Light microscope: Anything less than 1/500th of a mm cannot be seen even with the most powerful light microscope.

Advantage: complete living cells can be studied in full colour. Transmission electron microscope: Sends a beam of electrons through very thin sections held in a near vacuum. TEM used to study internal structural details of cell. Disadvantage: electrons do not have great penetrating power - specimen has to be very thin.

Parts of the Microscope

Parts of the Microscope

Part
Lenses

Function
Magnification

Stage
Clips Diaphragm Fine Focus Knob

To place the slide on

Hold the slide in place To control the amount of light To precisely focus the image

Coarse Focus Knob To focus the image Light To supply light to the object

Images from Electron Microscope

Bacteria

Platelet

Cytoplasm

32

Use of Microscope:

1. Switch on light and rotate turret so low power lens is in place

2. Place prepared slide on stage and hold with clips. 3. Adjust coarse focus wheel so specimen is seen as sharply as possible. Adjust light using diaphragm if necessary. 4. Use fine focus wheel to get specimen in fine focus. 5. Increase magnification to medium power and refocus using fine focus 6. Increase magnification to high power and refocus using fine focus

To prepare and examine an animal cell (cheek cell)

1. Swab inside of cheek using a clean finger

2. Place sample on a slide 3. Apply cover-slip at a 45 angle using a mounting needle 4. Allow to dry and examine at x100 and x400 using microscope. 5. Prepare a 2nd slide as before 6. Apply methylene blue stain and leave for 1min. 7. Remove excess stain using wash bottle 8. Examine at x100 and x400 using microscope

To prepare and examine a plant cell (onion cell)

1. Place a drop of water on a slide

2. Cut piece of inner epidermis of onion 3. Transfer to drop of water on slide using forceps 4. Apply cover slip at 45angle using mounted needle

5. Examine using microscope at x100 and x400

6. Prepare a 2nd slide as before 7. Apply iodine stain to slide and draw across sample using tissue 8. Examine using microscope at x100 and x400

Cell structure 3D view

Organelles
Cells contain a variety of internal structures called ORGANELLES.
An organelle is a cell component that PERFORMS SPECIFIC FUNCTIONS FOR THE CELL.

Cell wall Cytoplasm

Strength and support. Contents of cell excluding nucleus solution in which cells organelles are suspended. Nucleus Controls activities of cell. Contains chromosomes (DNA + protein). Vacuole Large liquid filled sac storing water, food, and wastes. Maintains turgidity of cell by osmosis, helps in osmoregulation. Cell Controls passage of chemicals into/out membrane of cell. Semi-permeable membrane surrounding cell. Phospholipid bilayer embedded with proteins.. Chloroplast Double membrane organelle containing chlorophyll. Site of photosynthesis.

Match the cell part below with its correct function: Function 1. Cell wall A. Controls passage of chemicals into/out of cell. 2. Cytoplasm B. Double membrane organelle containing chlorophyll. Site of photosynthesis. 3. Nucleus C. Strength and support. 4. Vacuole D. Controls activities of cell. Contains chromosomes (DNA+protein). 5. Cell E. Large liquid filled sac storing membrane water, food, and wastes. 6. Chloroplast F. Contents of cell excluding nucleus.

Plant Cell as seen under a light microscope

Identify each of the following parts of the animal cell on the left and the plant cell on the right:

Cell Ultrastructure

ANIMAL CELL

PLANT CELL

The Chloroplast

The Mitochondrion

The Nucleus

Typical Plant Cell

Typical Animal Cell

Identify the following cell parts:

Label the following cell and state a function of each part

Function Mitochondrion Stage 2 of aerobic respiration. Contain own DNA. Animal cells rich in mitochondria: liver, muscle and nerve cells. Plant cells rich in mitochondria: root hair cells, meristematic cells. Nuclear pores Allow movement of large chemicals between cytoplasm and interior of nucleus. Ribosomes Protein formation. Composed of protein and RNA. DNA Double helix nucleic acid containing genetic information

Identify each of the following organelles and state their functions:

Cell Membrane
Cell Membranes are made up of phospholipids and proteins
The phospholipids and proteins are in constant motion.
Membranes are said to be fluid

Functions of Cell Membranes

Separate the cell organelles and cytoplasm from the outside

Semi permeable - allows some molecules freely into and out and others to enter Membranes give some support to the cell Membranes recognise molecules that touch them

Learning Check
All cells have a cell membrane. What are its 3 functions?
____________________________ ____________________________ ____________________________

Nucleus
A large organelle near the center of the cell is the NUCLEUS. It contains the cell's genetic information

It controls the activities of the cell.

