Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Jhansi.

www.bheljhs.co.in

INPLANT TRAINING - 2011

Under the guidance of : Mr. Tarun Suyal Engineer(Integrated Communication Centre) BHEL, Jhansi. Submitted To : Dr. Dhruv Bhargav Dy. Manager Human Resource Development Centre BHEL, Jhansi. Efforts By : Ajitabh Gupta B.Tech(ECE) VIT University Vellore, Tamil Nadu.

PREFACE
Inplant Training is a very important aspect of engineering. This aspect of the academia gives an engineering undergraduate the much required exposure to the industrial environment. I would like to stress that this training at Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited, Jhansi has been a very encouraging and informative undertaking. In general for an engineer, seeing how a big institution works is as important as all the theoretical concepts learnt in college. Overall, an enlightening experience for me under such a helping guidance. During the course of the training I took up a project on Global System for Mobile Communications(GSM), which turned out to be an extremely interesting topic related to my area of engineering.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
In the successful completion of this project, I am indebted to countless people without whom the success of this project would not have been possible. First of all, I would like to convey my sincere thanks to Er. Tarun Suyal( Integrated Communication Centre, BHEL, Jhansi) who gave me the opportunity to undergo this training. For this training I would also like to thank Mr. B.D. Arya( Dy. Manager, Integrated Communication Centre, BHEL, Jhansi), for his supervision and permission to undergo this training at the Telephone Exchange. I thank all my friends for their unending support and

encouragement, whose names I fail to

mention in this report. I

also express my heartfelt gratitude to my caring parents for bearing with me all through the course of this training. And last, but not the least, I would like to sincerely thank all the officials and employees at BHEL, Jhansi for helping me throughout the training schedule and being patient with all my queries and clarifications.

INDEX

S. No. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

Topic Rotation Report An Overview of BHEL Business Areas Manufacturing Units of BHEL Activity Profile of BHEL BHEL - A Brief Introduction Product Profile of BHEL BHEL Objectives Sections of BHEL, Jhansi Transformer Section Locomotive Section Works, Engineering and Services Technology Central Quality Service Project Report GSM - A Succinct History

Page Number 01 02 03-05 06-07 07-10 11-12 13 14-16 17 18-40 41-44 45-46 47-48 49 50-51 52-59

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

GSM - Services GSM - Basics GSM - System Overview GSM - Frequency Bands GSM - Technical Terms Glossary GSM - Architecture GSM - Network Interfaces GSM Signal and GMSK Modulation Characteristics

60-62 63-65 66-68 69-74 75-77 78-98 99-102 103-104

25.

GSM Slot Structure and Multiple Access Scheme

105-107

26. 27. 28.

GSM - Discontinuous Transmission GSM - Drawbacks The Future - 3G and 4G Technologies

108-109 110-111 112-122

ROTATION REPORT

AN OVERVIEW OF BHEL
BHEL is the largest engineering and manufacturing enterprise in India in the energy/infrastructure sector today. BHEL was established more than 40 years ago when its first plant was set up in Bhopal ushering in the indigenous Heavy Electrical Equipment industry in India, a dream that has been more than realized with a well-recognized track record of performance. It has been earning profits continuously since 1971-72 and achieved a sales turnover of Rs.7286.6 crore with a profit before tax of Rs. 662.8 crore in 2001-2002. BHEL caters to core sectors of the Indian Economy viz., Power Generation & transmission, Industry, Transportation, Telecommunication, Renewable Energy, Defence, etc. The wide network of BHELs 14 manufacturing divisions, four Power Sector regional centers, over 100 project sites, eight service centers and 18 regional offices, enables the company to promptly serve its customers and provide them with suitable products, systems and services-efficiently and at competitive prices. BHEL has already attained ISO 9000 certification for quality management and ISO 14001 certification for environment management.

BUSINESS AREAS
BHEL covers a wide area in production. These areas are as follows:

POWER GENERATION
Power generation sector comprises thermal, gas, hydro, and nuclear power plant business. As on 31.3.2002,BHEL supplied sets account for nearly 67,232 MW or 64 % of the total installed capacity of 1,04,917 MW in the country, as against Nil till 1969-70.

TRANSMISSION AND DISTRIBUTION (T&D)

BHEL offers wide-ranging products and systems for T&D applications. Products manufactured include: power transformers, instrument transformers, dry type transformers, series &shunt reactors, capacitor banks, vacuum &SF6 circuit breakers, gas-insulated switchgears and insulators.

INDUSTRIES
BHEL is a major contributor of equipment and systems to industries, cement, sugar, fertilizer, refineries, petrochemicals, paper, oil and gas, metallurgical and other process industries. The range of systems & equipment supplied includes: captive power plants, co-generation plants, DG power plants, industrial steam turbines, industrial boilers and auxiliaries, waste heat recovery boilers, gas turbines, heat exchangers and pressure vessels, centrifugal compressors, electrical machines, pumps, valves,
3

seamless steel tubes, electrostatic precipitators, fabric filters, reactors, fluidized bed combustion boilers, chemical recovery boilers and process controls.

TRANSPORTATION
BHEL is involved in the development, design, engineering, marketing, production, installation, and maintenance and aftersales service of rolling stock and traction propulsions systems. BHEL manufactures electric locomotives up to 5000 HP, diesel electric locomotives from 350 HP to 3100 HP, both for mainline and shunting duty applications. It also produces rolling stock for special applications viz. overhead equipment cars, special well wagons, and Rail-cum road vehicle.

TELECOMMUNICATION
BHEL also caters to Telecommunication Sector by way of small, medium and large switching systems.

RENEWABLE ENERGY
Technologies that can be offered by BHEL for exploiting nonconventional and renewable sources of energy include: wind electric generators, solar photovoltaic systems, solar heating systems, solar lanterns and battery-powered road vehicles.

OIL AND GAS

BHELs products range includes Deep Drilling Oil Rigs, Mobile Rigs, Work Over Rigs, Well Heads and X-Mas Trees, Choke and Kill
4

Manifolds, Full Bore Gate Valves, Mudline Suspension System, Casing Support system Sub-Sea Well Heads, Block valves, Seamless pipes, Motors, Compressor, Heat Exchangers etc.

INTERNATIONAL OPERATIONS
BHEL is one of the largest exporters of engineering products & services from India, ranking among the major power plant equipment suppliers in the world.

MANUFACTURING UNITS OF BHEL

FIRST GENERATION UNITS
Bhopal Haridwar : Heavy Electrical Plant. : Heavy Electrical Equipment Plant.

Hyderabad : Heavy Electrical Power Equipment Plant.

SECOND GENERATION UNITS

Trichy Jhansi : High Pressure Boiler Plant. : Transformer and Locomotive Plant.

Haridwar : Central Foundry and Forge Plant. Trichy : Seamless Steel Tube Plant.

UNITS THROUGH ACQUISTION & MERGER

Bangalore : Electronics Division, Electro Porcelain Division.

NEW MANUFACTURING UNITS

Ranipet Jagdish : : Boiler Auxiliaries Plant. Insulator Plant.
6

Govindwal : Industrial Valve Plant. Rudrapur : Component and Fabrication Plant. Energy Systems Division

Bangalore :

BHEL is growing concern to meet the changing needs of the nation has taken it beyond power into the total gamut of energy, industry and transportation BHEL is able to offer a service in each of this fields. Its manufacturing capability is supported by a corporate R&D division at Hyderabad works closely with the research and development cells at various units and Welding Research Institute at Tiruchirapalli.

ACTIVITY PROFILE OF BHEL

1) POWER SECTOR PROJECTS
Thermal sets and Auxiliaries. Steam generators and Auxiliaries. Industrial fans. Electrostatic precipitators. Air pre heaters. Nuclear power equipments. Hydro sets and Auxiliaries. Motors. Transformers. Rectifiers. Pumps. Heat Exchangers. Capacitors. Porcelain/Ceramics insulators. Seamless steel tubes. Casting and forging.
8

2) SYSTEMS/SERVICES
Turnkey power station.

Data acquisition Systems. Power systems. HVDC Commissioning systems. Modernization and Rehabilitation.

3) TRASPORTATION SECTOR
Diesel Electric generators. AC/DC locomotives. DC locomotives and loco shunters. Traction system for railways. Electric trolley buses.

4) INDUSTRY SECTOR
Boilers. Valves. T.G. sets. Power devices. Solar Cells.
9

 Photo Voltaic cells. Gas Turbines. Compressors. Drive Turbines. Oil rigs. Blow out preventers. Wind mills. Control systems for electric devices

10

BHARAT HEAVY ELECTRICALS LIMITED, JHANSI

A BRIEF INTRODUCTION
By the end of 5th five-year plan, it was envisaged by the planning commission that the demand for power transformer would rise in the coming years. Anticipating the countrys requirement BHEL decided to set up a new plant, which would manufacture power and other types of transformers in addition to the capacity available in BHEL Bhopal. The Bhopal plant was engaged in manufacturing transformers of large ratings and Jhansi unit would concentrate on power transformer upto 50 KVA, 132 KV class and other transformers like Instrument Transformer s, Traction transformers for railway etc. This unit of Jhansi was established around 14 km from the city on the N.H. No 26 on Jhansi Lalitpur road. It is called secondgeneration plant of BHEL set up in 1974 at an estimated cost of Rs 16.22 crores inclusive of Rs 2.1 crores for township. Its foundation was laid by late Mrs. Indira Gandhi the prime minister on 9th Jan. 1974. The commercial production of the unit began in 1976-77 with an output of Rs 53 lacs since then there has been no looking back for BHEL Jhansi. The plant of BHEL is equipped with most modern manufacturing processing and testing facilities for the manufacture of power, special transformer and instrument transformer, Diesel shunting
11

locomotives and AC/DC locomotives. The layout of the plant is well streamlined to enable smooth material flow from the raw material stages to the finished goods. All the feeder bays have been laid perpendicular to the main assembly bay and in each feeder bay raw material smoothly gets converted to sub-assemblies, which after inspection are sent to main assembly bay. The raw material that are produced for manufacture are used only after thorough material testing in the testing lab and with strict quality checks at various stages of productions. This unit of BHEL is basically engaged in the production and manufacturing of various types of transformers and capacities with the growing competition in the transformer section, in 1985-86 it under took the re-powering of DESL, but it took the complete year for the manufacturing to begin. In 1987-88, BHEL has progressed a step further in under taking the production of AC locomotives, and subsequently it manufacturing ACD/DC locomotives also.

12

PRODUCT PROFILE OF BHEL, JHANSI

PRODUCTS
1. POWER TRANSFORMER 2. SPECIAL TRANSFORMER 3. ESP TRANSFORMER

RATINGS
UPTO 220 KV CLASS 250 MVA UPTO 110 KVA 100 KV,140 MA

4. FREIGHT LOCO TRANSFORMER 3900-5400 KVA & 6500 KVA 5. ACEMU TRANSFORMER 6. DRY TYPE TRANSFORMER 7. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER 8. DIESEL ELECTRIC LOCOMOTIVE 9. AC/DC LOCOMOTIVE 10. WELL WAGON UPTO 1000 KVA 25 KV(1 PHASE) UPTO 31.50 KVA VT&TC UPTO 220 KV UPTO 2600 HP 5000 HP 200 TON

13

BHEL OBJECTIVES
A dynamic organization is one which keeps its aim high to adopt itself quickly to changing environment. So here we are in BHEL. The objectives of the company have been redefined in the corporate plan for the 90s.

VISION
A World-Class Engineering Enterprise Committed to Enhancing Stakeholder Value.

MISSION
To be an Indian Multinational Engineering Enterprise providing Total Business Solutions through Quality Products, Systems and Services in the fields of Energy, Industry, Transportation, Infrastructure and other potential areas.

