Int roduct ion 3.

1
Vect or algebra 3.2
M anipulat ion of complex quant it ies 3.3
Circuit quant it ies and convent ions 3.4
Impedance not at ion 3.5
Basic circuit laws, 3.6
t heorems and net work reduct ion
Ref erences 3.7
3 F u n d a m e n t a l T h e o r y
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3 . 1 I N TROD U CTI ON
The Prot ect i on Engi neer i s concerned wi t h l i mi t i ng t he
ef f ect s of di st ur bances i n a power syst em. These
di st urbances, i f al l owed t o persi st , may damage pl ant
and i nt errupt t he suppl y of el ect ri c energy. They are
descri bed as f aul t s (short and open ci rcui t s) or power
swi ngs, and resul t f rom nat ural hazards (f or i nst ance
l i ght ni ng), pl ant f ai l ure or human error.
To f aci l i t at e rapi d removal of a di st urbance f rom a power
syst em, t he syst em i s di vi ded i nt o ' prot ect i on zones' .
Rel ays moni t or t he syst em quant i t i es (current , vol t age)
appeari ng i n t hese zones; i f a f aul t occurs i nsi de a zone,
t he rel ays operat e t o i sol at e t he zone f rom t he remai nder
of t he power syst em.
The operat i ng charact eri st i c of a rel ay depends on t he
energi zi ng quant i t i es f ed t o i t such as current or vol t age,
or vari ous combi nat i ons of t hese t wo quant i t i es, and on
t he manner i n whi ch t he rel ay i s desi gned t o respond t o
t hi s i nf ormat i on. For exampl e, a di rect i onal rel ay
charact eri st i c woul d be obt ai ned by desi gni ng t he rel ay
t o compare t he phase angl e bet ween vol t age and current
at t he r el ayi ng poi nt . An i mpedance- measur i ng
charact eri st i c, on t he ot her hand, woul d be obt ai ned by
desi gni ng t he rel ay t o di vi de vol t age by current . Many
ot her mor e compl ex r el ay char act er i st i cs may be
obt ai ned by suppl yi ng vari ous combi nat i ons of current
and vol t age t o t he rel ay. Rel ays may al so be desi gned t o
respond t o ot her syst em quant i t i es such as f requency,
power, et c.
In order t o appl y prot ect i on rel ays, i t i s usual l y necessary
t o know t he l i mi t i ng val ues of current and vol t age, and
t hei r rel at i ve phase di spl acement at t he rel ay l ocat i on,
f or vari ous t ypes of short ci rcui t and t hei r posi t i on i n t he
syst em. Thi s normal l y requi res some syst em anal ysi s f or
f aul t s occurri ng at vari ous poi nt s i n t he syst em.
The mai n component s t hat make up a power syst em are
gener at i ng sour ces, t r ansmi ssi on and di st r i but i on
net works, and l oads. Many t ransmi ssi on and di st ri but i on
ci rcui t s radi at e f rom key poi nt s i n t he syst em and t hese
ci rcui t s are cont rol l ed by ci rcui t breakers. For t he
purpose of anal ysi s, t he power syst em i s t reat ed as a
net work of ci rcui t el ement s cont ai ned i n branches
radi at i ng f rom nodes t o f orm cl osed l oops or meshes.
The syst em vari abl es are current and vol t age, and i n
3 Fun d a men t a l T heor y
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st eady st at e anal ysi s, t hey are regarded as t i me varyi ng
quant i t i es at a si ngl e and const ant f requency. The
net work paramet ers are i mpedance and admi t t ance;
t hese are assumed t o be l i near, bi l at eral (i ndependent of
current di rect i on) and const ant f or a const ant f requency.
3 . 2 V ECTOR A LGEBRA
A vect or represent s a quant i t y i n bot h magni t ude and
di rect i on. In Fi gure 3.1 t he vect or OP has a magni t ude
| Z| at an angl e wi t h t he ref erence axi s OX.
Fi gure 3.1
It may be resol ved i nt o t wo component s at ri ght angl es
t o each ot her, i n t hi s case x and y. The magni t ude or
scal ar val ue of vect or Z i s known as t he modul us | Z| , and
t he angl e i s t he argument , or ampl i t ude, and i s wri t t en
as arg.

Z. The convent ional met hod of expressing a vect or

Z

i s t o wri t e si mpl y | Z| .
Thi s f orm compl et el y speci f i es a vect or f or graphi cal
represent at i on or conversi on i nt o ot her f orms.
For vect ors t o be usef ul , t hey must be expressed
al gebrai cal l y. In Fi gure 3.1, t he vect or

Z i s t he resul t ant
of vect or i al l y addi ng i t s component s x and y;
al gebrai cal l y t hi s vect or may be wri t t en as:

Z = x + jy Equat i on 3.1
where t he operat or j i ndi cat es t hat t he component y i s
per pendi cul ar t o component x. I n el ect r i cal
nomencl at ure, t he axi s OC i s t he ' real ' or ' i n- phase' axi s,
and t he vert i cal axi s OY i s cal l ed t he ' i magi nary' or
' quadrat ure' axi s. The operat or j rot at es a vect or ant i -
cl ockwi se t hrough 90. If a vect or i s made t o rot at e ant i -
cl ockwi se t hr ough 180, t hen t he oper at or j has
perf ormed i t s f unct i on t wi ce, and si nce t he vect or has
reversed i t s sense, t hen:
j x j or j
2
= -1
whence j = -1
The represent at i on of a vect or quant i t y al gebrai cal l y i n
t erms of i t s rect angul ar co- ordi nat es i s cal l ed a ' compl ex
quant i t y' . Theref ore, x + jy i s a compl ex quant i t y and i s
t he rect angul ar f orm of t he vect or | Z| where:

Equat i on 3.2
From Equat i ons 3.1 and 3.2:

Z = | Z| (cos + jsin) Equat i on 3.3

and si nce cos and sin may be expr essed i n
exponent i al f orm by t he i dent i t i es:
i t f ol l ows t hat

