6. DRYING Drying refers to the removal of relatively small amounts of moisture from a substance which is generally a solid.

However, in some specific cases, it includes the removal of moisture from liquids and gases as well. Drying is generally a final step in the production process and the product from the dryer is often sent for final packaging. 6.1 Definitions of moisture When an insoluble solid is dried, the moisture is lost to the surrounding air and the solid attains an equilibrium moisture content depending on the relative saturation of air. The different moisture contents exhibited by a substance when exposed to air of different saturation levels is shown in Fig 6.1
1.0

Relative Humidity
Given condition

Bound moisture

Unbound Moisture

Eq. Moisture 0 0

Free moisture

X*

XCr

X0

Moisture content, X

Fig.: 6.1 Moisture contents at different humidity 6.1.1 6.1.2 conditions Moisture content (wet basis), x: This is defined as the weight of moisture per unit weight of wet substance. Moisture content (Dry basis) X: This is defined as the weight of moisture per unit weight of bone dry substance. 6.1.3 Equilibrium moisture, X*: This is the moisture content of a substance when at equilibrium with a given partial pressure of the vapour. It is the limiting moisture content to which a given material can be dried under specific conditions of air temperature and humidity. 6.1.4 Bound moisture: This refers to the moisture contained by a substance which exerts an equilibrium vapor pressure less than that of the pure liquid at the same temperature. Liquid may become bound by retention in small capillaries, by solution in cell or fiber walls or by adsorption on solid surface.

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6.1.5 Unbound moisture: This refers to the moisture contained by a substance which exerts an equilibrium vapor pressure equal to that of the pure liquid at the same temperature. 6.1.6 Free moisture: (X X*): This is the moisture contained by a substance in excess of equilibrium moisture. Only free moisture can be removed with air of given temperature and humidity. It may include both bound and unbound moisture. 6.1.7 Critical moisture content: It is the moisture content when the constant rate period ends. 6.1.8 Fiber saturation point: It is the moisture content of cellular materials (e.g. wood, fiber) at which the cell walls are completely saturated while the cavities are liquid free. It may be defined as the equilibrium moisture content, as the humidity of the surrounding atmosphere approaches saturation. 6.1.9 Constant rate period: Constant rate period is that drying period during which the rate of water removed per unit of drying surface is constant. 6.1.10 Falling rate period: It is a drying period during which the instantaneous drying rate continually decreases. Some of the substances show a linear behaviour and some shown non linear behaviour in falling rate period. In certain instances we observe both. The linear one is due to unsaturated surface drying wherein one sees certain dry spots on the drying surface and the nonlinear one is observed when the moisture movement is controlled by diffusion mechanism. 6.1.11 Funicular state: It is that condition in drying a porous body when capillary suction results in air being sucked into the pores. This generally indicates the first falling rate period. 6.1.12 Pendular state: As the water is progressively removed from the solid the fraction of the pore volume that is occupied by air increases. When the fraction reaches a certain limit, there is insufficient water left to maintain continuous film across the pores, the interfacial tension in the capillaries breaks, and the pores fill with air, which now becomes continuous phase. The left out water is relegated to small isolated pores and interstices of the pores. This state is called the pendular state and it generally refers to the II falling rate drying period.

6.2

Hysteresis:

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Many substances exhibit different equilibrium moisture relationships during the adsorption of moisture as shown in Fig. 6.2, where in the adsorption and desorption of moisture are observed. This phenomena of following different paths is known as Hysteresis in drying.

Relative saturation

Adsorption

Desorption X, Moisture content Fig. :6.2 Hysteresis in drying 6.3 Drying of soluble solids: Soluble solids show insignificant equilibrium moisture content when exposed to gases whose partial pressure of vapor is less than that of the saturated

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solution of the solid. A typical trend is shown in Fig. 6.3

Partial pressure of water

Vapor pressure of water

Unsaturated liquid solution For a hydrated salt

X* Equilibrium moisture Fig.: 6.3 Equilibrium moisture content of soluble solids.

