher than the average height of the surrounding buildings.

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5m

Test Platform
The transmitting subsystem includes the transmitting antenna, feeder,

high-frequency signal source, and antenna support.

The receiving subsystem includes the test receiver, GPS receiver, test

software, and portable computer.

Transmitting antenna

Signal source

RF cable 1

Power amplifier

RF cable 2

Receiving antenna

High frequency signal source

Power supply

Receiving antenna

Portable computer

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Test Path

Principle of Selecting the Test Path Terrain: The test path must cover all major terrains in the region. Height: If great differences of terrains exist in this region, the test path must cover terrains in different height. Distance: The test path must take positions in different distance from the BTS into account. Direction: Test points in vertical and horizontal paths must keep consistent. Length: The total length of a CW test must be longer than 60 km. Point: The test points are the more the better. (Requirement: > 10000 points, > 4 hours) Overlap: Test paths of different BTSs can be overlapped to strengthen the reliability. Obstacle: When antenna signals are blocked by one side of the floor, the test path cannot pass the shadow region.

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Drive Test
Samples are compliant with the Lee's Criteria: 40

wavelengths and 50 samples.

The maximum speed is: Vmax = 0.8/Tsample In abnormal cases, test results must be removed from

the sampling data. Samples with too high fading (over 30 dB) In the tunnel Under the viaduct
If the directional antenna is taken the CW test, the test

path is selected from regions covered by the major lobe.

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Test Data Processing

Test data can be identified by the planning software only after

being processed. The processing procedure is as follows: Data filtering Data discrete Geographic binning Format conversion

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Preparations
Install the network planning software.

U-net is powerful planning and optimization software. Model calibration is only one of the function modules.
The items are created.

In the U-net, all tasks, such as planning, optimization and model calibration are performed on the basis of items.
The antenna patterns are exported.

The antenna pattern varies with specific manufacturer. Export the correct one.
Build the model and import the data.

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Model Calibration

Filtering Configuration
Distance Filter:

Recommendation: The data is filtered in the range of r < 150 m or r > 3 km

Signal Strength Filter:

Recommendation: The data is filtered in the range of Signal > 40 dBm or Signal < 121 dBm
Clutter Filter:

Recommendation: The clutters are filtered where the number of test points are smaller than 300.
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Model Calibration
Parameter Calibration

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Model Calibration
Analysis of Calibration Results

The accuracy of the obtained model must be analyzed after the calibration. The accuracy of the model refers to the fitness between the resulted models and the practical test environment. Normally it is assessed by the value of RMS Error.

In the best cases, the RMS Error is less than 8, indicating that the resulting models fit the practical environment. In practical model calibration, it is recommended to make RMS Error close to this goal.

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Questions
Which band of the radio waves does the mobile

telecommunication system use?

What are the propagation methods of radio waves? Which are the two forms of the signal fading in the

propagation environment of radio waves? What are the features and causes reasons of the two forms?
What are the major forms of signal propagation loss in

the propagation environment of radio waves?

What are the common propagation models? What are

their application environments?

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Summary
This chapter describes related knowledge of radio waves, including:

Propagation paths of radio waves Losses and dispersion features of radio waves and main compensation scheme Common models of radio waves and involved parameters Calibration methods of propagation models of radio waves

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Contents

Chapter 1 Radio Wave Knowledge

Chapter 2 Introduction to the Antenna

Chapter 3 Basic RF Knowledge

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Chapter 2 Introduction to the Antenna

Section 1 Working Principle Section 2 Classification Section 3 Electrical Specifications Section 4 Mechanical Specifications Section 5 New Technologies

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Position and Function

Antenna Feeder System of BTS
1. Modulation support of antenna Holding pole (50114 mm) 3. Sealing connector Insulation sealing tape, PVC insulation tape

GSM/CDMA panel antenna

4. Grounding device

Master feeder (7/8) 9. Super-flexible feeder

2. Outdoor feeder

8. Lighting protector 6. Cable tray 5. Feeder fixing clip 7. Feeder through window Main device of BTS

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Working Principle

When a wire carries the alternating current, electromagnetic radiation is formed. The ability of radiation is related to the length and shape of the wire.

If two wires are closely located, and the electromotive forces generated by the wires are offset, the radiation is weak.
If the two wires are opened, the current of these two wires is on the same direction. The electromotive forces generated are in the same direction. Therefore, the radiation is strong. When the length of the wire is much shorter than the wavelength, current of the wire is low and the radiation is weak. When the length of the wire can be increased to the wavelength, current of the wire is greatly enhanced. Therefore a stronger radiation is formed. Normally the straight wire that can generate remarkable radiation is called dipole. The dipole where the length of both supporting poles is 1/4 wavelength is called half-wave dipole.