Z may al so be wri t t en as:

Z = | Z| e
j
Equat i on 3.4
Theref ore, a vect or quant i t y may al so be represent ed
t ri gonomet ri cal l y and exponent i al l y.
3 . 3 M A N I PU LATI ON
OF COM PLEX QU A N TI TI ES
Compl ex quant i t i es may be represent ed i n any of t he
f our co- ordi nat e syst ems gi ven bel ow:
a. Pol ar Z
b. Rect angul ar x + jy
c. Tri gonomet ri c | Z| (cos + jsin)
d. Exponent i al | Z| e
j
The modul us | Z| and t he argument are t oget her known
as ' pol ar co- ordi nat es' , and x and y are descri bed as
' car t esi an co- or di nat es' . Conver si on bet ween co-
ordi nat e syst ems i s easi l y achi eved. As t he operat or j
obeys t he ordi nary l aws of al gebra, compl ex quant i t i es i n
rect angul ar f orm can be mani pul at ed al gebrai cal l y, as
can be seen by t he f ol l owi ng:

Z
1
+

Z
2
= (x
1
+x
2
) + j(y
1
+y
2
) Equat i on 3.5

Z
1
-

Z
2
= (x
1
- x
2
) + j(y
1
- y
2
) Equat i on 3.6
(see Fi gure 3.2)
cos

e e
j j
2
sin

e e
j
j j
2
Z x y
y
x
x Z
y Z
+
( )

2 2
1

tan
cos
sin
Fi gure 3.1: Vect or OP
0
Y
X
P
|Z|
y
x

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Equat i on 3.7
3.3.1 Complex variables
Some compl ex quant i t i es are vari abl e wi t h, f or exampl e,
t i me; when mani pul at i ng such vari abl es i n di f f erent i al
equat i ons i t i s expedi ent t o wri t e t he compl ex quant i t y
i n exponent i al f orm.
When deal i ng wi t h such f unct i ons i t i s i mport ant t o
appreci at e t hat t he quant i t y cont ai ns real and i magi nary
component s. If i t i s requi red t o i nvest i gat e onl y one
component of t he compl ex vari abl e, separat i on i nt o
component s must be carri ed out af t er t he mat hemat i cal
operat i on has t aken pl ace.
Exampl e: Det ermi ne t he rat e of change of t he real
component of a vect or | Z| wt wi t h t i me.
| Z| wt | Z| (coswt + jsinwt)
| Z| e
jwt
The real component of t he vect or i s | Z| coswt.
Di f f erent i at i ng | Z| e
jwt
wi t h respect t o t i me:
jw| Z| (coswt + jsinwt)
Separat i ng i nt o real and i magi nary component s:
Thus, t he rat e of change of t he real component of a
vect or | Z| wt i s:
- | Z| w sinwt
d
dt
Z e Z w wt jw wt
jwt

( )
+ ( ) sin cos
d
dt
Z e jw Z e
jwt jwt

Z Z Z Z
Z
Z
Z
Z
1 2 1 2 1 2
1
2
1
2
1 2
+

3.3.2 Complex Numbers
A compl ex number may be def i ned as a const ant t hat
represent s t he real and i magi nary component s of a
physi cal quant i t y. The i mpedance paramet er of an
el ect ri c ci rcui t i s a compl ex number havi ng real and
i magi nary component s, whi ch are descri bed as resi st ance
and react ance respect i vel y.
Conf usi on of t en ari ses bet ween vect ors and compl ex
numbers. A vect or, as previ ousl y def i ned, may be a
compl ex number. In t hi s cont ext , i t i s si mpl y a physi cal
quant i t y of const ant magni t ude act i ng i n a const ant
di rect i on. A compl ex number, whi ch, bei ng a physi cal
quant i t y rel at i ng st i mul us and response i n a gi ven
operat i on, i s known as a ' compl ex operat or' . In t hi s
cont ext , i t i s di st i ngui shed f rom a vect or by t he f act t hat
i t has no di rect i on of i t s own.
Because compl ex numbers assume a passi ve rol e i n any
cal cul at i on, t he f orm t aken by t he vari abl es i n t he
probl em det ermi nes t he met hod of represent i ng t hem.
3.3.3 M at hemat ical Operat ors
Mat hemat i cal operat ors are compl ex numbers t hat are
used t o move a vect or t hrough a gi ven angl e wi t hout
changi ng t he magni t ude or charact er of t he vect or. An
operat or i s not a physi cal quant i t y; i t i s di mensi onl ess.
The symbol j, whi ch has been compounded wi t h
quadrat ure component s of compl ex quant i t i es, i s an
operat or t hat rot at es a quant i t y ant i - cl ockwi se t hrough
90. Anot her usef ul operat or i s one whi ch moves a
vect or ant i - cl ockwi se t hr ough 120, commonl y
represent ed by t he symbol a.
Operat ors are di st i ngui shed by one f urt her f eat ure; t hey
are t he root s of uni t y. Usi ng De Moi vre' s t heorem, t he
nt h root of uni t y i s gi ven by sol vi ng t he expressi on:
1
1/n
= (cos2m + jsin2m)
1/n
where m i s any i nt eger. Hence:
where m has val ues 1, 2, 3, ... (n- 1)
From t he above expressi on j i s f ound t o be t he 4t h root
and a t he 3rd root of uni t y, as t hey have f our and t hree
di st i nct val ues respect i vel y. Tabl e 3.1 gi ves some usef ul
f unct i ons of t he a operat or.
1
2 2
1/
cos sin
n
m
n
j
m
n
+