6.4

Classification of drying operation Drying operations can be broadly classified as: i. Batch drying and ii. Continuous drying

6.4.1

Batch drying: Here the material to be dried is fed to a drier and expressed to drying media under unsteady state conditions.

6.4.1.1 Drying Test: In order to determine the drying schedule and also the size of drying equipments, it is necessary to know the time required for drying a substance. The rate of drying is determined by suspending a substance in a chamber in a stream of

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air and measuring its weight periodically. The operation is carried out under constant drying condition by maintaining the same temperature, humidity and air flow rate. A typical drying curve is shown in Fig. 6.4. This is drawn by estimating weight itself and plotting against time. A W or X A B C D W* or X* t Fig.: 6.4. Drying Curve From the drying curve, the rate of drying, N is calculated as: N = ( SS/ A) (dX/ dt) takes place. However, in the case of through circulation drying, A is defined as the cross-sectional area of the bed, perpendicular to the direction of air flow. When the drying rate is plotted against moisture content (on dry basis), the rate curve is obtained and a typical rate curve is shown in Fig. 6.5 (6.1) where SS is the mass of bone dry solid; A is the drying surface, from which drying E

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Drying rate, N, kg/m2.s

D Moisture content, X, kg/kg E

Fig.: 6.5 Rate Curve ED is internal movement of moisture controls (II falling rate period) DC is unsaturated surface drying (I falling rate) CB is constant rate period AB AB When the solid to be dried is fully wet, the surface will be covered with a thin film of liquid and will have unbound moisture. If the air is unsaturated with a humidity of Y and if the gas at the liquid surface is Y S (saturated humidity), the rate of drying at constant rate period is expressed as: NC = ky (YS Y) where ky is the mass transfer coefficient. 6.4.1.2 Time of drying From Eq. (6.1) we have, N = ( SS/ A) (dX/ dt) Rearranging and integrating Eq. (6.1) to determine the time needed to dry the material from X1 to X2, we get, t = dt = (-SS/A) (dX/N) X1 0 a) The constant rate period: t are unsteady drying (initial stage)

X2

(6.2)

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The drying period is said to be constant rate period when both X 1 and X2 are greater than critical moisture content Xc. Under such conditions, drying rate remains constant and N = NC X2 The Eq. (6.2) can now be rearranged as dt = (SS/ANC) dX and integrated X1 0 which yields, t = SS (X1 X2)/ A NC (6.3) b) The falling rate period: If X1 and X2 are both less than XC, the drying rate N decreases with decrease in moisture content. The Eq. (6.2) can be integrated graphically by plotting (1/N) in y-axis against moisture content X in x-axis or by using a numerical technique. However, when N varies linearly with X in the region CE, the drying rate can be expressed mathematically as N = aX + b (6.4) where a is the slope of the line and b is a constant. The Eq. (6.2) can be integrated between the limits t = 0, t = t, t
X1

x = X1 x = X2 and we get

t = dt = SS/A dX/ (aX + b) = (SS/ aA) ln [(aX1 + b)/ (aX2 + b)] X2 0

However, N1 = a X1 + b, N2 = a X2 + b and a = [(N1 N2)/ (X1 X2)] Substituting these in Eq. (6.5) gives t= [Ss (X1 X2)/ A (N1 N2)] ln [N1/ N2] = [SS (X1 X2)/ Nm]

(6.5)

(6.6)

where Nm is the logarithmic mean rate of drying. In a specific case of drying from Xc to X* NC = aXC + b N* = 0 = aX* + b Subtracting (6.8) from (6.7) gives, NC = a (XC X*) Also subtracting (6.8) from (6.4), we get N = a [X X*] (6.10) 117 (6.9) (6.7) (6.8)