VALUES
Zeal to Excel and Zest for Change. Integrity and Fairness in all Matters. Respect for Dignity and Potential of Individuals. Strict Adherence to Commitments. Ensure Speed of Response. Foster Learning, Creativity and Teamwork. Loyalty and Pride in the Company

14

HEALTH,

SAFETY

AND

ENVIRONMENT

MANAGEMENT
BHEL, as an integral part of business performance and in its endeavour to becoming a world class organization and sharing the growth global concern on issues related to Environment, Occupational Health and Safety, is committed to protecting Environment in and around its own establishment, and providing safe and healthy working environment to all its employees. For fulfilling these obligations, Corporate Policies have been formulated as:

ENVIRONMENTAL POLICY
Compliance with applicable Environmental Legislation/Regulation; Continual pollution; Promotion of activities for conservation of resources by Environmental Management.

Improvement

in

Environment

Management

Systems to protect our natural environment and control

Enhancement

of

Environmental

awareness

amongst

employees, customers and suppliers.

15

OCCUPATIONAL POLICY

HEALTH

AND

SAFETY

Compliance with applicable Legislation and Regulations. Setting objectives and targets to eliminate/control/minimize risks due to Occupational and Safety Hazards. Appropriate structured training of employees on

Occupational Health and Safety (OH&S) aspects. Formulation and maintenance of OH&S Management

programmes for continual improvement; Periodic review of OH&S Management System to ensure its continuing suitability, adequacy and effectiveness; Communication of OH&S Policy to all employees and interested parties.

16

SECTIONS OF BHEL JHANSI UNIT

BHEL has many departments, while production and administrative departments are separate. Broadly speaking BHEL has three-production categories1. Transformer section. 2. Loco section. 3. Bus Duct

17

TRANSFORMER SECTION
TRANSFORMER COMMERCIAL (TRC)
The objective of the department is interaction with the customers. It brings out tenders and notices and also responds to them. It is this department that bags contracts of building transformers. After delivery regarding faults, this department does failures and maintenance. All such snags are reported to them and they forward the information to the concerning department. One of the major task of this department is to earn decent profits over all negotiations. Transformer industry has become very competitive. The company offering the lowest price gets the contract but this process may continue does the work on very low profits. To avoid such a situation, a body by the name of India Electrical Manufactures Association (IEMA) was set up. This association helps to maintain a healthy competitive atmosphere in the manufacturing of electrical appliances. The main work of the TRC is classified as: Tenders and notices. Interaction with design department. Place of the work. Approximate cost of the work. Earnest money. The place and time where contract documents can be seen.
18

 The place and time where tender documents can be obtained. The time up to which the tender documents will be sold. The amount if any to be paid for such documents. The place and the date and the time when tenders are to be submitted and are to be opened.

TRANSFORMER ENGINEERING (TRE)

The transformer manufactured in BHEL Jhansi range from 10 MVA to 240 MVA and up to 220 KV. The various transformers manufactured in this unit are:Power transformer a) Generator transformer b) System transformer c) Auto transformer Special transformer a) Freight loco transformer b) ESP transformer c) Instrument transformer d) Dry type transformer All above types are oil cooled except dry type, which are aircooled. The generated voltages at the power station are 6.9 KV, 11 KV and 13.8 KV but due to certain advantages like economical generation 11 KV is the most widely used. For this voltage needs to be stepped up. Transmission at high voltage is desirable
19

because it results in lesser losses, needs thinner wire and hence is economical. If the current is kept high the copper losses become very high but iron losses are practically constant. In certain cases the required voltage may be less than the output voltage, so in order to obtain it we require a tapping circuit. The output voltage may have a certain percentage variation, which may be tapped in 4 or 6 equal steps. The type of tap changer depends on the application of the transformer. Where a continuous power supply is not required an Off Circuit Tap Changer (OCTC) may be used. Where a continuous power supply is a must e.g. at a substation in cities etc. On Load Tap Changer (OLTC) is used.

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FABRICATION
Fabrication is nothing but production. It comprises of 03 bays i.e., Bay0, Bay1 &Bay 2.

BAY-0
It is the preparation shop while the other two bays form the assembly shop. This section has the following machines : o o o Planner machine To reduce thickness Shearing machine CNC / ANC Flame Cutting machine To cut Complicated shaft items using Oxy-Acetylene flame o o o o o o Bending machine Rolling machine Flattening machine Drilling machine Nibbling machine Pentagraph flame cutting machine

21

BAY-1
It is an assembly shop where different parts of tank come from bay 0.Here welding processes are used for assembly, after which a rough surface is obtained Grinder operating at 1200 rpm is used to eliminate the roughness.

BAY-2
It is an assembly shop dealing with making different objects mentioned below. 1-Tank assembly 2-Tank cover assembly 3-End Frame assembly 4-foot assembly Before assembly, short blasting (firing of small materials i.e., acid pickting) is done on different parts of jobs clean the surface before painting. After assembly some tests are done known as NON DESTRUCTIVE TESTS : 1. Ultrasonic test: to detect the welding fault to 5-cross feed assembly 6-core clamp assembly 7-pin and pad assembly

on the CRO at the fault place high amplitude waves are obtained. 2. Die Penetration test: Red solution is put at the welding and then cleaned. After some time white solution is
22

put. Appearance of a red spot indicates a fault at the welding. 3. Magnetic crack detection: Magnetic field is created and then iron powder is put at the welding. Sticking of the iron powder in the welding indicated a fault. 4. X-Ray Test: It is same as human testing and the fault is seen in X-ray film.

BAY-3
Here are basically three sections in the bay: 1. 2. 3. Machine section Copper section Tooling section

Machine section :
The operations to form small components of power and traction transformer are done in this section. The shop consist of following machines: CENTRAL LATHE: it consist one tailstock, headstock, lower part of tailstock is fixed and tail stock spindle is moving. On this machine facing, turning and threading is done TURRET LATHE: its function is same as central lathe but it is used for mass production. Here turret head is used in presence of tailstock because turret head contains many tailstocks around six.
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CAPSTAN LATHE: It is belt drive. RADIAL ARM DRILLING MACHINE: It is used for drilling and boring. HORIZONTAL BORING MACHINE: It is computerized and used for making bore, facing etc. MILLING MACHINE: a) Horizontal milling machine: It is used for making gear

and cutting operations. b) Vertical milling machine: By the machine facing

cutting, and T-slot cutting is done COPPER SECTION: All the processes related to copper are done here. TUBE SLITTING MACHINE: This machine is developed here and is used for cutting the tube along its length and across its diameter. Its blade thickness is 3mm. SHEARING MACHINE: Ii is operated hydraulically and its blade has V-shape and a thickness of 15mm DIE AND PUNCHING MACHINE: It is also hydraulically operated and has a die and punch for making holes. HYDRAULIC BENDING MACHINE: It is used for bending the job upto 90. SHEARING MACHINE: It is fully mechanical and is used to cut the job along its width.
24

FLY PRESS MACHINE: It is used to press the job. It is operated mechanically by a wheel, which is on the top of the machine. BEND SAW MACHINE: This machine is used for cutting job having small thickness. It has a circularly operated blade, around 5.1 mtr long. WATER COOLED BRAZING MACHINE: It contains two carbon brushes. The sheet is put along with a sulfas sheet and the carbon brushes are heated. A Lap Joint is formed between the sheets as the sulfas sheet melts. LINCING BELT MACHINE: It creates a smooth surface. HYDRAULIC PRESS MACHINE: To press the job. SOLDER POT MACHINE: It has a pot that contains solder. Solder has a composition of 60% Zn and 40% Pb.

Tooling Section:
In this section the servicing of tools is done. BLADE SHARP MACHINE: It sharpens the blade using a circular diamond cutter. Blade of CNC cropping line machine is sharpened here. MINI SURFACE GRINDER MACHINE: It serves grinding purposes. It has a grinding wheel made of Aluminium Oxide.

25

TOOL & SURFACE GRINDING MACHINE: This is specially used to grind the tools used in Bay 7. DRILL GRINDING MACHINE To grind the drills.

BAY 4
It is the winding section. TYPES OF WINDING : 1. Reverse section winding 2. Helical winding 3. Spiral winding 4. Interleaved winding 5. Half sectional winding

There are four TYPES OF COIL fixed in a transformer, they are : 1. Low voltage coil (LV) 2. High voltage coil (HV) 3. Tertiary coil 4. Tap coil The type of winding depends upon job requirement. Also, the width and thickness of the conductors are designed particulars and are decided by design department. Conductors used for winding is in the form of very long

26

strips wound on a spool, the conductor is covered by cellulose paper for insulation. For winding first the mould of diameter equal to inner dia meter of required coil is made .The specification of coil are given in drawing. The diameter of mould is adjustable as its body is made up of wooden sections that interlock with each other. This interlocking can be increased or decreased to adjust the inner diameter of coil. The moulds are of following types : 1. Belly type 2. Link type 3. Cone type

BAY-5
It is core and punch section. The lamination used in power, dry, ESP transformer etc for making core is cut in this section. CRGO(cold rolled grain oriented) silicon steel is used for lamination, which is imported in India from Japan ,U.K. Germany. It is available in 0.27 and 0.28 mm thick sheets, 1mt wide and measured in Kg.The sheet s are coated with very thin layer of insulating material called carlites. For the purpose of cutting and punching the core three machines are installed in shop

27

1. SLITTING MACHINE: It is used to cut CRGO sheets in different width. It has a circular cutter whose position can be changed as per the requirement. 2. CNC CROPPING LINE PNEUMATIC: It contains only one blade, which can rotate 90 about the sheet .It is operated pneumatically. 3. CNC CROPPING LINE HYDRAULIC: It is also used to cut the CRGO sheet. It contains two blades, one is fixed and the other rotates 90 above the sheet. It is operated hydraulically .M4 quality sheet 0.23-0.33 mm thickness is used.

BAY-6
Single-phase traction transformer for AC locomotives is assembled in this section. These Freight locomotive transformers are used where there is frequent change in speed. In this bay core winding and all the assembly and testing of traction transformer is done. Three-phase transformers for ACEMU are also

manufactured in this section. The supply lines for this transformer is of 25 KV and power of the transformer is 6500 KVA. The tap changer of rectifier transformer is also assembled in this bay. Rectified transformer is used in big furnace like the thermal power stations / plants ( TPP).
28

BAY-7
This is the insulation shop. Various types of insulations are 1. AWWW: All Wood Water Washed press paper is a 0.20.5mm thick cellulose paper and is wound on the conductors for insulation. 2. PRE-COMPRESSED BOARD: This is widely used for general insulation forms of blocks. 3. PRESS BOARD: This is used for separation of coils e.g. L.V. from H.V. It is up to 38 mm thick. 4. UDEL: Undemnified Electrical Laminated wood or Permawood is a special type of plywood made for insulation purposes. 5. FIBRE GLASS: This is a resin material and is used in fire prone areas. 6. 7. 8. BAKELLITE GASKET-It is used for protection against leakage. SILICON RUBBER SHEET-It is used for dry type transformer. The machines used for shaping the insulation material are:1. Cylindrical machines 2. Circle cutting machine
29

& separation of conductors in the

3. Scarfing machines 4. Punching press machine 5. Drilling machine 6. Guilletin machines 7. Bench saw (special for OD) 8. Jig saw (special for ID) 9. Circular saw 10. Linesin machines

BAY 8
It is the instrument transformer and ESP transformer manufacturing section. INSTRUMENT TRANSFORMER These are used for measurement. Actual measurement is done by measuring instruments but these transformers serve the purpose of stepping down the voltage to protect the measuring instrument. They are used in AC system for measurement of current voltage and energy and can also be used for measuring power factor, frequency and for indication of synchronism. They find application in protection of power system and for the operation of over voltage, over current, earth fault and various other types of relays.
30

They are of two types. 1-Current transformer (CT) 2-Voltage transformer (VT) CURRENT TRANSFORMER It is a step down transformer. High current is not directly measured by the CT but is stepped down to lower measurable voltages. BODY The main body is a bushing, which houses the winding and also acts as an insulator. The CT has a bottom and top chamber. The top chamber is a cylindrical tank of mild steel. It has terminals for connection of HV coils. It also has a glass window to indicate the oil level. Below the top chamber is the bushing made of porcelain. It has several folds or rain sheds to provide a specific electric field distribution and long leakage path. Some bushings are cylindrical while modern ones are conical as amount of oil porcelain used is reduced without any undesirable defect. Bottom chamber houses the secondary winding. There is also connection box to which the connection of the low voltage (LV) coil is made.
31

WINDINGS The primary winding consist of hollow copper/aluminium pipe bent in form of a U aluminium is used for low rating. For higher rating a set of wires is passed through the pipe. For still higher ratings, a copper pipe is used and for highest rating copper pipe with copper wires passing through it is used. This arrangement depends on the current carrying capacity. The bent portion of primary as in the bottom chamber whereas the free end is the top chamber. The straight portion lies inside the bushing. The primary is wound with crepe paper insulation. The thickness of the insulation goes in increasing as we go downwards in the bottom chamber. The free ends are provided with ferrules, which are, small hollow cylinders through which wires can pass connection to the primary are made through these ferrules. The secondary is divided in a number of coils for different set of tapings. Connections are different tapings are made in connection box. Each coil has an annular core of CRGO (silicon steel). The wire use is insulated copper wire. The winding may be done both manually and by machine. After winding the coils are covered with paper tape insulation. The coils are then slipped into both the legs of the primary winding and connections are made in connection box for different tapping.