Fi gure 3.2: Addi t i on of vect ors
0
Y
X
y
1
y
2
x
2
x
1
|Z
1
|
|Z
2
|
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1=1+ j0 = e
j0
1+ a + a
2
= 0
Tabl e 3.1: Propert i es of t he a operat or
3 . 4 CI RCU I T QU A N TI TI ES
A N D CON V EN TI ON S
Ci rcui t anal ysi s may be descri bed as t he st udy of t he
response of a ci rcui t t o an i mposed condi t i on, f or
exampl e a short ci rcui t . The ci rcui t vari abl es are current
and vol t age. Convent i onal l y, current f l ow resul t s f rom
t he appl i cat i on of a dri vi ng vol t age, but t here i s
compl et e dual i t y bet ween t he vari abl es and ei t her may
be regarded as t he cause of t he ot her.
When a ci rcui t exi st s, t here i s an i nt erchange of energy;
a ci rcui t may be descri bed as bei ng made up of ' sources'
and ' si nks' f or energy. The part s of a ci rcui t are descri bed
as el ement s; a ' source' may be regarded as an ' act i ve'
el ement and a ' si nk' as a ' passi ve' el ement . Some ci rcui t
el ement s are di ssi pat i ve, t hat i s, t hey are cont i nuous
si nks f or energy, f or exampl e resi st ance. Ot her ci rcui t
el ement s may be al t ernat el y sources and si nks, f or
exampl e capaci t ance and i nduct ance. The el ement s of a
ci rcui t are connect ed t oget her t o f orm a net work havi ng
nodes (t ermi nal s or j unct i ons) and branches (seri es
groups of el ement s) t hat f orm cl osed l oops (meshes).
In st eady st at e a.c. ci rcui t t heory, t he abi l i t y of a ci rcui t
t o accept a current f l ow resul t i ng f rom a gi ven dri vi ng
vol t age i s cal l ed t he i mpedance of t he ci rcui t . Si nce
current and vol t age are dual s t he i mpedance paramet er
must al so have a dual , cal l ed admi t t ance.
3.4.1 Circuit Variables
As current and vol t age are si nusoi dal f unct i ons of t i me,
varyi ng at a si ngl e and const ant f requency, t hey are
regarded as rot at i ng vect ors and can be drawn as pl an
vect ors (t hat i s, vect ors def i ned by t wo co- ordi nat es) on
a vect or di agram.
j
a a

2
3
a a j
2
3
1 3
2
a j a
1 3
2
a j a
a j e
j
2
4
3
1
2
3
2

a j e
j
+
1
2
3
2
2
3

For exampl e, t he i nst ant aneous val ue, e, of a vol t age

varyi ng si nusoi dal l y wi t h t i me i s:
e=E
m
sin(wt+) Equat i on 3.8
where:
E
m
i s t he maxi mum ampl i t ude of t he wavef orm;
=2f, t he angul ar vel oci t y,
i s t he argument def i ni ng t he ampl i t ude of t he
vol t age at a t i me t=0
At t=0, t he act ual val ue of t he vol t age i s E
m
sin. So i f
E
m
i s regarded as t he modul us of a vect or, whose
argument i s , t hen E
m
sin i s t he i magi nary component
of t he vect or | E
m
| . Fi gure 3.3 i l l ust rat es t hi s quant i t y
as a vect or and as a si nusoi dal f unct i on of t i me.
Fi gure 3.3
The current resul t i ng f rom appl yi ng a vol t age t o a ci rcui t
depends upon t he ci rcui t i mpedance. If t he vol t age i s a
si nusoi dal f unct i on at a gi ven f r equency and t he
i mpedance i s const ant t he cur r ent wi l l al so var y
harmoni cal l y at t he same f requency, so i t can be shown
on t he same vect or di agram as t he vol t age vect or, and i s
gi ven by t he equat i on
Equat i on 3.9
where:
Equat i on 3.10
From Equat i ons 3.9 and 3.10 i t can be seen t hat t he
angul ar di spl acement bet ween t he current and vol t age
vect ors and t he current magni t ude | I
m
| = | E
m
| / | Z| i s
dependent upon t he i mpedance

Z . In compl ex f orm t he
i mpedance may be wr i t t en

Z= R+ jX. The ' r eal

component ' , R, i s t he ci r cui t r esi st ance, and t he
Z R X
X L
C
X
R
+

_
,

2 2
1
1

tan
i
E
Z
wt
m
+ ( ) sin
3
F
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t
a
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T
h
e
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y
2 0
Fi gure 3.3: Represent at i on
of a si nusoi dal f unct i on
Y
X' X 0
Y'
e
t = 0
t
|E
m
|
E
m
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' i magi nary component ' , X, i s t he ci rcui t react ance. When
t he ci rcui t react ance i s i nduct i ve (t hat i s, wL>1/wC), t he
current ' l ags' t he vol t age by an angl e , and when i t i s
capaci t i ve (t hat i s, 1/wC>wL) i t ' l eads' t he vol t age by an
angl e .
When drawi ng vect or di agrams, one vect or i s chosen as
t he ' ref erence vect or' and al l ot her vect ors are drawn
rel at i ve t o t he ref erence vect or i n t erms of magni t ude
and angl e. The ci rcui t i mpedance | Z| i s a compl ex
operat or and i s di st i ngui shed f rom a vect or onl y by t he
f act t hat i t has no di rect i on of i t s own. A f urt her
convent i on i s t hat si nusoi dal l y varyi ng quant i t i es are
descri bed by t hei r ' ef f ect i ve' or ' root mean square' (r.m.s.)
val ues; t hese are usual l y wri t t en usi ng t he rel evant
symbol wi t hout a suf f i x.
Thus:
Equat i on 3.11
The ' root mean square' val ue i s t hat val ue whi ch has t he
same heat i ng ef f ect as a di rect current quant i t y of t hat
val ue i n t he same ci rcui t , and t hi s def i ni t i on appl i es t o
non- si nusoi dal as wel l as si nusoi dal quant i t i es.
3.4.2 Sign Convent ions
In descri bi ng t he el ect ri cal st at e of a ci rcui t , i t i s of t en
necessary t o ref er t o t he ' pot ent i al di f f erence' exi st i ng
bet ween t wo poi nt s i n t he ci rcui t . Si nce wherever such
a pot ent i al di f f erence exi st s, current wi l l f l ow and energy
wi l l ei t her be t ransf erred or absorbed, i t i s obvi ousl y
necessary t o def i ne a pot ent i al di f f erence i n more exact
t erms. For t hi s reason, t he t erms vol t age ri se and vol t age
drop are used t o def i ne more accurat el y t he nat ure of t he
pot ent i al di f f erence.
Vol t age ri se i s a ri se i n pot ent i al measured i n t he
di rect i on of current f l ow bet ween t wo poi nt s i n a ci rcui t .
Vol t age drop i s t he converse. A ci rcui t el ement wi t h a
vol t age ri se across i t act s as a source of energy. A ci rcui t
el ement wi t h a vol t age drop across i t act s as a si nk of
energy. Vol t age sources are usual l y act i ve ci rcui t
el ement s, whi l e si nks ar e usual l y passi ve ci r cui t
el ement s. The posi t i ve di rect i on of energy f l ow i s f rom
sources t o si nks.
Ki rchhof f ' s f i rst l aw st at es t hat t he sum of t he dri vi ng
vol t ages must equal t he sum of t he passi ve vol t ages i n a
cl osed l oop. Thi s i s i l l ust rat ed by t he f undament al
equat i on of an el ect ri c ci rcui t :
Equat i on 3.12
where t he t erms on t he l ef t hand si de of t he equat i on are
vol t age drops across t he ci rcui t el ement s. Expressed i n
iR
Ldi
dt C
idt e + +