Eliminating a in Eq. (6.10), using Eq. (6.9) N= NC (X X*)/ (XC X*) (6.11) Replacing N1 and N2 in Eq. (6.6) in terms of NC and N* and also X1 and X2 in terms of XC and X* we get t = [SS (XC X*)/ A NC] ln {[NC (X1 X*) (XC X*)]/ [(XC X*) NC (X2 X*)]}

t = [SS (XC X*)/ A NC] ln [(X1 X*)/(X2 X*)] 6.5 Parameters affecting drying rate during constant rate drying period:

(6.12)

Gas velocity, gas temperature, gas humidity and thickness of the drying solid are the parameters which affect drying rate. 6.5.1 Effect of Gas velocity (G): When radiation and conduction effects are present, the effect of gas rate will be less significant. However, when they are negligible, then drying rate NC is proportional to G0.71 for parallel flow of gas and to G0.37 for perpendicular flow of gas. 6.5.2 Effect of Gas temperature: Increased air temperature, TG increases the driving force, (TG Ts) for heat transfer and hence Nc is directly proportional to (T G Ts). TS is the surface temperature of drying solid and is assumed to be at the WBT condition during constant rate drying. 6.5.3 Effect of gas humidity: As the humidity of air decreases, the driving force (YS Y) available for mass transfer increase, and hence NC is proportional to (YS Y). YS is the saturation humidity of air corresponding to TS 6.5.4 Effect of thickness of drying solid: When heat transfer occurs through the solid, NC increases with decrease in solid thickness. However, if drying occurs from all surfaces, NC is independent of thickness. 6.6 Moisture movement in solids When drying takes place, moisture moves from the inner core to the external surface and evaporates. The nature of movement influences the drying during the falling rate period and the following theories have been proposed to explain the moisture movement in solids. 6.6.1 Liquid diffusion: Due to concentration gradients between the higher concentration in depths of the solid and the low concentration at the surface, moisture movement takes

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place. This type of phenomena is exhibited by substances like soap, glue, gelatin, textiles and paper. During constant rate period, the rate of moisture movement from inner core and the rate of removal of moisture from the surface balance each other. However, after sometime, dry spots appear on the surface resulting in unsaturated surface drying and then the moisture movement from the solid takes place which is entirely controlled by the diffusion rates within the solid. diffusion controlled falling rate drying. 6.6.2 Capillary movement In some of the porous solids, moisture moves through the capillaries in them which is quite similar to the burning of lamp with wick. These capillaries extend from water reservoir to the drying surface. As the drying process is initiated, the moisture starts moving by capillarity to the drying surface and maintains a uniformly wetted surface, which corresponds to constant rate drying period. Subsequently air replaces the water and the wetted area at the surface also decreases leading to unsaturated surface drying. After sometime, when the subsurface water also dries up, the liquid surface recedes into capillaries and water evaporates from there setting in second falling rate period. This phenomenon is exhibited by clays, paints and pigments. 6.6.3 Vapour diffusion When one surface of a wet solid is heated and the other surface allows the drying to take place, the moisture gets vaporized from the hot surface and diffuses outward as a vapor from the other surface. 6.6.4 Pressure diffusion When bound moisture is removed from a colloidal nonporous solid, it tends to shrink when the substance is dried very rapidly. The moisture present on the surface is removed very quickly and the moisture movement from the inner core to the outer surface will not be equal to the rate of removal of moisture from the surface. During this process, an impervious membrane forms and prevents the movement of moisture under such circumstances from the inner core to the surface. The outer surface will be fully dry whereas the inner core will be wet under such conditions. This phenomenon is called case hardening. Whenever, the constant drying rates are very high, the drying substance may exhibit only