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Working Principle of Mobile Antenna

Unit dipole Unit dipole

Feed network Feed network Feed network

Wireless connector

Wireless connector

Directional antenna
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Omni-directional antenna
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Classification of Antennas (1)

The antennas can be divided into the following types according to the radiation direction.

Directional antenna
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Classification of Antennas (2)

The antennas can be divided into the following types according to different appearances:

Panel antenna

Cap antenna

Whip antenna

Paraboloidal antenna

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Classification of Antennas (3)

The antennas can be divided into the following types according to the polarization directions.

Omni-directional antenna
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Dual-polarized directional antenna

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Major Electrical Specifications of Antenna

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Antenna Pattern
Pattern of Symmetric Half-Wave Dipole
Top view Side view

Directional Antenna Pattern Omni-directional Antenna Pattern

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Antenna Gain

2.15 dB

dBi and dBd

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Other Major Electrical Specifications of Antenna

Beamwidth, front-to-back suppression ratio, null filling, and upper side lobe suppression

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Mechanical Tilt and Electrical Tilt

Mechanical tilt

Electrical tilt

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Major Electrical Specifications of Antenna

Antenna SWR

Forward: 10 W 50 ohms Back: 0.5 W 80 ohms 9.5 W

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Major Electrical Specifications of Antenna

Reasons for Passive Intermodulation

Magnetic materials exist. The joint is not connected tightly. The metals of different materials are contacted. The contact surfaces of same type of materials are not smooth.

f1 f2 f3 f4 f2f1 f3f2 f4f3 f3f1 f4f2 f4f1

Judging methods of the third order intermodulation

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Major Mechanical Specifications of Antenna

Input port of antenna

Antenna weight
Wind load Operating temperature Humidity requirement Lightening protection Tri-proof capability

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Coaxial Distributed Antenna System

3 3
Power splitter Power splitter

3
Power splitter

Bi-directional amplifier

Power splitter

Tx/Rx

Power splitter

Bi-directional amplifier

3 3
Power splitter Power splitter
Bi-directional amplifier

Power splitter

Equal power assignment

Tx/Rx
Unequal power assignment

Figure 3.1: Coaxial cable distributed system

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Power splitter

Coupler

0.5

10

Power splitter

0.5
Coupler

10

Power splitter

1.3
Coupler

Fiber Feeding Distributed Antenna System

It applies to the scenario with large coverage and long

transmission distance.
Optical remote unit Power splitter

Optical remote unit

Optical main unit

TRx

Optical remote unit

Figure 3.3: Fiber distributed system

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Power splitter

Power splitter

Intelligent Antenna System

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Intelligent Antenna System

Two algorithms

Switched beams
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Adaptive beams
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Questions

What are the antenna categories based on the signal

radiation direction and appearance?

What are the major electrical specifications of the antennas? What are the major mechanical specifications of the antennas?

What are the categories of distributed antenna systems

(DASs)?

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Summary

This chapter describes the following points:

Principle of Antenna Major Electrical Specifications of Antenna Major Mechanical Specifications of Antenna

New Technologies of Antenna

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Contents

Chapter 1 Radio Wave Knowledge

Chapter 2 Introduction to the Antenna

Chapter 3 Basic RF Knowledge

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Introduction to the Unit of Power

Expression of dB Indicating the Absolute Power

The absolute power of RF signals is indicated by using dBm or dBW. The conversion relationship between dBm/dBW and mW/W is as follows: For example, the signal power is x W and the value indicated by using dBm is:

pdBm 10

X 1000mW log 1mW log

XW 1W

pdBW 10 log log

For example: 1 W = 30 dBm = 0 dBw

Expression of dB Indicating the Relative Power

It is the logarithmic form of the ratio between any two power values. dBc is the logarithmic form of the ratio between the frequency output power and the carrier output power.
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Related Concepts of Noise

Noise

Noises refer to the interference signals that cannot be predicted during signal processing and cannot be predicted precisely. (Frequency interference does not belong to the noise.)
Noise factor

The noise coefficient is used to measure the capability of an RF component to process low signals. The noise coefficient is defined as: unit input SNR/output SNR, as shown in the following figure.

Linear system

NF

Pno G Pni

Si NF Ni So No

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Related Concepts of Noise

Noise Factor Formula of Cascaded Network:

G1, NF1

G2, NF2

Gn, NFn

NFtotal NF1

NF2 G1

1 ...

NFn

G1 G2 ... Gn 1

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Digital Modulation
Data

Amplitude keying

Shift-frequency keying

Phase shift keying

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Application of Modulation Technologies

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Spurious Radiation

Spurious Radiation

Spurious radiation refers to the signals that are sent by the transmitter beyond the spectrum stated in the transmitting template. The spurious radiation includes harmonic components, parasitic radiations, crossmodulation products, intermodulation products of transmitters. The spurious radiation interferes with the wireless communication system. This specification aims to improve the system electromagnetic compatibility so that the system can co-exist with other systems (such as WCDMA) and ensures the normal operation of the system itself.