1
I I
E E
m
m

2
2
st eady st at e t erms Equat i on 3.12 may be wri t t en:
Equat i on 3.13
and t hi s i s known as t he equat ed- vol t age equat i on [ 3.1] .
It i s t he equat i on most usual l y adopt ed i n el ect ri cal
net wor k cal cul at i ons, si nce i t equat es t he dr i vi ng
vol t ages, whi ch are known, t o t he passi ve vol t ages,
whi ch are f unct i ons of t he current s t o be cal cul at ed.
In descri bi ng ci rcui t s and drawi ng vect or di agrams, f or
f ormal anal ysi s or cal cul at i ons, i t i s necessary t o adopt a
not at i on whi ch def i nes t he posi t i ve di rect i on of assumed
current f l ow, and est abl i shes t he di rect i on i n whi ch
posi t i ve vol t age drops and vol t age ri ses act . Two
met hods are avai l abl e; one, t he doubl e suf f i x met hod, i s
used f or symbol i c anal ysi s, t he ot her, t he si ngl e suf f i x or
di agr ammat i c met hod, i s used f or numer i cal
cal cul at i ons.
In t he doubl e suf f i x met hod t he posi t i ve di rect i on of
current f l ow i s assumed t o be f rom node a t o node b and
t he current i s desi gnat ed I
ab
. Wi t h t he di agrammat i c
met hod, an arrow i ndi cat es t he di rect i on of current f l ow.
The vol t age ri ses are posi t i ve when act i ng i n t he
di rect i on of current f l ow. It can be seen f rom Fi gure 3.4
t hat

E
1
and

E
an
are posi t i ve vol t age ri ses and

E
2
and

E
bn
are negat i ve vol t age ri ses. In t he di agrammat i c
met hod t hei r di rect i on of act i on i s si mpl y i ndi cat ed by an
arrow, whereas i n t he doubl e suf f i x met hod,

E
an
and

E
bn
indicat e t hat t here is a pot ent ial rise in direct ions na and nb.
Fi gure 3.4 Met hods or represent i ng a ci rcui t
E I Z

3
F
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l

T
h
e
o
r
y
(a) Di agrammat i c
(b) Doubl e suf f i x
a b
n
ab
I
Z
3
Z
2
Z
1
E
1
Z
an
Z
ab
E
an
Z
bn
E
bn
E
2
E
1
- E
2
=(Z
1
+Z
2
+Z
3
)I
E
an
- E
bn
=(Z
an
+Z
ab
+Z
bn
)I
ab
I
Fi gure 3.4 Met hods of represent i ng a ci rcui t
Chap3-16-29 1/07/02 8:26 Page 21
N e t w o r k P r o t e c t i o n & A u t o m a t i o n G u i d e
Vol t age drops are al so posi t i ve when act i ng i n t he
di rect i on of current f l ow. From Fi gure 3.4(a) i t can be
seen t hat (

Z
1
+

Z
2
+

Z
3
)

I i s t he t ot al vol t age drop i n t he

l oop i n t he di rect i on of current f l ow, and must equat e t o
t he t ot al vol t age ri se

E
1
-

E
2
. In Fi gure 3.4(b), t he vol t age
drop bet ween nodes a and b desi gnat ed

V
ab
i ndi cat es
t hat poi nt b i s at a l ower pot ent i al t han a, and i s posi t i ve
when current f l ows f rom a t o b. Conversel y

V
ba
i s a
negat i ve vol t age drop.
Symbol i cal l y:

V
ab
=

V
an
-

V
bn

V
ba
=

V
bn
-

V
an
Equat i on 3.14
where n i s a common ref erence poi nt .
3.4.3 Power
The product of t he pot ent i al di f f erence across and t he
current t hrough a branch of a ci rcui t i s a measure of t he
rat e at whi ch energy i s exchanged bet ween t hat branch
and t he remai nder of t he ci rcui t . If t he pot ent i al
di f f erence i s a posi t i ve vol t age drop, t he branch i s
passi ve and absorbs energy. Conversel y, i f t he pot ent i al
di f f erence i s a posi t i ve vol t age ri se, t he branch i s act i ve
and suppl i es energy.
The rat e at whi ch energy i s exchanged i s known as
power, and by convent i on, t he power i s posi t i ve when
energy i s bei ng absorbed and negat i ve when bei ng
suppl i ed. Wi t h a.c. ci rcui t s t he power al t ernat es, so, t o
obt ai n a rat e at whi ch energy i s suppl i ed or absorbed, i t
i s necessary t o t ake t he average power over one whol e
cycl e.
If e=E
m
sin(wt+) and i=I
m
sin(wt+- ), t hen t he power
equat i on i s:
p=ei=P[1- cos2(wt+)]+Qsin2(wt+)
Equat i on 3.15
where:
P=|E||I|cos and
Q=|E||I|sin
From Equat i on 3.15 i t can be seen t hat t he quant i t y P
vari es f rom 0 t o 2P and quant i t y Qvari es f rom - Qt o +Q
i n one cycl e, and t hat t he wavef orm i s of t wi ce t he
peri odi c f requency of t he current vol t age wavef orm.
The average val ue of t he power exchanged i n one cycl e
i s a const ant , equal t o quant i t y P, and as t hi s quant i t y i s
t he product of t he vol t age and t he component of current
whi ch i s ' i n phase' wi t h t he vol t age i t i s known as t he
' real ' or ' act i ve' power.
The average val ue of quant i t y Qi s zero when t aken over
a cycl e, suggest i ng t hat energy i s st ored i n one hal f - cycl e
and ret urned t o t he ci rcui t i n t he remai ni ng hal f - cycl e.
Q i s t he pr oduct of vol t age and t he quadr at ur e

component of current , and i s known as ' react i ve power' .

As P and Q are const ant s whi ch speci f y t he power
exchange i n a gi ven ci rcui t , and are product s of t he
current and vol t age vect ors, t hen i f

S i s t he vect or
product

I i t f ol l ows t hat wi t h

E as t he ref erence vect or

and as t he angl e bet ween

E and

I :

S = P + jQ Equat i on 3.16
The quant i t y

S i s descri bed as t he ' apparent power' , and

i s t he t erm used i n est abl i shi ng t he rat i ng of a ci rcui t .

S has uni t s of VA.

3.4.4 Single- Phase and Polyphase Syst ems
A syst em i s si ngl e or pol yphase dependi ng upon whet her
t he sources f eedi ng i t are si ngl e or pol yphase. A source
i s si ngl e or pol yphase accordi ng t o whet her t here are one
or several dri vi ng vol t ages associ at ed wi t h i t . For
exampl e, a t hree- phase source i s a source cont ai ni ng
t hree al t ernat i ng dri vi ng vol t ages t hat are assumed t o
reach a maxi mum i n phase order, A, B, C. Each phase
dri vi ng vol t age i s associ at ed wi t h a phase branch of t he
syst em net work as shown i n Fi gure 3.5(a).
If a pol yphase syst em has bal anced vol t ages, t hat i s,
equal i n magni t ude and reachi ng a maxi mum at equal l y
di spl aced t i me i nt er val s, and t he phase br anch
i mpedances are i dent i cal , i t i s cal l ed a ' bal anced' syst em.
I t wi l l become ' unbal anced' i f any of t he above
condi t i ons are not sat i sf i ed. Cal cul at i ons usi ng a
bal anced pol yphase syst em are si mpl i f i ed, as i t i s onl y
necessary t o sol ve f or a si ngl e phase, t he sol ut i on f or t he
remai ni ng phases bei ng obt ai ned by symmet ry.
The power syst em i s normal l y operat ed as a t hree- phase,
bal anced, syst em. For t hi s reason t he phase vol t ages are
equal i n magni t ude and can be represent ed by t hree
vect ors spaced 120 or 2/3 radi ans apart , as shown i n
Fi gure 3.5(b).
3
F
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l

T
h
e
o
r
y
2 2
Fi gure 3.5: Three- phase syst ems
(a) Three- phase syst em
B C B' C'
N N'
E
an
E
cn E
bn
A' A
Phase branches
Di rect i on
of rot at i on
(b) Bal anced syst em of vect ors
120
120
120
E
a
E
c
=aE
a
E
b
=a
2
E
a
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N e t w o r k P r o t e c t i o n & A u t o m a t i o n G u i d e 2 3
Si nce t he vol t ages ar e symmet r i cal , t hey may be
expressed i n t erms of one, t hat i s:

E
a
=

E
a

E
b
= a
2

E
a

E
c
= a

E
a
Equat i on 3.17
where a i s t he vect or operat or e
j2/ 3
. Furt her, i f t he phase
branch i mpedances are i dent i cal i n a bal anced syst em, i t
f ol l ows t hat t he resul t i ng current s are al so bal anced.
3.5 IM PEDANCE NOTATION
It can be seen by i nspect i on of any power syst em
di agram t hat :
a. several vol t age l evel s exi st i n a syst em
b. i t i s common pract i ce t o ref er t o pl ant MVA i n
t erms of per uni t or percent age val ues
c. t ransmi ssi on l i ne and cabl e const ant s are gi ven i n
ohms/ km
Bef ore any syst em cal cul at i ons can t ake pl ace, t he
syst em paramet ers must be ref erred t o ' base quant i t i es'
and represent ed as a uni f i ed syst em of i mpedances i n
ei t her ohmi c, percent age, or per uni t val ues.
The base quant i t i es are power and vol t age. Normal l y,
t hey are gi ven i n t erms of t he t hree- phase power i n MVA
and t he l i ne vol t age i n kV. The base i mpedance resul t i ng
f rom t he above base quant i t i es i s:
ohms Equat i on 3.18
and, pr ovi ded t he syst em i s bal anced, t he base
i mpedance may be cal cul at ed usi ng ei t her si ngl e- phase
or t hree- phase quant i t i es.
The per uni t or percent age val ue of any i mpedance i n t he
syst em i s t he rat i o of act ual t o base i mpedance val ues.
Hence:
Equat i on 3.19
where MVA
b
= base MVA
kV
b
= base kV
Si mpl e t ransposi t i on of t he above f ormul ae wi l l ref er t he
ohmi c val ue of i mpedance t o t he per uni t or percent age
val ues and base quant i t i es.
Havi ng chosen base quant i t i es of sui t abl e magni t ude al l
Z p u Z ohms
MVA
kV
Z Z p u
b
b
. .
% . .
( ) ( )
( )
( ) ( )