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However, under certain circumstances, the shrinkage of outside layers of solid may also squeeze out moisture to the surface. 6.7 Some more aspects on falling rate drying: The moisture movement during the falling rate period is governed by either Unsaturated surface drying or Internal diffusion controlling mechanism. 6.7.1 Unsaturated surface drying In this phase, the rate of drying will vary linearly with moisture content. The moisture removal mechanism is same as that in the constant rate period and the effects of temperature, humidity, gas flow rate and thickness of the solid are the same as for constant rate drying. 6.7.2 Internal diffusion controlling In this period of drying, the moisture movement is controlled by the pores in the drying substance. The drying rate decreases with decrease in moisture content. 6.8 Through circulation drying When a gas passes through a bed of solids, the drying zone varies as shown in Fig.6.6. At the point, where the gas enters, maximum drying occurs and a zone of drying of bound moisture forms. In this zone there is a gradual rise in temperature. This zone is followed by a zone of drying unbound moisture. The temperature in this zone remains constant and the particles are at their wet bulb temperature. The zone of drying unbound moisture is followed by a zone of initial moisture concentration where the solids also remain at their initial temperature. The gas leaves the system fully saturated.
Gas
Zone of drying of bound moisture Zone of drying unbound moisture

Zone of initial moisture

Gas

Fig.: 6.6 Through circulation drying 6.8.1 The rate of drying of unbound moisture 120

Let us consider that a gas of humidity Y1 enters the bed at a moisture free flow rate of GS, kg/m2 hr. The maximum drying rate Nmax. will occur if the gas leaving the bed is saturated at adiabatic saturation temperature and hence at the humidity Yas Nmax N = = GS (Yas Y1) GS (Y2 Y1) (6.13) (6.14) However, if Y2 is the humidity of leaving air and N is the drying rate, then For a differential section of the bed, where the change in humidity for incoming air of humidity Y1 is dY, the rate of drying dN is given by dN = GS dY = ky dS (Yas Y1) (6.15) where S is the interfacial surface per unit area of bed cross section. If a is the interfacial area per unit volume of bed and if ZS is the bed thickness, then dS Y2 Y1 = a.dZ ZS (KyadZS/GS) 0 (6.16) Substituting Eq. (6.16) in Eq. (6.15) and integrating it yields,

(dY/Yas Y) =

(6.17) (6.18)

ln [(Yas Y1)/ (Yas Y2)] = NtG = Ky a ZS/ GS (6.13), (6.14) and (6.15), we get N/ Nmax = [(Y2 Y1)/ (Yas Y1)] = 1 - [(Yas Y2)/ (Yas Y1)] = 1 e NtG = 1 e - kya Z/ GS (6.19) Using Eq. (6.19) we can predict drying rate when kya is known. 6.8.2 Drying of bound moisture

where NtG is the number of gas phase transfer units in the bed. From Eq.

In order to analyze the drying rate in this regime, it is preferrable to make experimental investigation as both particle and gas characteristics play a significant role. 6.9 Continuous direct heat drier It is the one in which there is a continuous flow of solid and gas through the drier. The drying takes place as the solid moves through the drier. 6.9.1 Material and energy balance: Consider a continuous drier with gas flowing counter current to the flow of solids which is dried from a moisture content of X 1 to X2. The flow rate of dry

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solids is SS. The gas enters at a moisture free flow rate of GS at a temperature of tG2 and a humidity of Y2 and leaves at a temperature of tG1 and a humidity of Y1. A schematic diagram shown in Fig 6.7 indicates the flow of various streams and their conditions. Q; Heat loss GS, Y1, tG1, HG1 Wet solid SS, tS1, HS1 GS, Y2, tG2, HG2 Dried solid SS, tS2, HS2