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VOLTAGE TRANSFORMERS This is also a stepped down transformer. The outer construction is same as that of the CT that is this also has a top chamber, bushing and a bottom chamber. The difference is only in the winding. WINDINGS The primary winding is of the thick wire having a few turns. The winding is heavily insulated with paper insulation. It has a hollow cylinder passing centrally through it, which houses the secondary winding. The clean and painted with either enamel or epoxy paint. The customer gives the choice of paint. Epoxy paint is generally used in chemical plants and seashore installation. Terminals are then mark and ratings and diagram plate is fixed. The job is then sent to the shipping department, which takes care of its dispatch by packing it in the wooden boxes. ESP TRANSFORMER The Electrostatic Precipitator transformer is used for environmental application. It is used to filter in a suspended charge particle in the waste gases of an industry. They are of particular use in thermal power stations and cement industry. The ESP is a single-phase transformer. It has a primary and secondary. The core is laminated and is made up of CRGOS. It is a step up transformer. An AC reactor is connected in
33

series with primary coil. The output of the transformer must be DC the is obtained by rectifying AC using a bridge rectifier (bridge rectifier is a combination of several hundred diodes). A radio frequency choke (RF choke) is connected in series with the DC output for the protection of the secondary circuit and filter circuit. The output is chosen negative because the particles are positively charged. The DC output from the secondary is given to a set of plates arrange one after the others. Impurity particles being positively charged stick to these plates, which can be jerked off. For this a network of plates has to be setup all across the plant. This is very costly process in comparison with the transformer cost. A relive vent is also provided to prevent the transformer from bursting it higher pressure develops, inside it. It is the weakest point in the transformer body. An oil temperature indicator and the secondary supply spark detector are also provided. One side of the transformer output is taken and other side has a marshalling box which is the control box of the transformer.

34

BAY-9
In this bay power transformer are assembled. After taking different input from different bays 0-9 assembly is done power transformer is used to step and step down voltages at generating and sub-stations. There are various ratings 11KV, 22KV, manufactured, they are a) b) c) Generator transformer System Autotransformer

A transformer in a process of assemblage is called a job. The design of the transformer is done by the design deptt. & is unique of each job; depends on the requirement of customer. The design department provides drawing to the assembly shop, which assembles it accordingly. The steps involved in assembly are : 1. 2. 3. 4. Core building Core Lifting Unlacing Delacing and end-frame mounting.

35

5.

High voltage terminal gear and low volt terminal gear mounting.

6. 7. 8.

Vapour phasing and oil soaking Final servicing and tanking Case fitting

Core Building : It is made of cold rolled grain oriented steel CRGO. The punched core is sent to this shop from core punching shop. Here it is assembled with the help of drawing a set of 4 laminations is called a packet. The vertical portion of the core is called a leg the horizontal one is called as yoke. Packets of both are interlinked. It is undesirable to keep the X section of core circular to provide low reluctance part without air space. A perfect circle cannot be made so the core is stepped to achieve a near circle. Whichever spaces are left, are filled with thin wooden rod. After core building the end frames are bolted. The bolts are insulated from the core. Core Lifting : The core is lifted by a crane and is placed vertical. The rest of assembly is done on the core in this position.

36

Unlacing & Core Coil Assembly : The yoke of the core is removed using crane. Bottom insulation in form of 50MM thick UDEL sheets is placed PCB and press board are also used for filling the gap and to provide a good base for the coil to rest. The coil are then lowered primary, secondary, tertiary and tap in that sequences. Relacing & End-frame Mounting : After lowering a coil the top insulation similar to the bottom one is provided. The removed yoke is placed end-frame bolted back into its position. The connections are then made as per drawings. All the conductors are insulated using crepe paper. Brazing copper makes the connections. For brazing silphos is used. The following tests are done during re lacing: 1. 2. 3. Megger Test Ratio test Meg current / High Volt test

Testing at this stage is called pre testing. This is essential because if false are seen at a later stage, whole of the transformer will have to be dissembled.

37

H.V.T.G & L.V.T.G. : Terminals gears are accessories provided at high voltage and low voltage terminals. Main device used is tap changer. Tap changer can be on load or offload. In offload type the supply has to be tripped, then the tapings changes but in on load type the tapings can be changed while the supply is on. On load tap changer (OLTC) are used where the supply is desired to be continuous. The upper portion of the OLTC contains mechanism by which tapping is changed. There is switch which changes tap in very small type (Micro-seconds). But there is a possibility of sparking. To get rid of it, OLTC is filled with oil. The bottom part houses the terminals and the mechanism, which makes automatic connections. The terminals are made of thick aluminum strips. Vapour Phasing & Oil Soaking : It is a well-known fact that water (impure) is a conductor of electricity. Therefore, moisture presence in transformer will effect insulation, the process of moisture removal from transformer is called vapour phasing. The job is put in dummy type and place in a vacuum vessel. It is an airtight chamber with heating facilities. A solvent vessel is released is the chamber which enters all transformer parts and insulations. It absorbs water rapidly. The job is heated in vacuum. All the solvent vapours are sucked out with moisture. Metals contain no moisture but a lot of insulations
38

is provided which contains this moisture and if not taken care of, may burst the job. After moisture removal tank is filled with transformer oil and soaked for at least three hours, so that every gets wet with oil. The job remains in vessel for three days during phasing. It is then taken out of the vessel and also out of the dummy time. Final Servicing & Tanking : After taking the job out of dummy time all the parts retightened any other defects are rectified and job is retimed in mild steel tank. After tanking the oil is filled. Case Fitting : The accessories are fixed and final touches given to job. The accessories include tank cover, fixing bushing, fixing valves etc. The terminals are marked and R and D. (Rating and Diagram) plate is fixed. Bolting and not riveting because it may require maintenance and hence opening close the tank. Bushings are hollow to provide a passage for conductor; oil is filled inside the hollow spaces for better insulation. Bushing is built on a mild steel base, which is bolted to bottom chamber with a cork gasket in vacuum. The bottom chamber is mild steel tank with a steel frame attached to its base for earthling. This chamber houses the secondary winding.

39

STORE
There are three sections in store: Control Receiving Section Custody Section Scrap Disposal Section

FUNCTIONS A list of material coming in stores is prepared and Quality Control people are called for inspection. If material is found as per standard, SRV (Store Receipt Voucher) is issued for each material. A total of 08 SRVs are prepared. Some materials such as silicon oil, transformer oil, insulating material, etc. are directly stored in the Bays.

40

LOCOMOTIVE SECTION
LOCOMOTIVE PRODUCTION(LMP)
There are two products :

Alternating Current Locomotive (AC Loco) WAG-5H AC./D.C. Loco WCAM-2P WCAM-3 A-running in AC mode G-hauling goods train M-hauling passenger &

o o

W-broad gauge C-running in DC mode P-hauling passenger train goods train

Diesel Electric Locomotive Shunting (DESL) 350 HP 700 HP Single Power Pack (SPP): One 700 HP m/c is made as a single unit. It is a meter gauge locomotive.

Twin Power Pack (TPP): 2 350HP m/cs are combined in 1 engine & can be operated individually or in combination depending on the load.
41

450 HP 1400 HP 1150 HP 1350 HP 2600 HP

1150 HP and 1350 HP DESL s are non-standard locomotives and are modified versions of 1400 HP DESL based on requirement of customer. Under mention are the new non-conventional products designed and developed for Indian Railways based on their requirement.

OHE (Overhead electric) recording and testing cars UTV(Utility vehicle ) RRV(Rail cum road vehicle) DETV( Diesel electric tower car) BPRV(Battery power road vehicle) BCM(Blast cleaning machine) 200 T Well wagon for BHEL, Haridwar Metro Rake-Kolkata Metro Railways

42

LOCOMOTIVE MANUFACTURING (LMM)

This section deals with manufacturing of locomotives. The main parts of the locomotive are

Under frame: The frame on which a locomotive is built Super structure: The body of locomotive is called superstructure steel or Shell and is made of sheet of Mild

DC motor Alternator Compressor Flower Static Rectifier-MSR Static Converter-SC Exchanger Bogie-The wheel arrangement of a loco is called a bogie. A bogie essentially contains

1. Wheel axle arrangement 2. Suspension 3. Brake rigging

43

Traction transformer: It is fixed on under frame and gets supply from an overhead line by equipment called pentograph. The type of pentograph depends on supply. This transformer steps down voltage and is fitted with a tap changer. Different taps are taken from it for operating different equipment. One tap is taken and is rectified into DC using MSR and is fed to the DC motor. Railways has two types of power supplies 25 KV, 1 Phase , 50Hz AC-1500 V DC. An AC/DC loco is able to work on both of these supplies. For example, WCAM-3.

44

WORK ENGINEERING & SERVICES (WE&S)

This department looks after the commissioning and maintenance of all the machinery used in the factory. It also has 3 two-stage air compressors for supplying compressed air to the various bays. The department has 3 different divisions :

Electrical Engineering Electronics Engineering Mechanical Engineering

ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING : This division looks after all the electrical machinery and power distribution of the factory. Snags detected in the system are immediately reported to this dept by the concerning dept.WE&S takes prompt action to rectify it. The factory has a feeder of 11KV .The total load sanctioned for the factory is 2500MVA. But the maximum demand reaches the range of 1700-2000 MVA.

45

Here are the various substations(SS) inside the factory, for distribution of power to different sections. SS -1 SS -3 SS -4 SS -5 SS -6 Supplies Supplies Supplies Supplies Supplies Bay 6 to Bay 9 Bay 1 to Bay 4 Boiler and loco plant Bay -5 Administrative Building

46

TECHNOLOGY
This department analyses the changes taking place in the world. and suggest changes accordingly. This is very important because the products must not get obsolete in the market otherwise they will be rejected by the customer. FUNCTIONS : Technology functions can be classified as :

Processing Sequence : The sequence of process of manufacturing is decided for timely and economic completion of the job.

Operation time estimate : It includes incentive scheme management.

Allowed operation time : It includes incentive amount. Facilities identification : It includes looking for new equipment or plant or tools to increase productivity.

Special process certification : Special processes are the ones requiring expertise for example identifying errors, cracks, air bubbles in welding.

Special tools requirement : Special tools are allotted, if possible, when required else the design has to be reconsider.