Whats in a nucleus
The nucleus is made up of a double membrane with numerous nuclear pores.
These control the movement of substances into and out of the nucleus A nucleolus which contains RNA, DNA, and Proteins and it makes Ribosomes Chromatin which contains DNA that is arranged into chromosomes which stores our genes

Fill in the blanks

The control center of the cell is called the ______. It is enclosed by a double membrane called the ___________ __________________.
Openings in the nuclear envelope called __________ allow for movement of substances in and out of the nucleus

Structures inside the nucleus that contain DNA and proteins are called _____________.
Since DNA cannot leave the nucleus, genetic information is copied into molecules of __________ and sent out into the cytoplasm. This information is used to manufacture ________________.

Mitochondria
Mitochondria supply energy to the cell respiration
Cells with lots of mitochondria produce a lot of energy The inner membranes of the mitochondria produce the energy

Mitochondrion
The more folds a mitochondrion has the more energy it produces

Learning Check
Label the diagram What is this organelle? Why are they known as powerhouses? What type of cells would have these organelles in large numbers?

Ribosomes

Ribosomes can be seen as red dots in this cell Their function is to make proteins

Cytoplasm
Cytoplasm is a clear jelly like fluid that fills the cell It contains all the organelles within the cell

Learning Check
What is the function of a ribosome?
What is the cytoplasm? What is the function of the cytoplasm?

Plant Cells
Plant cells also contain other organelles
Cell walls Chloroplasts Large Vacuoles

Chloroplasts

The function of chloroplasts is Photosynthesis

Ultra structure of the Chloroplast

The thylakoids contain the chlorophyll which traps the suns energy

 The cell wall is rigid and gives plant cells a very defined shape.

Cell wall

The cell wall is composed of cellulose fiber, polysaccharides, and proteins. The function of the cell wall is to support and strengthen the cell

Vacuoles
Vacuoles are membrane-bound sacs within the cytoplasm of a cell Vacuoles provide structural support, as well as serving functions such as storage, waste disposal, protection, and growth.
Plant cells have large vacuoles

Learning check
1. What organelle carries out photosynthesis? 2. What type of cells have large vacuoles and cell walls? 3. What is the function of vacuoles? 4. What is the function of cell walls?

5. What makes cells walls rigid?

Match the following cell parts to their correct function: 1. 2.

3.
4.

Function Mitochondrion A. Allow movement of large chemicals between cytoplasm and interior of nucleus. Nuclear pores B. Protein formation. Composed of protein and RNA Ribosomes C. Double helix nucleic acid containing genetic information. DNA D. Site of stage 2 of aerobic respiration.

Higher level extension

There are two major types of cells: eukaryotic cells have a membrane-bound nucleus and other organelles prokaryotic cells do not have such a membranebound nucleus and organelles.

The Prokaryotic Cell

1. Swab inside cheek surface using a disposable inoculating loop/swab and transfer the sample onto slide. Put the loop/swab into the disposal jar. 2. Air dry the slide. 3. Cover the sample with one drop of methylene blue solution. 4. Allow to stand for one minute. 5. Gently, using a wash bottle, wash excess stain from the slide. 6. Apply a cover slip. 7. Dry the slide with filter paper/absorbent paper and label. 8. Examine under the microscope following the usual procedure. 9. Draw labelled diagrams of what you see at 100 and at 400.

Early Microscopes
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
animalcules

Robert Hooke
cork cells

Cell theory developed by mid 19th century

Microscopes
Light
Typical, (bright-field) light microscope

Electron
Beam of electrons is shone through the specimen and an image is collected as in TV, can be stored on disk.