Fig.: 6.7 Schematic of a continuous direct heat drier Balance for moisture gives SSX1 + GSY2 = SSX2 + GSY1 (i.e.) SS(X1 X2) = GS (Y1 Y2) Enthalpy of the wet solids, HS is given by HS = CS (tS t0) + X (CA) (tS t0) + H moisture content and H is the integral heat of wetting. An energy balance gives, Heat entering = Heat leaving + heat loss SSHS1 + GSHG2 = SSHS2 + GSHG1 + Q (6.24) For an adiabatic operation, where there is no heat loss, Q = 0. Sometimes the solids are conveyed through drier in some supports in which case the heat carried in and out by these materials should also be accounted. 6.9.2 Rate of drying for continuous Direct heat dryers: Direct heat driers fall under two categories namely whether the high temperature or low temperature prevails. 6.9.2.1 Drying at high temperature: The Fig. 6.8 shown below indicates the temperature profile of both solid and gas. (6.23) where CS is specific heat of solids, CA is the specific heat of moisture, X is the (6.21) (6.22)

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Temperature

R Gas I S II P Solid Distance Q III

Fig.: 6.8 Temperature profile of gas and solid in a continuous

For

analysis let us divide the drier into three zones. The zone I is a preheating zone, where the solid is heated and very little drying takes place. In zone II, the temperature of solid remains farily constant and the surface and unbound moisture are evaporated. The point Q corresponds to the critical moisture content. In zone III, unsaturated surface drying and removal of bound moisture takes place. There is a sharp increase in the temperature of the solid. The zone II represents a major portion of the drier and it will be interesting to see how the gas temperature and humidity varies in this section. The point R denotes the condition of air entering zone. When the drying takes place adiabatically without any heat loss the variation of gas temperature and humidity is along the adiabatic saturation line RS1. The solid temperature could be A (corresponding to point Q) or A ( corresponding to point P).

Humidity

A A S1 S2

S3

S4

Gas temperature, tG Fig.: 6.9 Temperature humidity variation in a continuous Drier

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However, if heat losses are there then the path could be RS2. Incase the heat is added within the drier then the path would be RS3. The path will be RS4 if the gas temperature is kept constant and the solid temperature is likely to be A4. Now, let us make an energy balance. The heat lost qG by the gas is transferred to the solid q and partially lost Q. For a drier of differential length, dz dqa = dq + dQ (i.e.) dq = dqa dQ = U.ds (tG tS) = U.adz (tG tS) (6.25) (6.26) (6.27)

where S is the interfacial surface/cross sectional area, a is the interfacial surface/drier volume, U is the overall heat transfer coefficient, tG is the gas temperature and tS is the solid temperature. dq = GS.CS.dtG in gas temperature. (i.e.) dq = GS.CS.dtG = Ua (tG tS) dz dNtG = dta/ (tG tS) = (Ua/GSCS) dz (i.e.) NtoG = tG/tm (i.e.) HtoG = GSCS/Ua tm is logarithm of average temperature difference from gas to solid 6.9.2.2 Drying at low temperatures: Since the drying takes place at low temperature the preheating of solid is not a major factor. The preheating zone merges with zone II. In zone II unbound and surface moisture are removed and the moisture content of leaving solid reaches critical moisture content, XC as in drying at high temperatures. The unsaturated surface drying and evaporation of bound moisture occurs in zone III. (6.29) (6.30) (6.31) (6.32) (6.28) where GS is the dry gas flow rate, CS is the humid heat of gas and dtG is drop

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The humidity of incoming gas increases from Y2 to YC as it leaves zone III.

(1) GS, Y1 II YC III SS, X1 XC

(2) GS, Y2 SS, X2

Fig.: 6.10 Continuous counter current drier of low temperature operation The retention time can be calculated using Eq. (6.1) t = tII + tIII X1 = SS/A [ XC (6.33) dX/N + XC dX/N ] X2 (6.34)

where A/SS is the specific exposed drying surface. In zone II, X>XC, the rate of drying N = NC is given by Eq. (6.2) X1 tII = SS/A dX/[ky(YS Y)] XC Also a material balance yields, GS.dY = SS.dX Substituting for dX in Eq. (6.35) from Eq. (6.36) tIII = SS/A. GS/SS Y1 dY/[ky(YS Y)] YC (6.37) (6.35) (6.36)