47

Productivity projects compilation : It includes the initial analysis of the problem and their appropriate solution to enhance productivity.

The

principle

of

working

is

that

IF YOU DO NOT MAKE THE CHANGES IN YOUR COMPANY, THE CUSTOMER WILL CHANGE YOU.

48

CENTRAL QUALITY SERVICE

First we become familiar with a few terms concerning this department.

QUALITY : It is the extent to which products and services satisfy the customer needs.

QUALITY ASSURANCE : All those plants and systematic action necessary to provide adequate confidence that a product or service will satisfy the given requirement is called quality assurance.

QUALITY CONTROL : The operational technique and activities that are used to fulfill requirement for quality are quality control.

QUALITY INSPECTION : Activities such as measuring, testing, gauging one or more characteristics of a product or service and comparing these with specified requirement to determine conformity are termed quality inspection.

49

PROJECT REPORT

50

51

A SUCCINCT HISTORY
The GSM system is the most widely used cellular technology in use in the world today. It has been a particularly successful cellular phone technology for a variety of reasons including the ability to roam worldwide with the certainty of being able to be able to operate on GSM networks in exactly the same way provided billing agreements are in place. The letters GSM originally stood for the words Groupe Speciale Mobile, but as it became clear this cellular technology was being used worldwide the meaning of GSM was changed to Global System for Mobile Communications. Since this cellular technology was first deployed in 1991, the use of GSM has grown steadily, and it is now the most widely cell phone system in the world. GSM reached the 1 billion subscriber point in February 2004, and is now well over the 3 billion subscriber mark and still steadily increasing. 1982 - The Beginning

Nordic Telecom and Netherlands PTT propose to CEPT (Conference of European Post and Telecommunications) the development of a new digital cellular standard that would cope with the ever a burgeoning demands on European mobile networks.

52

The European Commission (EC) issues a directive which requires member states to reserve frequencies in the 900 MHz band for GSM to allow for roaming.

1986

Main GSM radio transmission techniques are chosen

1987

September - 13 operators and administrators from 12 areas in the CEPT GSM advisory group sign the charter GSM (Groupe Spciale Mobile) MoU "Club" agreement, with a launch date of 1 July 1991.

The original French name was later changed to Global System for Mobile Communications, but the original GSM acronym stuck.

GSM spec drafted.

1989

The European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI) defined GSM as the internationally accepted digital cellular telephony standard

GSM becomes an ETSI technical committee

1990

Phase 1 GSM 900 specifications are frozen DCS adaptation starts

53

Validation systems implemented First GSM World congress in Rome with 650 Participants

1991

First GSM spec demonstrated DCS specifications are frozen GSM World Congress Nice has 690 Participants

1992

January - First GSM network operator is Oy Radiolinja Ab in Finland

December 1992 - 13 networks on air in 7 areas GSM World Congress Berlin - 630 Participants

1993

GSM demonstrated for the first time in Africa at Telkom '93 in Cape Town

Roaming agreements between several operators established December 1993 - 32 networks on air in 18 areas GSM World Congress Lisbon with 760 Participants Telkom '93 held in Cape Town. First GSM systems shown.

1994

First GSM networks in Africa launched in South Africa

54

Phase 2 data/fax bearer services launched Vodacom becomes first GSM network in the world to implement data/fax

GSM World Congress Athens with 780 Participants December 1994 - 69 networks on air in 43 areas

1995

GSM MoU is formally registered as an Association registered in Switzerland - 156 members from 86 areas.

GSM World Congress Madrid with 1400 Participants December 1995 117 networks on air in 69 areas Fax, data and SMS roaming started GSM phase 2 standardization is completed, including adaptation for PCS 1900 (PCS)

First PCS 1900 network live 'on air' in the USA Telecom '95 Geneva - Nokia shows 33.6 kbps multimedia data via GSM

Namibia goes on-line Ericsson 337 wins GSM phone of the year US FCC auctions off PCS licenses

55

1996

GSM MoU is formally registered as an Association registered in Switzerland

December 1996 120 networks on air in 84 areas GSM World Congress in Cannes GSM MoU Plenary held in Atlanta GA, USA 8K SIM launched Pre-Paid GSM SIM Cards launched Bundled billing introduced in South Africa Libya goes on-line Option International launches world's first GSM/Fixed-line modem

1997

Zimbabwe goes live GSM World Congress Cannes 21/2/97 Mozambique goes live Iridium birds launched First dual-band GSM 900-1900 phone launched by Bosch

56

1998

Botswana GSM goes live GSM World Congress Cannes (2/98) Vodacom Introduces Free VoiceMail MTN Gets Uganda Tender GSM SIM Cracked in USA Over 2m GSM 1900 users MTN Gets Rwanda Tender MTN follows with free voicemail Rwanda GSM Live First HSCSD trials in Singapore Vodacom launches Yebo!Net 10/98 Iridium Live 11/98 First GSM Africa Conference (11/98) 125m GSM 900/1800/1900 users worldwide (12/98) Option International launches FirstFone MTN launches CarryOver minutes

57

1999

GSM Conference in Cannes 2/99 165m GSM 900/1800/1900 users worldwide GPRS trials begin and USA and Scandanavia 1/99 WAP trials in France and Italy 1/99 CellExpo Africa 5/99 Eight Bidders for Third SA Cell License GSM MoU Joins 3GPP MTN SA Head of GSM MoU First GPRS networks go live Bluetooth specification v1.0 released

2000

GSM Conference in Cannes 3/2000 By 12/2000 480m GSM 900/1800/1900 users worldwide First GPRS networks roll out Mobey Forum Launched MeT Forum Launched Location Interoperability Forum Launched First GPRS terminals seen

58

Nokia releases SmartMessaging spec SyncML spec released

2001

GSM Conference in Cannes 2/2001 By 5/2001 500m GSM 900/1800/1900 users worldwide 16 billion SMS message sent in April 2001

59

GSM - SERVICES
The GSM system was designed as a second generation (2G) cellular phone technology. One of the basic aims was to provide a system that would enable greater capacity to be achieved than the previous first generation analogue systems. GSM achieved this by using a digital TDMA (time division multiple access approach). By adopting this technique more users could be accommodated within the available bandwidth. In addition to this, ciphering of the digitally encoded speech was adopted to retain privacy. Using the earlier analogue cellular technologies it was possible for anyone with a scanner receiver to listen to calls and a number of famous personalities had been "eavesdropped" with embarrassing consequences. Speech or voice calls are obviously the primary function for the GSM cellular system. To achieve this the speech is digitally encoded and later decoded using a vocoder. A variety of vocoders are available for use, being aimed at different scenarios. In addition to the voice services, GSM cellular technology supports a variety of other data services. Although their performance is nowhere near the level of those provided by 3G, they are nevertheless still important and useful. A variety of data services are supported with user data rates up to 9.6 kbps. Services including Group 3 facsimile, videotext and teletex can be supported. One service that has grown enormously is the short message service. Developed as part of the GSM specification, it has also
60

been incorporated into other cellular technologies. It can be thought of as being similar to the paging service but is far more comprehensive allowing bi-directional messaging, store and forward delivery, and it also allows alphanumeric messages of a reasonable length. This service has become particularly popular, initially with the young as it provided a simple, low fixed cost. GSM is a very robust technology with a myriad of features some of which are detailed below. Note however that some of these features are network dependent and might not be available on your GSM network.

Short Message Service which allows you to send and receive 126 character text messages

Ability to use same phone in a number of network-related countries

Allows data transmission and reception across GSM networks at speeds up to 9,600 bps currently

Allows fax transmission and reception across GSM networks at speeds up to 9,600 bps currently

Forwarding of calls to another number More capacity, ensuring rapid call set-up. Handsets also smaller and more robust.

Talk to a number of other parties simultaneously Place a call on Hold while you access another call Notifies you of another call whilst on a call
61

Encrypted conservations that cannot be tapped You can bar outgoing calls and incoming calls CLIP Allows you to see the telephone number of the incoming caller on the LCD screen of the handset

CLIR allows you to bar anyone from seeing your number via CLIP

Real-time call costs on the handset's LCD screen Allows location/cell-specific reception of text messages. Closed User Group - Allows a set of phones to be classed as PBX extensions.

Emergency Calls - In the majority of countries, the global 112 emergency number can be dialled free.

No-static connections

62

GSM - BASICS
The GSM cellular technology had a number of design aims when the development started : * It should offer good subjective speech quality * It should have a low phone or terminal cost * Terminals should be able to be handheld * The system should support international roaming * It should offer good spectral efficiency * The system should offer ISDN compatibility The resulting GSM cellular technology that was developed provided for all of these. The overall system definition for GSM describes not only the air interface but also the network or infrastructure technology. By adopting this approach it is possible to define the operation of the whole network to enable international roaming as well as enabling network elements from different manufacturers to operate alongside each other, although this last feature is not completely true, especially with older items. GSM cellular technology uses 200 kHz RF channels. These are time division multiplexed to enable up to eight users to access each carrier. In this way it is a TDMA / FDMA system. The base transceiver stations (BTS) are organised into small groups, controlled by a base station controller (BSC) which is

63

typically co-located with one of the BTSs. The BSC with its associated BTSs is termed the base station subsystem (BSS). Further into the core network is the main switching area. This is known as the mobile switching centre (MSC). Associated with it is the location registers, namely the home location register (HLR) and the visitor location register (VLR) which track the location of mobiles and enable calls to be routed to them. Additionally there is the Authentication Centre (AuC), and the Equipment Identify Register (EIR) that are used in authenticating the mobile before it is allowed onto the network and for billing. The operation of these are explained in the following pages : Last but not least is the mobile itself. Often termed the ME or mobile equipment, this is the item that the end user sees. One important feature that was first implemented on GSM was the use of a Subscriber Identity Module. This card carried with it the users identity and other information to allow the user to upgrade a phone very easily, while retaining the same identity on the network. It was also used to store other information such as "phone book" and other items. This item alone has allowed people to change phones very easily, and this has fuelled the phone manufacturing industry and enabled new phones with additional features to be launched. This has allowed mobile operators to increase their average revenue per user (ARPU) by ensuring that users are able to access any new features that may be launched on the network requiring more sophisticated phones. 347 GSM MoU Association members from 128 countries 339 GSM networks on-air in 133 countries.
64

 GSM now accounts for 60% of the world's total cellular market. 260 million GSM customers around the world. 8 billion G-Mail (GSM text messages) were over the airwaves by global GSM mobile phone operators in August 2000 Option International is the largest GSM data vendor (DataQuest) Italy has the largest number of GSM users 5 GSM 1900 users In North America (12/2000) Nokia has the largest share of the GSM handset market followed by Ericsson, then Motorola.

65

GSM - SYSTEM OVERVIEW

The table below summarises the main points of the GSM system specification, showing some of the highlight features of technical interest. Specification Summary for GSM Cellular System Multiple access technology Duplex technique FDMA / TDMA FDD 933 -960 MHz (basic 900 MHz band only) 890 - 915 MHz (basic 900 MHz band only) 200 kHz GMSK Various - original was RPELTP/13 8 270.833 kbps 4.615 ms

Uplink frequency band

Downlink frequency band

Channel spacing Modulation

Speech coding

Speech channels per RF channel Channel data rate Frame duration

66

Today the GSM cell or mobile phone system is the most popular in the world. GSM handsets are widely available at good prices and the networks are robust and reliable. The GSM system is also feature-rich with applications such as SMS text messaging, international roaming, SIM cards and the like. It is also being enhanced with technologies including GPRS and EDGE. To achieve this level of success has taken many years and is the result of both technical development and international cooperation. The GSM history can be seen to be a story of cooperation across Europe, and one that nobody thought would lead to the success that GSM is today.The first cell phone systems that were developed were analogue systems. Typically they used frequency-modulated carriers for the voice channels and data was carried on a separate shared control channel. When compared to the systems employed today these systems were comparatively straightforward and as a result a vast number of systems appeared. Two of the major systems that were in existence were the AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System) that was used in the USA and many other countries and TACS (Total Access Communications System) that was used in the UK as well as many other countries around the world. Another system that was employed, and was in fact the first system to be commercially deployed was the Nordic Mobile Telephone system (NMT). This was developed by a consortium of companies in Scandinavia and proved that international cooperation was possible. The success of these systems proved to be their downfall. The use of all the systems installed around the globe increased
67

dramatically and the effects of the limited frequency allocations were soon noticed. To overcome these a number of actions were taken. A system known as E-TACS or Extended-TACS was introduced giving the TACS system further channels. In the USA another system known as Narrowband AMPS (NAMPS) was developed.