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RF Specifications of the Downlink Channel

Adjacent Channel Leakage Ratio (ACLR)

ACLR is used to measure the out-band radiation feature of transmitters. It is the ratio between the power of an adjacent and the power of the main channel, expressed in dBc, as shown in the following figure.
Protection band

Main channel

Adjacent channel

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Receiving Sensitivity
Receiving Sensitivity

Expressed using the power, Smin = 10log (KTB) + Ft + (S/N). The unit is: dBm. K is the Boltzmann constant and the unit is: J/K (Joule/K).

K 1.38066 1019J/K
T indicates the absolute temperature and the unit is: K. B indicates the signal bandwidth and the unit is: Hz. Ft indicates the noise factor of the system and the unit is: dB. (S/N) indicates the SNR required in the modulation and the unit is: dB. If B = 1 Hz, 10log (KTB) = 174 dBm/Hz

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Blocking Index of the Receiver

Blocking

The blocking index is used to assess the antiinterference ability of the receiver. It describes the situation in which the individual tone or modulating signal interference exists outside the receiving channel, but the interference signals are not in the adjacent channel or the spurious response frequency. The specific index depends on different systems. The blocking index requires that the receiver must have high third order cut-off frequency (large linear dynamic range) at its front end and the intermediate frequency filter has good selectivity.

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Filter
Filter A A

fc Passband Transtive band Stopband Low pass filter F Stopband

fc Transtive band High pass filter Passband F

f2 F Stopband Transtive Passband Transtive Stopband band band Bandpass filter

f1

f2 F Passband Transtive Stopband Transtive Passband band band Bandstop filter

f1

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Combiner
Functions of the Combining and Dividing Unit

Make transmitting signals and receiving signals share the antenna and reduce the number of antenna feeders. Complete the duplex mode of transmitting and receiving signals, combining and filtering of the transmitting signals. Complete the filtering, low noise amplification and dividing of the receive signals.

Provide the function of TMA feeder: including three modules,

namely CDU, SCU and EDU.

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Combining Distribution Unit (CDU)

Tx1 Tx2 Tx_Comb Tx_Dup Rx1 Rx2 Rx3 Rx4 HL_out Rx5 Rx6 Rx7 Rx8 HL_in RxD_out
Combiner Duplex

Tx/Rx_ANT

Power splitter Amplified division Power splitter Filter

RxD

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Simple Combining Unit (SCU)

Combiner

TX1

TX2 TX3 TX4

TX- Comb

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Combiner

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Combiner

Enhance Duplexer Unit (EDU)

Duplex

Tx1

Tx/Rx_ANT1

Rx1 Rx2

Power splitter

Amplified division

Rx1 Rx2

Power splitter

Amplified division

Tx2

Duplex

Tx/Rx_ANT2

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Loss Comparison Among All Combining and Dividing Units

Combination methods CDU Two in one Level 1 3 dB bridge Four in one Level 2 3 dB bridge Four in one Level 2 3 dB bridge Failure Dual duplexer method Failure Dual-CDU method Combination Dual-CDU method 4.5 Typical value of the transmitting insertion loss (dB) 4.5 Price comparison (per carrier)

Medium

SCU

6.8

Low

SCU+CDU

Low

EDU Dual-CDU (not passing the combiner) Dual-CDU (passing the combiner)

Medium

High Medium

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Common RF Components

Power splitter

Coupler

Line amplifier

Combiner
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Power amplifier
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Attenuator

Common RF Devices

Frequency meter

Test cell phone

Integrated tester

Field strength meter

SWR tester

Portable spectrum analyzer

Signal source
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Power meter
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Spectrum analyzer
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Questions

What are the common forms to express the units of the

absolute power? What is the conversion relationship?

What is the definition of the noise factors? Can you write the

formula of the cascaded noise factors?

What is the spurious emission? What is the adjacent leakage? Can you write the formula of sensitivity? Can you list several modulation methods? Which one does

GSM use?

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Summary

This chapter describes the common and basic concepts of RF,

including:
Concepts of power Concepts of noise Concepts and categories of modulation Divergence channel specifications such as the spurious

emission and adjacent leakage

Sensitivity index of the receiving channel
Common RF components

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Summary of the Course

After completing this course, you should be able to learn:

Propagation principles, environment, features, models, and model

calibration of radio waves

Working principle, classification, electrical and mechanical features of

antenna
Basic concepts of RF and common RF components

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Thank you
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