Assuming YS to be constant (which will correspond to saturation humidity at the wet bulb temperature of incoming air and there is no heat loss) tII = (SS/A)(GS/SS)(1/ky).ln[(YS YC)/ (YS Y1)] In zone III, X <XC we have from Eq. (5.11) N = [NC (X X*)]/ (XC X*) Applying Eq. (6.2) to constant rate period we get NC = ky (YS Y) Substituting for NC in Eq. (6.11) from Eq. (6.39) we get, N = ky (YS Y) (X X*)/ (XC X*) Substituting in Eq. (6.34) from Eq. (6.40) we get 125 (6.40) (6.39) (6.38)

XC tIII = SS/A dX/N = {[(XC X*).dX]/[ky(YS Y)(X X*)]} X2 XC = SS (XC X*)/A.ky dX/[(YS Y)(X X*)] X2 This cannot be integrated directly as Y also varies with X. A simple material balance for moisture across any section yields GS [Y Y2} = SS[X X2] Y = Y2 + (X X2) (SS/GS) (6.42) The humidity YS can be determined from the humidity Y1 of inlet gas. X* can be determined experimentally for the given humidity Y2. By substituting for Y in Eq. (6.41) from Eq. (6.42) we can estimate tIII. However, for the case where X* = 0, we shall analyze the Eq. (6.41) By differentiating Eq. (6.42) we get, GS. dY = SS.dX From Eq. (6.41) using Eq. (6.43) we get, YC tIII = (SS/A) (XC/ky) (GS/SS) dY/{(YS Y)[(Y Y2)(GS/SS) + X2]} Y2 = (SS/A)(XC/ky)(GS/SS){1/ [(YSY2) (GS/SS) +X2]} ln {[XC (YSY2)]/[X2(YSYC)]} (6.44) The above Eq. (6.44) cannot be applied when the internal diffusion controls the drying process. Since we have assumed that in the falling rate period, drying rate varies linearly with free moisture content. Whenever, the drying is controlled by internal diffusion, tIII can be determined experimentally In the case of parallel flow driers, YC tII = (SS/A) (GS/SS) (1/ky) dY/(YS Y) Y1 = (GS/SS) (SS/A) (1/ky) ln [(YS Y1)/ (YS YC)] XC tIII = SS (XC X*)/A.ky dX/[(YS Y)(X X*)] = (GS/SS) (SS/A) (XC/ky) X2 {1/ [(YS YC) (GS/SS) X2]} ln {[XC (YS Y2)]/[X2(YS YC)]} 6.10. Drying equipments: (6.46) (6.45) (6.43) (6.41)

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Drying equipments are classified on different basis 6.10.1 Based on contact between drying substance and drying material (gas generally): a) Direct contact: In these dryers, there is a direct contact between hot gas and the drying substance. (e.g.) Rotary dryer, spray dryer, etc. b) Indirect contact: There is no direct contact between gas and drying substance. (e.g.) Drum dryer, Mechanically agitated dryer, etc. 6.10.2 Based on the type of operation: a) Batch dryer: Tray dryer, Freeze dryer, etc. b) Continuous dryer: Rotary dryer, Mechanically agitated dryer and Tunnel dryer. 6.10.3 Based on the nature of substance being dried: a) Materials in sheets or masses carried on conveyors or trays i) ii) i) ii) iii) iv) Batch dryers: Atmospheric tray and Vacuum tray Continuous dryers: Tunnel. Rotary dryers: Rotary and Roto Louvre Turbo dryers Conveyors Filter dryer combinations

b) Materials which are Granular or loose

(All these dryers operate on continuous basis) c) Materials in continuous sheets: i) ii) i) ii) i) ii) i) ii) iii) Cylinder dryer Festoon dryers Atmospheric agitator dryers (Mechanically agitated) Vacuum dryers Drum dryers: Atmospheric and Vacuum Spray dryers Freeze dryers Infrared dryers Dielectric dryers 127