68

GSM - FREQUENCY BANDS

There is a total of fourteen different recognised GSM frequency bands. These are defined in 3GPP TS 45.005. Uplink (MHz) Downlink (MHz)

Band

Comments

380 410 450 480 710 750 810 850

380.2 - 389.8 390.2 - 399.8 410.2 - 419.8 420.2 - 429.8 450.4 - 457.6 460.4 - 467.6 478.8 - 486.0 488.8 - 496.0 698.0 - 716.0 728.0 - 746.0 747.0 - 762.0 777.0 - 792.0 806.0 - 821.0 851.0 - 866.0 824.0 - 849.0 869.0 - 894.0 P-GSM, i.e. Primary or

900

890.0 - 915.0 935.0 - 960.0

standard GSM allocation E-GSM, i.e. Extended GSM allocation R-GSM, i.e. Railway GSM

900

880.0 - 915.0 925.0 - 960.0

900

876.0 - 915

921.0 - 960.0

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Band

Uplink (MHz)

Downlink (MHz)

Comments

allocation 900 870.4 - 876.0 915.4 - 921.0 1710.0 1785.0 1850.0 1910.0 T-GSM

1800

1805.0 - 1880.0

1900

1930.0 - 1990.0

The usage of the different frequency bands varies around the globe although there is a large degree of standardisation. The GSM frequencies available depend upon the regulatory requirements for the particular country and the ITU (International Telecommunications Union) region in which the country is located. As a rough guide Europe tends to use the GSM 900 and 1800 bands as standard. These bands are also generally used in the Middle East, Africa, Asia and Oceania. For North America the USA uses both 850 and 1900 MHz bands, the actual band used is determined by the regulatory authorities and is dependent upon the area. For Canada the 1900 MHz band is the primary one used, particularly for urban areas with 850 MHz used as a backup in rural areas.

70

For Central and South America, the GSM 850 and 1900 MHz frequency bands are the most widely used although there are some areas where other frequencies are used. In order that cell phone users are able to take advantage of the roaming facilities offered by GSM, it is necessary that the cellphones are able to cover the bands of the countries which are visited. Today most phones support operation on multiple bands and are known as multi-band phones. Typically most standard phones are dual-band phones. For Europe, Middle east, Asia and Oceania these would operate on GSM 900 and 1800 bands and for North America, etc dual band phones would operate on GSM 850 and 1900 frequency bands. To provide better roaming coverage, tri-band and quad-band phones are also available. European triband phones typically cover the GSM 900, 1800 and 1900 bands giving good coverage in Europe as well as moderate coverage in North America. Similarly North America tri-band phones use the 900, 1800 and 1900 GSM frequencies. Quad band phones are also available covering the 850, 900, 1800 and 1900 MHz GSM frequency bands, i.e. the four major bands and thereby allowing global use. The power levels and power control of GSM mobiles is of great importance because of the effect of power on the battery life. Also to group mobiles into groups, GSM power class designations have been allocated to indicate the power capability of various mobiles.

71

In addition to this the power of the GSM mobiles is closely controlled so that the battery of the mobile is conserved, and also the levels of interference are reduced and performance of the base-station is not compromised by high power local mobiles. A new GSM 400 MHz frequency band is now being standardised by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). In April 1998 a Digital Interest Group (DIG) was formed to investigate the migration options open to NMT 450 operators. During 1998, the with DIG prepared a detailed Requirement comply.

Specification

which

vendors

could

The DIG group investigated three possible technologies as potential digital versions of NMT and, in October 1999, the results of the investigations were presented with the majority of the NMT MoU operators expressing their preference for the GSM 400 solution. GSM 400 is a band that brings access to this world-leading standard for NMT 450 operators, as well as offering a coverage bonus effect to current GSM operators worldwide. GSM 400 will evolve with the core GSM specification and will include seamless roaming with other GSM bands. Technically, GSM 400 and NMT 450 can run in parallel on the 450MHz band.

72

This will be the standard process that many operators follow during the migration from NMT to GSM. In the long run, however, the limited availability of spectrum frequency in most countries will make running both networks on a long-term basis impractical, since all capacity available will be required to run a full service. As a result, operators will eventually need to close down their 450 networks to run GSM 400 networks successfully. The introduction of the new 400 MHz frequency band will further leverage the success of global GSM, which so far has been established through the current 900MHz, 1800MHz and 1900MHz bands. ETSI will release a GSM 400 specification as part of its ETSI/SMG GSM99 specification. GSM 400 is expected to become commercially available during 2001. The entire switching platform and base station controller infrastructure will remain static when new frequency capabilities are included. However, new software will be required in some network elements. Nokia and Ericsson have proposed that GSM 400 is be standardised in ETSI as a part of the GSM standard which is available to all manufacturers on an equal basis. As a result of this GSM 400 will form part of the existing GSM standard, which is continuously evolving as per GSM standard (900/1800). This evolution results in a phased approach toward IMT-2000 service requirements.
73

The commitment of Nokia and Ericsson to the development of GSM 400 is illustrated in the fact that they have already made the first official GSM 400 call at the GSM 400 Conference in Budapest, Hungary in September 1999.

Both Nokia and Ericsson supplied prototype equipment to make the call possible. The prototype equipment included GSM400/1800 dualband phones, Radio Base Station and Base Station Controllers. Prototypes of tri-band GSM 400/900/1800 handsets with HSCSD and WAP support will begin trials in the fourth quarter of 2000 and are expected to be available in commercial volumes in 2Q / 2001. Network infrastructure trials are planned for 4Q / 2000 with commercial availability from 1Q / 2001.

74

GSM - TECHNICAL TERMS GLOSSARY

TCAP Transaction Capabilities Application Part VLR Visitor Location Register AIC Advanced Intelligent Networks Control Channel The channel the phone and cell base station first communicate on. Reverse Control Channel The opposite frequency, 45 MHz lower than the control channel. Used by the mobile. Voice channel The channel you are assigned by the switch to commence the call on after the exchange of subscriber data. Base Transceiver Station The network base station that talks to the mobile. TDMA Time Division Multiple Access FDMA Frequency Division Multiple Access A-TDMA Advanced Time Division Multiple Access CDMA Code Division Multiple Access AuC Authentication Center LAI Location Area Identity Ki Individual Subscriber Authentication Key
75

OMS Operation and Maintenance Subsystem of the GSM network, IMEI The IMEI (International Mobile Equipment Identity)is a 15 digit Code used to identify the GSM/DCS/PCS phone to the network. CLIP Caller Line Identity Presentation CLIR Caller Line Identity Restriction SMS Short Message Service HLR Home Location Register PIN Personal Identity Number PUK PIN Unblocking Code BSC Base Station Controller BS Base Station MSC Mobile Switching Centre - The computer that places the calls, and takes and receives data from the subscriber or from PSTN (Public switched Telephone Network) SMSC Short Message Service Centre SMD-PP Short Message Delivery Point-to-Point VLR Visitor Location Register SMS-IWMSC SMS Interworking Mobile Switching Center TAP Telocator Alphanumeric Protocol SS7 Signaling System 7 GMSC Gateway Mobile Switching Center
76

MO-SMS Mobile-Originated Short Message ESN Electronic Serial Number IWF Interworking Function (Modem) IEMI International Equipment Mobile Identity GSM Global System For Mobile Communication EIR Equipment Identity Register PE Primary Exchange

77

GSM - ARCHITECTURE
The GSM network architecture as defined in the GSM specifications can be grouped into four main areas:

Mobile station (MS) Base-station subsystem (BSS) Network and Switching Subsystem (NSS) Operation and Support Subsystem (OSS)

78

MOBILE STATION
Mobile stations (MS), mobile equipment (ME) or as they are most widely known, cell or mobile phones are the section of a GSM cellular network that the user sees and operates. In recent years their size has fallen dramatically while the level of functionality has greatly increased. A further advantage is that the time between charges has significantly increased. There are a number of elements to the cell phone, although the two main elements are the main hardware and the SIM. The hardware itself contains the main elements of the mobile phone including the display, case, battery, and the electronics used to generate the signal, and process the data receiver and to be transmitted. It also contains a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity (IMEI). This is installed in the phone at manufacture and "cannot" be changed. It is accessed by the network during registration to check whether the equipment has been reported as stolen. The SIM or Subscriber Identity Module contains the information that provides the identity of the user to the network. It contains are variety of information including a number known as the International Mobile Subscriber Identity (IMSI).

79

BASE STATION SUBSYSTEM (BSS)

The Base Station Subsystem (BSS) section of the GSM network architecture that is fundamentally associated with communicating with the mobiles on the network. It consists of two elements:

Base Transceiver Station (BTS)

The BTS used in a GSM network comprises the radio transmitter receivers, and their associated antennas that transmit and receive to directly communicate with the mobiles. The BTS is the defining element for each cell. The BTS communicates with the mobiles and the interface between the two is known as the Um interface with its associated protocols. GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications) uses a series of radio transmitters called Base Stations (BS) to connect you and your cell-phone to your cellular network. Each BS is also termed a cell, so named because it covers a certain range within a discrete area (cell). Base Stations are all interconnected, which is why you can move from one cell to another - a process called "hand-over" - without (hopefully) losing your connection. The base transceiver station, or BTS, contains the equipment for transmitting and receiving radio signals (transceivers), antennas, and equipment for encrypting and decrypting communications with the base station controller (BSC). Typically a BTS for anything other than a picocell will have several transceivers (TRXs) which

80

allow it to serve several different frequencies and different sectors of the cell (in the case of sectorised base stations). A BTS is controlled by a parent BSC via the "base station control function" (BCF). The BCF is implemented as a discrete unit or even incorporated in a TRX in compact base stations. The BCF provides an operations and maintenance (O&M) connection to the network management system (NMS), and manages operational states of each TRX, as well as software handling and alarm collection. The functions of a BTS vary depending on the cellular technology used and the cellular telephone provider. There are vendors in which the BTS is a plain transceiver which receives information from the MS (mobile station) through the Um (air interface) and then converts it to a TDM (PCM) based interface, the Abis interface, and sends it towards the BSC. There are vendors which build their BTSs so the information is pre-processed, target cell lists are generated and even intra-cell handover (HO) can be fully handled. The advantage in this case is lesser load on the expensive Abis interface. The BTSs are equipped with radios that are able to modulate layer 1 of interface Um; for GSM 2G+ the modulation type is GMSK, while for EDGE-enabled networks it is GMSK and 8-PSK. Antenna combiners are implemented to use the same antenna for several TRXs (carriers), the more TRXs are combined the greater the combiner loss will be. Up to 8:1 combiners are found in micro and pico cells only.

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Frequency hopping is often used to increase overall BTS performance; this involves the rapid switching of voice traffic between TRXs in a sector. A hopping sequence is followed by the TRXs and handsets using the sector. Several hopping sequences are available, and the sequence in use for a particular cell is continually broadcast by that cell so that it is known to the handsets. A TRX transmits and receives according to the GSM standards, which specify eight TDMA timeslots per radio frequency. A TRX may lose some of this capacity as some information is required to be broadcast to handsets in the area that the BTS serves. This information allows the handsets to identify the network and gain access to it. This signalling makes use of a channel known as the Broadcast Control Channel (BCCH).