Typical Cell Organelles

Animal Cells
Plasma Membrane Cytoplasm Nucleus Nucleolus

Plant Cells
Cell Wall Plasma Membrane Cytoplasm Vacuoles Chloroplasts Nucleus Nucleolus

Cell Membrane
Cell/Plasma/Cytoplasmic membrane. Made of phospholipids and proteins. Selectively permeable. Regulates what gets in or out of the cell. Fluid structure, not rigid or hard like a bag.

Cytoplasm
Jelly-like fluid which bathes the organelles. Contains sugar, amino acids, salts, water, vitamins etc. Most metabolic activities take place here.

Vacuole
Storage organelle in plant cells Large space in the middle of the cell Contains sap a solution of sugar and salt

Cell Wall
Made of cellulose (fibre) Just outside the plasma membrane Slightly elastic, but tough, giving shape and support to the cell.

Chloroplasts
Green, ovoid, membrane-bound structure Contains chlorophyll to trap light energy Site of photosynthesis Only found in plants Double membrane on the outside Inside is a large no. of disc-shaped membranes piled on top of one another (stack of coins). These are called grana.

Mitochondrion
Rod-shaped structures Outer and inner membranes Inner membrane is folded Site of Respiration High energy ATP molecules are made here.

Nucleus I
Control centre of the cell. Surrounded by nuclear envelope. Contains chromosomes (DNA). Nucleus regulates what proteins are made in the cell. Which proteins are made will dictate what the structure and activities of the cell.

Nucleus II
Chromosomes are made of DNA combined with protein Every cell (except sex cells) contains the same DNA But, different parts of the DNA are active in different cells. In eye cells, only eye genes are switched on.

Nucleus III
Nuclear envelope is a double membrane Envelope contains large no. of nuclear pores Pores control chemicals getting in or out. Messenger RNA leaves nucleus to go to ribosomes Ribosomes are sites of protein synthesis Ribosomes visible as grains under EM.

Eukaryotes and Prokaryotes

Eukaryotic cells have a nucleus, enclosed by a membrane. DNA arranged in many chromosomes. Mitochondria present.. Examples: Most kinds of organisms (plants, animals, fungi) are eukaryotes. Prokaryotic cells dont have a nucleus. DNA is almost all one large circular DNA molecule. No membrane-bound organelles such as mitochondria. Example: Bacteria are prokaryotes.

Pg. 100

1. Cell
2. All living things were made up of cells and all cells were made by pre-existing cells 3. Light microscope, Transmission electron microscope 4. Transmission electron microscope
5.

6. Cell membrane: semi-permeable membrane that controls

passage of chemicals into and out of cell. 7. Nucleus contains chromosomes made of DNA and protein. RNA also found in nucleus. 8. Nucleolus: manufactures RNA 9.

Animal cell

Plant cell

No cell wall
No chloroplasts

Cell wall present

Chloroplasts present Large vacuole

10. Mitochondrion: Stage 2 of aerobic respiration occurs here (releases energy)

11.

 15. Eukaryote: membrane bound organelles and a nucleus 16. Eukaryotic cell has a nucleus and membrane bound organelles and prokaryotic cells do not. Prokaryote cell: DNA is suspended in cytoplasm 17. Bacteria

12. Preparation of animal cell: Stained: 1. Swab inside cheek surface using a disposable swab. 2. Transfer sample onto a slide. Put the swab into the disposal jar. 3. Air dry the slide. 4. Cover sample with 1 drop of methylene blue solution. 5. Allow to stand for 1 minute. 6. Gently, using a wash bottle, wash excess stain from the slide. 7. Apply a cover slip 8. Dry the slide carefully with filter paper/absorbent paper and label it.

Use of Microscope:

1. Switch on light source 2. Rotate nosepiece so low power lens is used. 3. Put a prepared slide on stage, so sample is above hole in stage. Clip in place. 4. Using coarse adjustment wheel, ensure low power lens is at closest setting to the slide. 5. Look down eyepiece. Adjust illumination with iris diaphragm. 6. Focus object using coarse adjustment wheel. 7. Then use fine adjustment wheel to sharpen focus. If necessary, readjust iris diaphragm so specimen is correctly illuminated. 8. To increase magnification, rotate nosepiece so next highest power objective lens is above specimen. 9. Refocus using fine adjustment wheel only. Readjust illumination if necessary. 10. Repeat steps 8 and 9.