d) Materials in the form of pastes or sludges or caking crystals

e) Materials in the form of solution

f) Special dryers

Some of the dryers used in industries have been described below. 6.10.4 Atmospheric compartment dryers: This dryer consists of a rectangular chamber with insulating walls and a door. The chamber is partitioned to enable the loading of materials in these compartments. In some of the designs, trucks or cars may run into the dryer with provisions for closing doors. These dryers also have provisions for heating the air inside and also circulating it over the trays/shelves. Dampers are also provided to regulate the flow of air 6.10.5 Vacuum compartment dryer: It consists of a rectangular chamber with a number of shelves. These shelves are hollow and during operation they are filled with steam or hot water. Steam enters through a steam inlet manifold and there is a provision to remove the condensate and also non condensables. The material to be dried is loaded in trays and placed on shelves. The door is closed after placing the material to be dried and vacuum is created in the chamber by means of a vacuum pump. The water released from the substance is condensed in a condenser placed between the dryer and the vacuum pump. If the vapor from the drying substance has a value, these dryers enable us in the recovery of these vapors. These dryers are used for materials that can not withstand high temperatures, as in the case of atmospheric compartmental dryer, such as pharmaceuticals. They are also suitable for systems where in the contact between airs or other oxidizing gases are to be avoided. 6.10.6 Tunnel dryers: The compartmental dryers operate on batch basis. The dryer is in the form of a long tunnel. However, if a continuous operation is desired the material to be dried can be loaded in trucks or cars and sent through the tunnel. The air flow could be either co current or counter current at right angles to the path of travel of trucks. Heaters are also provided in the dryer in different sections so that the air may be sent through the trucks, taken to a reheater and sent back again to the trucks in the same section. These are used for drying bricks, ceramic products and other material which have to be dried rather slowly but in large quantities. 6.10.7. Rotary dryers:

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It consists of a cylindrical shell slightly inclined to the horizontal and mounted so that it can be rotated. The feed material enters at the high end of the dryer and due to the rotation of the shell, the material slowly moves towards the lower end and finally leaves the dryer. Inside the shell, flights are present which help in lifting the solids and showering them over air stream. Heat can supplied from outside to the shell of the dryer or through the hot air which flows either co currently or counter currently. The rotating shell carries forged tires which ride on rolls. Thrust rolls prevent the endwise travel of the shell. The shell is driven by a gear arrangement which is driven by a motor. The shell rotates at a peripheral speed of 20 to 25 m/min. This dryer is used for drying granular or crystalline substances which to be handled in bulk and can not be used for sticky material. A typical drier is shown in Fig. 6.11

6.10.8. Roto Louvre dryer: This is a modified form of rotary dryer described above. The dryer consists of an outer cylindrical shell and a tapered inner shell made of number of overlapping plates. The space between the shell and the overlapping plates is divided into longitudinal channels by ribs. These channels are open at the large end to receive hot air and are closed at the smaller end. The louvers are inclined 129

against the flow of rotation so that they do not lift the solid but merely serve to keep the solid from dropping down the channels. The air from these channels flow through the bed of solids. As the material entering the dryer has a higher moisture content, the tapering provides a thinner bed to start with and hence a lower resistance for gas/air flow. As the air flows through a bed of solids, the air comes more nearly in equilibrium with the material and drying rate is faster and hence a shorter size of the shell. Further, as the material is not lifted and showered down, the tendency for degradation of material is less. Here, the material rolls along the bottom of inner surface, and reaches the product outlet region. 6.10.9. Turbo dryer: This dryer as shown in Fig. 6.12, is of vertical orientation with a cylindrical or polygonal shell. At the bottom we have a base plate which is driven by a gear coupled to a motor assembly. From this base plate vertical rods rise to the top. Which are suitably connected to a guide bearing. Around these rods are cylindrical bands of sheet metal to which are attached wedge shaped trays. The whole assembly rotates as a single unit. Feed enters through the feed opening, fills the trays and as they rotate they pass under a fixed leveling scraper. After one revolution they pass under another scraper that scrapes the charge on the tray through the transfer slots to fall to the tray below. Every tray is provided with a leveler scraper and a scraper to push the solids to next lower tray. The dried material leaving the last tray is finally scraped into a hopper and discharged out of the dryer by a screw conveyor. Air enters the drier at the bottom of the shell. With the help of fans attached to the central shaft, air is circulated over the material on trays. As the picks up moisture its temperature drops and the saturation level goes up. In order to maintain a fairly steady temperature, the circulating air is continuously reheated with the finned tube heaters. The humidified air finally leaves the top of the dryer.