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Base Station Controller (BSC)

The BSC forms the next stage back into the GSM network. It controls a group of BTSs, and is often co-located with one of the BTSs in its group. It manages the radio resources and controls items such as handover within the group of BTSs, allocates channels and the like. It communicates with the BTSs over what is termed the Abis interface. It is a set of Base Stations is connected to a particular Base Station Controller. The base station controller (BSC) provides, classically, the intelligence behind the BTSs. Typically a BSC has tens or even hundreds of BTSs under its control. The BSC handles allocation of radio channels, receives measurements from the mobile phones, and controls handovers from BTS to BTS (except in the case of an inter-BSC handover in which case control is in part the responsibility of the anchor MSC). A key function of the BSC is to act as a concentrator where many different low capacity connections to BTSs (with relatively low utilisation) become reduced to a smaller number of connections towards the mobile switching center (MSC) (with a high level of utilisation). Overall, this means that networks are often structured to have many BSCs distributed into regions near their BTSs which are then connected to large centralised MSC sites. The BSC is undoubtedly the most robust element in the BSS as it is not only a BTS controller but, for some vendors, a full switching center, as well as an SS7 node with connections to the MSC and serving GPRS support node (SGSN) (when using GPRS). It also

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provides all the required data to the operation support subsystem (OSS) as well as to the performance measuring centers. A BSC is often based on a distributed computing architecture, with redundancy applied to critical functional units to ensure availability in the event of fault conditions. Redundancy often extends beyond the BSC equipment itself and is commonly used in the power supplies and in the transmission equipment providing the A-ter interface to PCU. The databases for all the sites, including information such as carrier frequencies, frequency hopping lists, power reduction levels, receiving levels for cell border calculation, are stored in the BSC. This data is obtained directly from radio planning engineering which involves modelling of the signal propagation as well as traffic projections.

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Transcoder
The transcoder is responsible for transcoding the voice channel coding between the coding used in the mobile network, and the coding used by the world's terrestrial circuit-switched network, the Public Switched Telephone Network. Specifically, GSM uses a regular pulse excited-long term prediction (RPE-LTP) coder for voice data between the mobile device and the BSS, but pulse code modulation (A-law or -law standardized in ITU G.711) upstream of the BSS. RPE-LPC coding results in a data rate for voice of 13 kbit/s where standard PCM coding results in 64 kbit/s. Because of this change in data rate for the same voice call, the transcoder also has a buffering function so that PCM 8-bit words can be recoded to construct GSM 20 ms traffic blocks. Although transcoding (compressing/decompressing)

functionality is defined as a base station function by the relevant standards, there are several vendors which have implemented the solution outside of the BSC. Some vendors have implemented it in a stand-alone rack using a proprietary interface. In Siemens' and Nokia's architecture, the transcoder is an identifiable separate sub-system which will normally be co-located with the MSC. In some of Ericsson's systems it is integrated to the MSC rather than the BSC. The reason for these designs is that if the compression of voice channels is done at the site of the MSC, the number of fixed transmission links between the BSS and MSC can be reduced, decreasing network infrastructure costs. This subsystem is also referred to as the transcoder and rate adaptation unit (TRAU). Some networks use 32 kbit/s ADPCM on
85

the terrestrial side of the network instead of 64 kbit/s PCM and the TRAU converts accordingly. When the traffic is not voice but data such as fax or email, the TRAU enables its rate adaptation unit function to give compatibility between the BSS and MSC data rates.

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NETWORK SWITCHING SUBSYSTEM (NSS)

The GSM network subsystem contains a variety of different elements, and is often termed the core network. It provides the main control and interfacing for the whole mobile network. Network switching subsystem (NSS) (or GSM core network) is the component of a GSM system that carries out call switching and mobility management functions for mobile phones roaming on the network of base stations. It is owned and deployed by mobile phone operators and allows mobile devices to communicate with each other and telephones in the wider Public Switched Telephone Network or (PSTN). The architecture contains specific features and functions which are needed because the phones are not fixed in one location. The NSS originally consisted of the circuit-switched core network, used for traditional GSM services such as voice calls, SMS, and circuit switched data calls. It was extended with an overlay architecture to provide packet-switched data services known as the GPRS core network. This allows mobile phones to have access to services such as WAP, MMS, and the Internet. All mobile phones manufactured today have both circuit and packet based services, so most operators have a GPRS network in addition to the standard GSM core network. The major elements within the core network include :

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Mobile Switching services Centre (MSC)

The main element within the core network area of the overall GSM network architecture is the Mobile switching Services Centre (MSC). The MSC acts like a normal switching node within a PSTN or ISDN, but also provides additional functionality to enable the requirements of a mobile user to be supported. These include registration, authentication, call location, inter-MSC handovers and call routing to a mobile subscriber. It also provides an interface to the PSTN so that calls can be routed from the mobile network to a phone connected to a landline. Interfaces to other MSCs are provided to enable calls to be made to mobiles on different networks. The mobile switching center (MSC) is the primary service delivery node for GSM/CDMA, responsible for routing voice calls and SMS as well as other services (such as conference calls, FAX and circuit switched data). The MSC sets up and releases the end-to-end connection, handles mobility and hand-over requirements during the call and takes care of charging and real time pre-paid account monitoring. In the GSM mobile phone system, in contrast with earlier analogue services, fax and data information is sent directly digitally encoded to the MSC. Only at the MSC is this re-coded into an "analogue" signal (although actually this will almost certainly mean sound encoded digitally as PCM signal in a 64kbit/s timeslot, known as a DS0 in America).
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There are various different names for MSCs in different contexts which reflects their complex role in the network, all of these terms though could refer to the same MSC, but doing different things at different times. The Gateway MSC (G-MSC) is the MSC that determines which visited MSC the subscriber who is being called is currently located. It also interfaces with the PSTN. All mobile to mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are routed through a G-MSC. The term is only valid in the context of one call since any MSC may provide both the gateway function and the Visited MSC function, however, some manufacturers design dedicated high capacity MSCs which do not have any BSSs connected to them. These MSCs will then be the Gateway MSC for many of the calls they handle. The visited MSC (V-MSC) is the MSC where a customer is currently located. The VLR associated with this MSC will have the subscriber's data in it. The anchor MSC is the MSC from which a handover has been initiated. The target MSC is the MSC toward which a Handover should take place. A mobile switching centre server is a part of the redesigned MSC concept starting from 3GPP Release 4.

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Home Location Register (HLR)

This database contains all the administrative information about each subscriber along with their last known location. In this way, the GSM network is able to route calls to the relevant base station for the MS. When a user switches on their phone, the phone registers with the network and from this it is possible to determine which BTS it communicates with so that incoming calls can be routed appropriately. Even when the phone is not active (but switched on) it re-registers periodically to ensure that the network (HLR) is aware of its latest position. There is one HLR per network, although it may be distributed across various subcentres to for operational reasons. The home location register (HLR) is a central database that contains details of each mobile phone subscriber that is authorized to use the GSM core network. There can be several logical, and physical, HLRs per public land mobile network (PLMN), though one international mobile subscriber identity (IMSI)/MSISDN pair can be associated with only one logical HLR (which can span several physical nodes) at a time. The HLRs store details of every SIM card issued by the mobile phone operator. Each SIM has a unique identifier called an IMSI which is the primary key to each HLR record. The next important items of data associated with the SIM are the MSISDNs, which are the telephone numbers used by mobile phones to make and receive calls. The primary MSISDN is the number used for making and receiving voice calls and SMS, but it
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is possible for a SIM to have other secondary MSISDNs associated with it for fax and data calls. Each MSISDN is also a primary key to the HLR record. The HLR data is stored for as long as a subscriber remains with the mobile phone operator. Examples of other data stored in the HLR against an IMSI record is:

GSM services that the subscriber has requested or been given.

GPRS settings to allow the subscriber to access packet services.

Current location of subscriber (VLR and serving GPRS support node/SGSN).

Call divert settings applicable for each associated MSISDN. The HLR is a system which directly receives and processes MAP transactions and messages from elements in the GSM network, for example, the location update messages received as mobile phones roam around.

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Visitor Location Register (VLR)

This contains selected information from the HLR that enables the selected services for the individual subscriber to be provided. The VLR can be implemented as a separate entity, but it is commonly realised as an integral part of the MSC, rather than a separate entity. In this way access is made faster and more convenient. The visitor location register is a database of the subscribers who have roamed into the jurisdiction of the MSC (Mobile Switching Center) which it serves. Each base station in the network is served by exactly one VLR, hence a subscriber cannot be present in more than one VLR at a time. The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the HLR, or collected from the MS (Mobile station). In practice, for performance reasons, most vendors integrate the VLR directly to the V-MSC and, where this is not done, the VLR is very tightly linked with the MSC via a proprietary interface. Whenever an MSC detects a new MS in its network, in addition to creating a new record in the VLR, it also updates the HLR of the mobile subscriber, apprising it of the new location of that MS. If VLR data is corrupted it can lead to serious issues with text messaging and call services.

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Data stored include:

IMSI (the subscriber's identity number). Authentication data. MSISDN (the subscriber's phone number). GSM services that the subscriber is allowed to access. access point (GPRS) subscribed. The HLR address of the subscriber.

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Equipment Identity Register (EIR)

The EIR is the entity that decides whether a given mobile equipment may be allowed onto the network. Each mobile equipment has a number known as the International Mobile Equipment Identity. This number, as mentioned above, is installed in the equipment and is checked by the network during registration. Dependent upon the information held in the EIR, the mobile may be allocated one of three states - allowed onto the network, barred access, or monitored in case its problems. The equipment identity register is often integrated to the HLR. The EIR keeps a list of mobile phones (identified by their IMEI) which are to be banned from the network or monitored. This is designed to allow tracking of stolen mobile phones. In theory all data about all stolen mobile phones should be distributed to all EIRs in the world through a Central EIR. It is clear, however, that there are some countries where this is not in operation. The EIR data does not have to change in real time, which means that this function can be less distributed than the function of the HLR. The EIR is a database that contains information about the identity of the mobile equipment that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized or defective mobile stations. Some EIR also have the capability to log Handset attempts and store it in a log file.

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Authentication Centre (AuC)

The AuC is a protected database that contains the secret key also contained in the user's SIM card. It is used for authentication and for ciphering on the radio channel. The authentication centre (AUC) is a function to authenticate each SIM card that attempts to connect to the GSM core network (typically when the phone is powered on). Once the authentication is successful, the HLR is allowed to manage the SIM and services described above. An encryption key is also generated that is subsequently used to encrypt all wireless communications (voice, SMS, etc.) between the mobile phone and the GSM core network. If the authentication fails, then no services are possible from that particular combination of SIM card and mobile phone operator attempted. There is an additional form of identification check performed on the serial number of the mobile phone described in the EIR section below, but this is not relevant to the AUC processing. Proper implementation of security in and around the AUC is a key part of an operator's strategy to avoid SIM cloning. The AUC does not engage directly in the authentication process, but instead generates data known as triplets for the MSC to use during the procedure. The security of the process depends upon a shared secret between the AUC and the SIM called the Ki. The Ki is securely burned into the SIM during manufacture and is also securely replicated onto the AUC. This Ki is never transmitted between the AUC and SIM, but is combined with the IMSI to produce a challenge/response for identification purposes and an encryption key called Kc for use in over the air communications
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Gateway Mobile Switching Centre (GMSC)

The GMSC is the point to which a ME terminating call is initially routed, without any knowledge of the MS's location. The GMSC is thus in charge of obtaining the MSRN (Mobile Station Roaming Number) from the HLR based on the MSISDN (Mobile Station ISDN number, the "directory number" of a MS) and routing the call to the correct visited MSC. The "MSC" part of the term GMSC is misleading, since the gateway operation does not require any linking to an MSC.