2
100
Z
kV
MVA
b

( )
2

syst em i mpedances may be convert ed t o t hose base

quant i t i es by usi ng t he equat i ons gi ven bel ow:
Equat i on 3.20
where suf f i x b1 denot es t he val ue t o t he ori gi nal base
and b2 denot es t he val ue t o new base
The choi ce of i mpedance not at i on depends upon t he
compl exi t y of t he syst em, pl ant i mpedance not at i on and
t he nat ure of t he syst em cal cul at i ons envi saged.
If t he syst em i s rel at i vel y si mpl e and cont ai ns mai nl y
t ransmi ssi on l i ne dat a, gi ven i n ohms, t hen t he ohmi c
met hod can be adopt ed wi t h advant age. However, t he
per uni t met hod of i mpedance not at i on i s t he most
common f or general syst em st udi es si nce:
1. i mpedances are t he same ref erred t o ei t her si de of
a t ransf ormer i f t he rat i o of base vol t ages on t he
t wo si des of a t r ansf or mer i s equal t o t he
t ransf ormer t urns rat i o
2. conf usi on caused by t he i nt roduct i on of powers of
100 i n percent age cal cul at i ons i s avoi ded
3. by a sui t abl e choi ce of bases, t he magni t udes of
t he dat a and resul t s are kept wi t hi n a predi ct abl e
range, and hence errors i n dat a and comput at i ons
are easi er t o spot
Most power syst em st udi es ar e car r i ed out usi ng
sof t ware i n per uni t quant i t i es. Irrespect i ve of t he
met hod of cal cul at i on, t he choi ce of base vol t age, and
uni f yi ng syst em i mpedances t o t hi s base, shoul d be
approached wi t h caut i on, as shown i n t he f ol l owi ng
exampl e.
Z Z
MVA
MVA
Z Z
kV
kV
b b
b
b
b b
b
b
2 1
2
1
2 1
1
2
2

_
,

3
F
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l

T
h
e
o
r
y
Fi gure 3.6: Sel ect i on of base vol t ages
11.8kV 11.8/141kV
132kV
Overhead l i ne
132/11kV
Di st ri but i on
11kV
Wrong sel ect i on of base vol t age
11.8kV 132kV 11kV
Ri ght sel ect i on
11.8kV 141kV x 11=11.7kV
141
132
Chap3-16-29 1/07/02 8:26 Page 23
N e t w o r k P r o t e c t i o n & A u t o m a t i o n G u i d e
From Figure 3.6 it can be seen that the base voltages in
the three circuits are related by the turns ratios of the
intervening transformers. Care is required as the
nominal transformation ratios of the transformers
quoted may be different from the turns ratios- e.g. a
110/33kV (nominal) transformer may have a turns ratio
of 110/34.5kV. Therefore, the rule for hand calculations
is: 'to refer an impedance in ohms from one circuit to
another multiply the given impedance by the square of
the turns ratio (open circuit voltage ratio) of the
intervening transformer'.
Where power system simulation software is used, the
software normally has calculation routines built in to
adjust transformer parameters to take account of
differences between the nominal primary and secondary
voltages and turns ratios. In this case, the choice of base
voltages may be more conveniently made as the nominal
voltages of each section of the power system. This
approach avoids confusion when per unit or percent
values are used in calculations in translating the final
results into volts, amps, etc.
For example, in Figure 3.7, generators G
1
and G
2
have a
sub-transient reactance of 26% on 66.6MVA rating at
11kV, and transformers T
1
and T
2
a voltage ratio of
11/145kV and an impedance of 12.5% on 75MVA.
Choosing 100MVA as base MVA and 132kV as base
voltage, find the percentage impedances to new base
quantities.
a. Generator reactances to new bases are:
b. Transformer reactances to new bases are:
NOTE: The base voltages of the generator and circuits
are 11kV and 145kV respectively, that is, the turns
ratio of the transformer. The corresponding per unit
values can be found by dividing by 100, and the ohmic
value can be found by using Equation 3.19.
Figure 3.7
12 5
100
75
145
132
20 1
2
2
. . %
( )
( )
=
26
100
66 6
11
132
0 27
2
2

( )
( )
=
.
. %
3. 6 BASI C CI RCUI T LAWS,
THEOREMS AND NETWORK REDUCTI ON
Most practical power system problems are solved by
using steady state analytical methods. The assumptions
made are that the circuit parameters are linear and
bilateral and constant for constant frequency circuit
variables. In some problems, described as initial value
problems, it is necessary to study the behaviour of a
circuit in the transient state. Such problems can be
solved using operational methods. Again, in other
problems, which fortunately are few in number, the
assumption of linear, bilateral circuit parameters is no
longer valid. These problems are solved using advanced
mathematical techniques that are beyond the scope of
this book.
3.6.1 Circuit Laws
In linear, bilateral circuits, three basic network laws
apply, regardless of the state of the circuit, at any
particular instant of time. These laws are the branch,
junction and mesh laws, due to Ohm and Kirchhoff, and
are stated below, using steady state a.c. nomenclature.
3.6.1.1 Branch law
The current

I in a given branch of impedance

Z is
proportional to the potential difference

V appearing
across the branch, that is,

V =

Z .
3.6.1.2 Junction law
The algebraic sum of all currents entering any junction
(or node) in a network is zero, that is:
3.6.1.3 Mesh law
The algebraic sum of all the driving voltages in any
closed path (or mesh) in a network is equal to the
algebraic sum of all the passive voltages (products of the
impedances and the currents) in the components
branches, that is:
Alternatively, the total change in potential around a
closed loop is zero.
3.6.2 Circuit Theorems
From the above network laws, many theorems have been
derived for the rationalisation of networks, either to
reach a quick, simple, solution to a problem or to
represent a complicated circuit by an equivalent. These
theorems are divided into two classes: those concerned
with the general properties of networks and those
E ZI =