SMS Gateway (SMS-G)

The SMS-G or SMS gateway is the term that is used to collectively describe the two Short Message Services Gateways defined in the GSM standards. The two gateways handle messages directed in different directions. The SMS-GMSC (Short Message Service Gateway Mobile Switching Centre) is for short messages being sent to an ME. The SMS-IWMSC (Short Message Service InterWorking Mobile Switching Centre) is used for short messages originated with a mobile on that network. The SMS-GMSC role is similar to that of the GMSC, whereas the SMS-IWMSC provides a fixed access point to the Short Message Service Centre.

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OPERATION (OSS)

AND

SUPPORT

SUBSYSTEM

The OSS or operation support subsystem is an element within the overall GSM network architecture that is connected to components of the NSS and the BSC. It is used to control and monitor the overall GSM network and it is also used to control the traffic load of the BSS. It must be noted that as the number of BS increases with the scaling of the subscriber population some of the maintenance tasks are transferred to the BTS, allowing savings in the cost of ownership of the system. The operations and maintenance center (OMC) is connected to all equipment in the switching system and to the BSC. The implementation of OMC is called the operation and support system (OSS). Here are some of the OMC functions:

Administration and commercial operation (subscription, end terminals, charging and statistics).

Security Management. Network configuration, Operation and Performance

Management.

Maintenance Tasks.

The operation and Maintenance functions are based on the concepts of the Telecommunication Management Network (TMN) which is standardized in the ITU-T series M.30.
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Following is the figure which shows how OMC system covers all the GSM elements :

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GSM - NETWORK INTERFACES

The network structure is defined within the GSM standards. Additionally each interface between the different elements of the GSM network is also defined. This facilitates the information interchanges can take place. It also enables to a large degree that network elements from different manufacturers can be used. However, as many of these interfaces were not fully defined until after like. 1. Um interface The "air" or radio interface standard that is used for exchanges between a mobile (ME) and a base station (BTS / BSC). For signalling, a modified version of the ISDN LAPD, known as LAPDm is used. 2. Abis interface This is a BSS internal interface linking the BSC and a BTS, and it has not been totally standardised. The Abis interface allows control of the radio equipment and radio frequency allocation in the BTS. 3. A interface The A interface is used to provide communication between the BSS and the MSC. The interface carries information to enable the channels, timeslots and the like to be allocated to
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many

networks

had

been

deployed,

the

level

of

standardisation may not be quite as high as many people might

the mobile equipments being serviced by the BSSs. The messaging required within the network to enable handover etc to be undertaken is carried over the interface. 4. B interface The B interface exists between the MSC and the VLR . It uses a protocol known as the MAP/B protocol. As most VLRs are collocated with an MSC, this makes the interface purely an "internal" interface. The interface is used whenever the MSC needs access to data regarding a MS located in its area. 5. C interface The C interface is located between the HLR and a GMSC or a SMS-G. When a call originates from outside the network, i.e. from the PSTN or another mobile network it has to pass through the gateway so that routing information required to complete the call may be gained. The protocol used for communication is MAP/C, the letter "C" indicating that the protocol is used for the "C" interface. In addition to this, the MSC may optionally forward billing information to the HLR after the call is completed and cleared down. 6. D interface The D interface is situated between the VLR and HLR. It uses the MAP/D protocol to exchange the data related to the location of the ME and to the management of the subscriber.

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7. E interface The E interface provides communication between two MSCs. The E interface exchanges data related to handover between the anchor and relay MSCs using the MAP/E protocol. 8. F interface The F interface is used between an MSC and EIR. It uses the MAP/F protocol. The communications along this interface are used to confirm the status of the IMEI of the ME gaining access to the network. 9. G interface The G interface interconnects two VLRs of different MSCs and uses the MAP/G protocol to transfer subscriber information, during e.g. a location update procedure. 10. H interface The H interface exists between the MSC the SMS-G. It transfers short messages and uses the MAP/H protocol. 11. I interface The I interface can be found between the MSC and the ME. Messages exchanged over the I interface are relayed transparently through the BSS. Although the interfaces for the GSM cellular system may not be as rigorouly defined as many might like, they do at least provide a large element of the definition required, enabling

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the functionality of GSM network entities to be defined sufficiently. One of the key elements of the development of the GSM, Global System for Mobile Communications was the development of the GSM air interface. There were many requirements that were placed on the system, and many of these had a direct impact on the air interface. Elements including the modulation, GSM slot structure, burst structure and the like were all devised to provide the optimum performance. During the development of the GSM standard very careful attention was paid to aspects including the modulation format, the way in which the system is time division multiplexed, all had a considerable impact on the performance of the system as a whole. For example, the modulation format for the GSM air interface had a direct impact on battery life and the time division format adopted enabled the cell-phone handset costs to be considerably reduced as detailed later.

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GSM Signal and GMSK Modulation Characteristics

The core of any radio based system is the format of the radio signal itself. The carrier is modulated using a form of phase sift keying known as Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying (GMSK). GMSK was used for the GSM system for a variety of reasons:

It is resilient to noise when compared to many other forms of modulation.

Radiation outside the accepted bandwidth is lower than other forms of phase shift keying.

It has a constant power level which allows higher efficiency RF power amplifiers to be used in the handset, thereby reducing current consumption and conserving battery life.

GMSK, Gaussian Minimum Shift Keying is a form of phase modulation that is used in a number of portable radio and wireless applications. It has advantages in terms of spectral efficiency as well as having an almost constant amplitude which allows for the use of more efficient transmitter power amplifiers, thereby saving on current consumption, a critical issue for battery power equipment. The nominal bandwidth for the GSM signal using GMSK is 200 kHz, i.e. the channel bandwidth and spacing is 200 kHz. As GMSK modulation has been used, the unwanted or spurious emissions outside the nominal bandwidth are sufficiently low to enable adjacent channels to be used from the same base

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station. Typically each base station will be allocated a number of carriers to enable it to achieve the required capacity. The data transported by the carrier serves up to eight different users under the basic system by splitting the carrier into eight time slots. The basic carrier is able to support a data throughput of approximately 270 kbps, but as some of this supports the management overhead, the data rate allotted to each time slot is only 24.8 kbps. In addition to this error correction is required to overcome the problems of interference, fading and general data errors that may occur. This means that the available data rate for transporting the digitally encoded speech is 13 kbps for the basic vocoders.

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GSM Slot Structure and Multiple Access Scheme

GSM uses a combination of both TDMA and FDMA techniques. The FDMA element involves the division by frequency of the (maximum) 25 MHz bandwidth into 124 carrier frequencies spaced 200 kHz apart as already described. The carriers are then divided in time, using a TDMA scheme. This enables the different users of the single radio frequency channel to be allocated different times slots. They are then able to use the same RF channel without mutual interference. The slot is then the time that is allocated to the particular user, and the GSM burst is the transmission that is made in this time. Each GSM slot, and hence each GSM burst lasts for 0.577 mS (15/26 mS). Eight of these burst periods are grouped into what is known as a TDMA frame. This lasts for approximately 4.615 ms (i.e.120/26 ms) and it forms the basic unit for the definition of logical channels. One physical channel is one burst period allocated in each TDMA frame. There are different types of frame that are transmitted to carry different data, and also the frames are organised into what are termed multiframes and superframes to provide overall synchronisation.

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GSM slot structure These GSM slot is the smallest individual time period that is available to each mobile. It has a defined format because a variety of different types of data are required to be transmitted. Although there are shortened transmission bursts, the slots is normally used for transmitting 148 bits of information. This data can be used for carrying voice data, control and synchronisation data.

It can be seen from the GSM slot structure that the timing of the slots in the uplink and the downlink are not simultaneous, and there is a time offset between the transmit and receive. This offset in the GSM slot timing is deliberate and it means that a mobile that which is allocated the same slot in both directions does not transmit and receive at the same time. This considerably reduces
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the need for expensive filters to isolate the transmitter from the receiver. It also provides a space saving.

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GSM Discontinuous Transmission (DTx)

A further power saving and interference reducing facility is the discontinuous transmission (DTx) capability that is incorporated within the specification. It is particularly useful because there are long pauses in speech, for example when the person using the mobile is listening, and during these periods there is no need to transmit a signal. In fact it is found that a person speaks for less than 40% of the time during normal telephone conversations. The most important element of DTx is the Voice Activity Detector. It must correctly distinguish between voice and noise inputs, a task that is not trivial. If a voice signal is misinterpreted as noise, the transmitter is turned off an effect known as clipping results and this is particularly annoying to the person listening to the speech. However if noise is misinterpreted as a voice signal too often, the efficiency of DTX is dramatically decreased. It is also necessary for the system to add background or comfort noise when the transmitter is turned off because complete silence can be very disconcerting for the listener. Accordingly this is added as appropriate. The noise is controlled by the SID (silence indication descriptor). The GSM system has a defined GSM frame structure to enable the orderly passage of information. The GSM frame structure establishes schedules for the predetermined use of timeslots. By establishing these schedules by the use of a frame structure, both the mobile and the base station are able to communicate not only the voice data, but also signalling information without the
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various types of data becoming intermixed and both ends of the transmission knowing exactly what types of information are being transmitted. The GSM frame structure provides the basis for the various physical channels used within GSM, and accordingly it is at the heart of the overall system.

GSM Frame Structure Summary

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GSM - DRAWBACKS
Global System for Mobile (GSM) communications is a secondgeneration digital mobile telephone standard. Speech is inherently analog, so a GSM system digitizes and compresses voice data and then sends it down a channel with two other streams of user data. Digital systems can do a number of things that analog systems cannot such as send and receive faxes, data calls, and messaging. However, GSM systems have some drawbacks.

Quality

Although digital systems are taking over the world, analog systems still have the advantage in some instances. A GSM digital system may have more functions, but analog systems usually have better sound quality. According to The Electronics Club, digital systems can take in and process only a limited number of values at one time, where as an analog system can take in more. This results in a better quality of sound. For this reason, many recording artist still use analog rather than digital systems for the richer sound quality it produces.

Cost

GSM digital systems cost more than an analog system in general. However, because GSM is becoming so common, the cost of the technology is going down. But, just because a digital device is becoming less expensive to purchase doesn't mean it's the cheaper choice over all. Repairs can become very costly on digital devices. A problem with an analog device is usually a simpler
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mechanical fix, while a problem with digital technology usually means a computer problem, which can be more complicated and time consuming.

Availability

Just because a cell phone with digital technology is the more prevalent technology doesn't mean it's an option available to everyone. People who live in extremely rural areas may not have a provider in their areas. Those areas are becoming smaller, but there are some remote parts of the country that do not have a digital option.

Dependency
has become dependent on fast and accurate

Because of all the capabilities GSM technology provides us with, society communication. GSM technology offers the opportunity to communicate quicker and more accurately than ever; however, when the technology has problems it can hinder communication. If for some reason technology is down, we become frustrated. Progress is always a good thing, but when digital systems are not available, it can be difficult to revert back to old systems which cause frustration and loss of productivity.

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THE FUTURE - 3G AND 4G TECHNOLOGIES 3G

3G or 3rd generation mobile telecommunications, is a generation of standards for mobile phones and mobile telecommunication services fulfilling the International Mobile Telecommunications2000 (IMT-2000) specifications by the International Telecommunication Union.[1] Application services include widearea wireless voice telephone, mobile Internet access, video calls and mobile TV, all in a mobile environment. To meet the IMT-2000 standards, a system is required to provide peak data rates of at least 200 kbit/s. Recent 3G releases, often denoted 3.5G and 3.75G, also provide mobile broadband access of several Mbit/s to smartphones and mobile modems in laptop computers. The following standards are typically branded 3G: The UMTS system, first offered in 2001, standardized by 3GPP, used primarily in Europe, Japan, China (however with a different radio interface) and other regions predominated by GSM 2G system infrastructure. The cell phones are typically UMTS and GSM hybrids. Several radio interfaces are offered, sharing the same infrastructure: The original and most widespread radio interface is called WCDMA. The TD-SCDMA radio interface, was commercialised in 2009 and is only offered in China.
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The latest UMTS release, HSPA+, can provide peak data rates up to 56 Mbit/s in the downlink in theory (28 Mbit/s in existing services) and 22 Mbit/s in the uplink.