I =

0
3
F
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l

T
h
e
o
r
y
2 4
Figure 3.7: Section of a power system
G
1
T
1
T
2
G
2
132kV
overhead
lines
Chap3-16-29 21/06/02 10:28 Page 24
N e t w o r k P r o t e c t i o n & A u t o m a t i o n G u i d e 2 5
concerned with network reduction.
Of the many theorems that exist, the three most
important are given. These are: the Superposition
Theorem, Thvenin's Theorem and Kennelly's Star/Delta
Theorem.
3.6.2.1 Superposition Theorem
(general network theorem)
The resultant current that flows in any branch of a
network due to the simultaneous action of several
driving voltages is equal to the algebraic sum of the
component currents due to each driving voltage acting
alone with the remainder short-circuited.
3.6.2.2 Thvenin's Theorem
(active network reduction theorem)
Any active network that may be viewed from two
terminals can be replaced by a single driving voltage
acting in series with a single impedance. The driving
voltage is the open-circuit voltage between the two
terminals and the impedance is the impedance of the
network viewed from the terminals with all sources
short-circuited.
3.6.2.3 Kennelly's Star/Delta Theorem
(passive network reduction theorem)
Any three-terminal network can be replaced by a delta or
star impedance equivalent without disturbing the
external network. The formulae relating the replacement
of a delta network by the equivalent star network is as
follows (Figure 3.8):

Z
co
=

Z
13

Z
23
/ (

Z
12
+

Z
13
+

Z
23
)
and so on.
Figure 3.8: Star/Delta network reduction
The impedance of a delta network corresponding to and
replacing any star network is:

Z
12
=

Z
ao
+

Z
bo
+

Z
ao

Z
bo

Z
co
and so on.
3.6.3 Network Reduction
The aim of network reduction is to reduce a system to a
simple equivalent while retaining the identity of that
part of the system to be studied.
For example, consider the system shown in Figure 3.9.
The network has two sources E and E, a line AOB
shunted by an impedance, which may be regarded as the
reduction of a further network connected between A and
B, and a load connected between O and N. The object of
the reduction is to study the effect of opening a breaker
at A or B during normal system operations, or of a fault
at A or B. Thus the identity of nodes A and B must be
retained together with the sources, but the branch ON
can be eliminated, simplifying the study. Proceeding, A,
B, N, forms a star branch and can therefore be converted
to an equivalent delta.
Figure 3.9
= 51 ohms
=30.6 ohms
= 1.2 ohms (since Z
NO
>>> Z
AO
Z
BO
)
Figure 3.10
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z
AN AO BO
AO BO
NO
= + +
= + +

0 45 18 85
0 45 18 85
0 75
. .
. .
.
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z
BN BO NO
BO NO
AO
= + +
= + +

0 75 18 85
0 75 18 85
0 45
. .
. .
.
Z Z Z
Z Z
Z
AN AO NO
AO NO
BO
= + +
3
F
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l

T
h
e
o
r
y
Figure 3.8: Star-Delta network transformation
c
Z
ao
Z
bo
Z
12
Z
23
Z
13
O
a b 1 2
3
(a) Star network (b) Delta network
Z
co
Figure 3.9: Typical power system network
E' E''
N
0
A B
1.6
0.75 0.45
18.85
2.55
0.4
Chap3-16-29 21/06/02 10:28 Page 25
N e t w o r k P r o t e c t i o n & A u t o m a t i o n G u i d e
The network is now reduced as shown in Figure 3.10.
By applying Thvenin's theorem to the active loops, these
can be replaced by a single driving voltage in series with
an impedance as shown in Figure 3.11.
Figure 3.11
The network shown in Figure 3.9 is now reduced to that
shown in Figure 3.12 with the nodes A and B retaining
their identity. Further, the load impedance has been
completely eliminated.
The network shown in Figure 3.12 may now be used to
study system disturbances, for example power swings
with and without faults.
Figure 3.12
Most reduction problems follow the same pattern as the
example above. The rules to apply in practical network
reduction are:
a. decide on the nature of the disturbance or
disturbances to be studied
b. decide on the information required, for example
the branch currents in the network for a fault at a
particular location
c. reduce all passive sections of the network not
directly involved with the section under
examination
d. reduce all active meshes to a simple equivalent,
that is, to a simple source in series with a single
impedance
With the widespread availability of computer-based
power system simulation software, it is now usual to use
such software on a routine basis for network calculations
without significant network reduction taking place.
However, the network reduction techniques given above
are still valid, as there will be occasions where such
software is not immediately available and a hand
calculation must be carried out.
In certain circuits, for example parallel lines on the same
towers, there is mutual coupling between branches.
Correct circuit reduction must take account of this
coupling.
Figure 3.13
Three cases are of interest. These are:
a. two branches connected together at their nodes
b. two branches connected together at one node only
c. two branches that remain unconnected
3
F
u
n
d
a
m
e
n
t
a
l

T
h
e
o
r
y
2 6
Figure 3.10: Reduction using
star/delta transform
E'
A
51 30.6
0.4
2.5
1.2 1.6
N
B
E''
Figure 3.12: Reduction of typical
power system network
N
A B
1.2
2.5
1.55
0.97E'
0.39
0.99E''
Figure 3.11: Reduction of active meshes:
Thvenin's Theorem
E'
A
N
(a) Reduction of left active mesh
N
A
(b) Reduction of right active mesh
E''
N
B B
N
E''
31
30.6
30.6