The CDMA2000 system, first offered in 2002, standardized by 3GPP2, used especially in North America and South Korea, sharing infrastructure with the IS-95 2G standard. The cell phones are typically CDMA2000 and IS-95 hybrids. The latest release EVDO Rev B offers peak rates of 14.7 Mbit/s downstreams. The above systems and radio interfaces are based on kindred spread spectrum radio transmission technology. While the GSM EDGE standard ("2.9G"), DECT cordless phones and Mobile WiMAX standards formally also fulfill the IMT-2000 requirements and are approved as 3G standards by ITU, these are typically not branded 3G, and are based on completely different technologies. A new generation of cellular standards has appeared approximately every tenth year since 1G systems were introduced in 1981/1982. Each generation is characterized by new frequency bands, higher data rates and non- backwards compatible transmission technology. The first release of the 3GPP Long Term Evolution (LTE) standard does not completely fulfill the ITU 4G requirements called IMT-Advanced. First release LTE is not backwards compatible with 3G, but is a pre-4G or 3.9G technology, however sometimes branded "4G" by the service providers. Its evolution LTE Advanced is a 4G technology. WiMAX is another technology verging on or marketed as 4G.

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The following common standards comply with the IMT2000/3G standard :

o

EDGE, a revision by the 3GPP organization to the older 2G GSM based transmission methods, utilizing the same switching nodes, base-station sites and frequencies as GPRS, but new base-station and cell-phone RF circuits. It is based on the three times as efficient 8PSK modulation scheme as supplement to the original GMSK modulation scheme. EDGE is still used extensively due to its ease of upgrade from existing 2G GSM infrastructure and cellphones. EDGE combined with the GPRS 2.5G technology is called EGPRS, and allows peak data rates in order of 200 kbit/s, just as the original UMTS WCDMA versions, and thus formally fulfils the IMT2000 requirements on 3G systems. However, in practice EDGE is seldom marketed as a 3G system, but a 2.9G system. EDGE shows slightly better system spectral efficiency than the original UMTS and CDMA2000 systems, but it is difficult to reach much higher peak data rates due to the limited GSM spectral bandwidth of 200 kHz, and it is thus a dead end. EDGE was also a mode in the IS-135 TDMA system, today ceased. Evolved EDGE, the latest revision, has peaks of 1 Mbits/s downstream and 400kbits/s upstream, but is not commercially used.

The Universal Mobile Telecommunications System, created and revised by the 3GPP. The family is a full revision from GSM in terms of encoding methods and hardware, although
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some GSM sites can be retrofitted to broadcast in the UMTS/W-CDMA format.

o

W-CDMA is the most common deployment, commonly operated on the 2100 MHz band. A few others use the 900 and 1850 MHz bands. HSPA is a revision and upgrade to W-CDMA UMTS, used by AT&T to the Wireless, Telstra and Telecom NZ, typically broadcasting on the 850 MHz band. HSPA requires updates HSPA+ a revision and upgrade of HSPA, can provide peak data rates up to 56 Mbit/s in the downlink in theory (28 Mbit/s in existing services) and 22 Mbit/s in the uplink. It utilises multiple base stations to potentially double the channels available utilising MIMO principles. The CDMA2000 system, or IS-2000, standardized by 3GPP2 (differing from the 3GPP), updating the IS-95 CDMA system, used especially in North America and South Korea. EVDO Rev. B is the latest update, offering downstream peak rates of 14.7 Mbit/s. It is used primarily by the US carrier Verizon.

While DECT cordless phones and Mobile WiMAX standards formally also fulfill the IMT-2000 requirements, they are not usually considered due to their rarity and unsuitability for usage with mobile phones. ITU has not provided a clear definition of the data rate users can expect from 3G equipment or providers. Thus users sold 3G service may not be able to point to a standard and say that the rates it specifies are not being met. While stating in commentary that "it is expected that IMT-2000 will provide higher transmission rates: a minimum data rate of 2 Mbit/s for stationary
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or walking users, and 384 kbit/s in a moving vehicle, the ITU does not actually clearly specify minimum or average rates or what modes of the interfaces qualify as 3G, so various rates are sold as 3G intended to meet customers expectations of broadband data. The bandwidth and location information available to 3G devices gives rise to applications not previously available to mobile phone users. Some of the applications are:

Mobile TV a provider redirects a TV channel directly to the subscriber's phone where it can be watched. Video on demand a provider sends a movie to the subscriber's phone. Video conferencing subscribers can see as well as talk to each other. Tele-medicine a medical provider monitors or provides advice to the potentially isolated subscriber. Location-based services a provider sends localized weather or traffic conditions to the phone, or the phone allows the subscriber to find nearby businesses or friends.

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4G
In telecommunications, 4G is the fourth generation of cellular wireless standards. It is a successor to the 3G and 2G families of standards. In 2009, the ITU-R organization specified the IMTAdvanced (International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced) requirements for 4G standards, setting peak speed requirements for 4G service at 100 Mbit/s for high mobility communication (such as from trains and cars) and 1 Gbit/s for low mobility communication (such as pedestrians and stationary users). A 4G system is expected to provide a comprehensive and secure all-IP based mobile broadband solution to laptop computer wireless modems, smartphones, and other mobile devices. Facilities such as ultra-broadband Internet access, IP telephony, gaming services, and streamed multimedia may be provided to users. Pre-4G technologies such as mobile WiMAX and first-release Long term evolution (LTE) have been on the market since 2006 and 2009 respectively, and are often branded as 4G in marketing materials. The current versions of these technologies did not fulfill the original ITU-R requirements of data rates approximately up to 1 Gbit/s for 4G systems. IMT-Advanced compliant versions of the above two standards are under development and called LTE Advanced and WirelessMAN-Advanced respectively. ITU has decided that LTE Advanced and WirelessMAN-Advanced should be accorded the official designation of IMT-Advanced. On December 6, 2010, ITU
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announced that current versions of LTE, WiMax and other evolved 3G technologies that do not fulfill "IMT-Advanced" requirements could be considered "4G", provided they represent forerunners to IMT-Advanced and "a substantial level of improvement in performance and capabilities with respect to the initial third generation systems now deployed." In all suggestions for 4G, the CDMA spread spectrum radio technology used in 3G systems and IS-95 is abandoned and replaced by OFDMA and other frequency-domain equalization schemes. This is combined with MIMO (Multiple In Multiple Out), e.g., multiple antennas, dynamic channel allocation and channeldependent scheduling. An IMT-Advanced cellular system must fulfil the following requirements :

Based on an all-IP packet switched network. Peak data rates of up to approximately 100 Mbit/s for high mobility such as mobile access and up to approximately 1 Gbit/s for low mobility such as nomadic/local wireless access, according to the ITU requirements.

Dynamically share and use the network resources to support more simultaneous users per cell.

Scalable channel bandwidth 520 MHz, optionally up to 40MHz.

Peak link spectral efficiency of 15 bit/s/Hz in the downlink, and 6.75 bit/s/Hz in the uplink (meaning that 1 Gbit/s in the
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downlink should be possible over less than 67 MHz bandwidth).

System spectral efficiency of up to 3 bit/s/Hz/cell in the downlink and 2.25 bit/s/Hz/cell for indoor usage.

Smooth handovers across heterogeneous networks. Ability to offer high quality of service for next generation multimedia support.

In September 2009, the technology proposals were submitted to the International Telecommunication all proposals Union are (ITU) based as on 4G two candidates. technologies:

Basically

LTE Advanced standardized by the 3GPP 802.16m standardized by the IEEE (i.e. WiMAX) implementations of WiMAX and LTE are largely

Present

considered a stopgap solution that will offer a considerable boost while WiMAX 2 (based on the 802.16m spec) and LTE Advanced are finalized. Both technologies aim to reach the objectives traced by the ITU, but are still far from being implemented. The first set of 3GPP requirements on LTE Advanced was approved in June 2008. LTE Advanced will be standardized in 2010 as part of the Release 10 of the 3GPP specification. LTE Advanced will be fully built on the existing LTE specification Release 10 and not be defined as a new specification series. A summary of the technologies that have been studied as the basis for LTE Advanced is included in a technical report.
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Current LTE and WiMAX implementations are considered pre-4G, as they don't fully comply with the planned requirements of 1 Gbit/s for stationary reception and 100 Mbit/s for mobile. Confusion has been caused by some mobile carriers who have launched products advertised as 4G but which are actually current technologies, commonly referred to as '3.9G', which do not follow the ITU-R defined principles for 4G standards. A common argument for branding 3.9G systems as new-generation is that they use different frequency bands to 3G technologies; that they are based on a new radio-interface paradigm; and that the standards are not backwards compatible with 3G, whilst some of the standards are expected to be forwards compatible with "real" 4G technologies. While the ITU has adopted recommendations for technologies that would be used for future global communications, they do not actually perform the standardization or development work themselves, instead relying on the work of other standards bodies such as IEEE, The WiMAX Forum and 3GPP. Recently, ITU-R Working Party 5D approved two industry-developed technologies (LTE Advanced and WirelessMAN-Advanced) for inclusion in the ITUs International Mobile Telecommunications Advanced (IMTAdvanced program), which is focused on global communication systems that would be available several years from now. This working partys objective was not to comment on todays 4G being rolled out in the United States and in fact, the Working Party itself purposely agreed not to tie their IMT-Advanced work to the term 4G, recognizing its common use in industry already; however, the

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ITUs PR department ignored that agreement and used term 4G anyway when issuing their press release. The ITUs purpose is to foster the global use of communications. The ITU is relied upon by developing countries, for example, who want to be assured a technology is standardised and likely to be widely deployed. While the ITU has developed recommendations on IMT-Advanced, those recommendations are not binding on ITU member countries. 4G is being developed to accommodate the quality of service (QoS) and rate requirements set by further development of existing 3G applications like mobile broadband access, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), video chat, mobile TV, but also new services like HDTV. 4G may allow roaming with wireless local area networks, and may interact with digital video broadcasting systems. In the literature, the assumed or expected 4G requirements have changed during the years before IMT-Advanced was specified by the ITU-R. These are examples of objectives stated in various sources:

A nominal data rate of 100 Mbit/s while the client physically moves at high speeds relative to the station, and 1 Gbit/s while client and station are in relatively fixed positions as defined by the ITU-R

A data rate of at least 100 Mbit/s between any two points in the world

Smooth handoff across heterogeneous networks

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Seamless connectivity and global roaming across multiple networks

High quality of service for next generation multimedia support (real time audio, high speed data, HDTV video content, mobile TV, etc.)

Interoperability with existing wireless standards An all IP, packet switched network IP-based femtocells (home nodes connected to fixed Internet broadband infrastructure)

A major issue in 4G systems is to make the high bit rates available in a larger portion of the cell, especially to users in an exposed position in between several base stations. In current research, this issue is addressed by macro-diversity techniques, also known as group cooperative relay, and also by beam-division multiple access. Pervasive networks are an amorphous and at present entirely hypothetical concept to where several the user can be simultaneously connected wireless access

technologies and can seamlessly move between them. These access technologies can be Wi-Fi, UMTS, EDGE, or any other future access technology. Included in this concept is also smartradio (also known as cognitive radio) technology to efficiently manage spectrum use and transmission power as well as the use of mesh routing protocols to create a pervasive network.

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REFERENCES

www.cellular.co.za www.scribd.com www.radio-electronics.com en.wikipedia.org www.connectindia.in www.ehow.com www.tutorialspoint.com some old project reports on GSM.

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