31
0.4 x 30.6

52.6
1.6 x 51
E'
52.6
51
51
1.6
0.4
Figure 3.13: Reduction of two branches
with mutual coupling
(a) Actual circuit
I
P Q
P Q
(b) Equivalent when Z
aa
Z
bb
(c) Equivalent when Z
aa
=Z
bb
P Q
2
1
Z= (Z
aa
+Z
bb
)
Z
aa
Z
bb
Z=
Z
aa
Z
bb
-Z
2
ab
Z
aa
+Z
bb
-2Z
ab
Z
ab
I
a
I
b
I
I
Chap3-16-29 21/06/02 10:28 Page 26
N e t w o r k P r o t e c t i o n & A u t o m a t i o n G u i d e 2 7
Considering each case in turn:
a. consider the circuit shown in Figure 3.13(a). The
application of a voltage V between the terminals P
and Q gives:
V = I
a
Z
aa
+ I
b
Z
ab
V = I
a
Z
ab
+ I
b
Z
bb
where I
a
and I
b
are the currents in branches a and
b, respectively and I = I
a
+ I
b
, the total current
entering at terminal P and leaving at terminal Q.
Solving for I
a
and I
b
:
from which
and
so that the equivalent impedance of the original
circuit is:
Equation 3.21
(Figure 3.13(b)), and, if the branch impedances are
equal, the usual case, then:
Equation 3.22
(Figure 3.13(c)).
b. consider the circuit in Figure 3.14(a).
Z Z Z
aa ab
= + ( )
1
2
Z
V
I
Z Z Z
Z Z Z
aa bb ab
aa bb ab
= =

+
2
2
I I I
V Z Z Z
Z Z Z
a b
aa bb ab
aa bb ab
= + =
+ ( )

2
2
I
Z Z V
Z Z Z
b
aa ab
aa bb ab
=
( )

2
I
Z Z V
Z Z Z
a
bb ab
aa bb ab
=
( )

2
The assumption is made that an equivalent star
network can replace the network shown. From
inspection with one terminal isolated in turn and a
voltage V impressed across the remaining terminals
it can be seen that:
Z
a
+Z
c
=Z
aa
Z
b
+Z
c
=Z
bb
Z
a
+Z
b
=Z
aa
+Z
bb
-2Z
ab
Solving these equations gives:
Equation 3.23
-see Figure 3.14(b).
c. consider the four-terminal network given in Figure
3.15(a), in which the branches 11' and 22' are
electrically separate except for a mutual link. The
equations defining the network are:
V
1
=Z
11
I
1
+Z
12
I
2
V
2
=Z
21
I
1
+Z
22
I
2
I
1
=Y
11
V
1
+Y
12
V
2
I
2
=Y
21
V
1
+Y
22
V
2
where Z
12
=Z
21
and Y
12
=Y
21
, if the network is
assumed to be reciprocal. Further, by solving the
above equations it can be shown that:
Equation 3.24
There are three independent coefficients, namely
Z
12
, Z
11
, Z
22
, so the original circuit may be
replaced by an equivalent mesh containing four
external terminals, each terminal being connected
to the other three by branch impedances as shown
in Figure 3.15(b).
Y Z
Y Z
Y Z
Z Z Z
11 22
22 11
12 12
11 22 12
2
=
=
=
=

Z Z Z
Z Z Z
Z Z
a aa ab
b bb ab
c ab
=
=
=

3
F
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d
a
m
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t
a
l

T
h
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r
y
Figure 3.14: Reduction of mutually-coupled branches
with a common terminal
A
C
B
(b) Equivalent circuit
B
C
A
(a) Actual circuit
Z
aa
Z
bb
Z
ab
Z
a
=Z
aa
-Z
ab
Z
b
=Z
bb
-Z
ab
Z
c
=Z
ab
Figure 3.15 : Equivalent circuits for
four terminal network with mutual coupling
(a) Actual circuit
2
1
2'
1'
2'
1'
(b) Equivalent circuit
2
1
Z
11
Z
22
Z
11
Z
22
Z
12
Z
12
Z
12
Z
12
Z
21
Chap3-16-29 21/06/02 10:28 Page 27
N e t w o r k P r o t e c t i o n & A u t o m a t i o n G u i d e
defining the equivalent mesh in Figure 3.15(b), and
inserting radial branches having impedances equal
to Z
11
and Z
22
in terminals 1 and 2, results in
Figure 3.15(d).
3. 7 REFERENCES
3.1 Power System Analysis. J. R. Mortlock and
M. W. Humphrey Davies. Chapman & Hall.
3.2 Equivalent Circuits I. Frank M. Starr, Proc. A.I.E.E.
Vol. 51. 1932, pp. 287-298.
3
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a
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a
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T
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2 8
Figure 3.15: Equivalent circuits for
four terminal network with mutual coupling
2'
1'
(d) Equivalent circuit
1 1
C 2
(c) Equivalent with all
nodes commoned
except 1
Z
11
Z
12
Z
11
Z
12
Z
12
Z
12
-Z
12
-Z
12
Z
12
In order to evaluate the branches of the equivalent
mesh let all points of entry of the actual circuit be
commoned except node 1 of circuit 1, as shown in
Figure 3.15(c). Then all impressed voltages except
V
1
will be zero and:
I
1
= Y
11
V
1
I
2
= Y
12
V
1
If the same conditions are applied to the equivalent
mesh, then:
I
1
= V
1
Z
11
I
2
= -V
1
/Z
12
= -V
1
/Z
12
These relations follow from the fact that the branch
connecting nodes 1 and 1' carries current I
1
and
the branches connecting nodes 1 and 2' and 1 and
2 carry current I
2
. This must be true since branches
between pairs of commoned nodes can carry no
current.
By considering each node in turn with the
remainder commoned, the following relationships
are found:
Z
11
= 1/Y
11
Z
22
= 1/Y
22
Z
12
= -1/Y
12
Z
12
= Z
1 2
= -Z
21
= -Z
12
Hence:
Z
11
= Z
11
Z
22
-Z
2
12
_______________
Z
22
Z
22
= Z
11
Z
22
-Z
2
12
_______________
Z
11
Z
12
= Z
11
Z
22
-Z
2
12
_______________
Z
12
Equation 3.25
A similar but equally rigorous equivalent circuit is
shown in Figure 3.15(d). This circuit [3.2] follows
from the fact that the self-impedance of any circuit
is independent of all other circuits. Therefore, it
need not appear in any of the mutual branches if it
is lumped as a radial branch at the terminals. So
putting Z
11
and Z
22
equal to zero in Equation 3.25,

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