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6.10.10. Conveyor dryers: The major advantage of this dryer is it occupies a lesser flow space and low power consumption compared to Rotary dryer and Roto Louvre dryers. It is a type of tunnel dryer in which the granular solids to be dried is loaded in a conveyor belt of wire screen of a suitable mesh. The belt screen retains the solid but permits the flow of air through the conveyor and also the solid. In some cases the flow of air could be downwards also. 6.10.11. Filter dryer combination: When the material to be dried is in suspension in a liquid, a rotary continuous filter is used. It consists of a drum which is fed at the top surface of the drum. After the filtration, hot air is blown through the filtered material, so that filtration and drying take place at the same time. 6.10.12. Cylinder dryers: A typical cylinder drier is shown in Fig.6.13. This consists of steam heated rolls with facilities to remove the condensate. The rolls are driven by motors. The material to be dried in the form of continuous sheets of paper or textiles passes over these rolls and gets spooled to the final product spool. The speed of the train of rolls must suitably be adjusted through it is complicated to compensate the

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shrinkage of drying material. Typical dryer assembly in a paper manufacturing unit may have 50 to 75 rolls.

6.10.13. Festoon dryers: In this dryer as shown in Fig.6.14, wet sheet of material passes over a series of rolls and drops down to form a series of loops. A continuous chain conveyor carrying cross bars is so timed with respect to the speed of the sheet that the loops drop down to a certain predetermined length pass as the next roll comes along to catch the next loop. The proper loop formation is ensured by the loop blower. The material as it leaves the dryer is fully dried and rolls on to the product roll. Hot air needed for drying is obtained by passing air through a bank of finned tube heaters. The moist air leaves through air discharge port.

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6.10.14. Mechanically agitated dryer: A mechanically agitated dryer shown in Fig.6.15 consists of a horizontal jacketed cylindrical shell. Inside is a central shaft carrying agitator blades so set, that one set of blades moves the material in one direction and the other set in the opposite direction. Heat needed for drying is sent through the jacket. The central shaft is rotated by a motor. The feed enters through the feed inlet point and leaves from the product outlet point Atmospheric.

133

6.10.15. Drum dryer: A typical double roll drum dryer consists of two large steam heated cast iron rolls with a smooth external surface. The rolls rotate toward each other and the liquid to be dried is fed directly into the V shaped space between rolls. In small units generally there is no special feeding device where as in larger dryers swinging pipe or a traveling discharge pipe is used to keep the feed uniform. Thickness of the material deposited on the rolls is determined by the space between them. Doctor knife placed near the top of the rolls on the outside, removes the dried product which is taken away with a conveyor. In very small capacity driers only one roll will be present which will be dipping in a feed trough. The doctor knife at the lower part of the drum removes the dried solid. 6.10.16. Vacuum drum dryers: When the substance being dried is heat sensitive, the drying can be accomplished under vacuum. A typical vacuum drum dryer consists of a single drum made of cast iron. The drum is heated with steam with facility to remove the condensate. The pool of feed liquid is maintained at the bottom of the unit is pumped up to the spreader trough which is very close to the bottom section of the drum. The dried product is removed by a doctor knife and taken out subsequently by a conveyor. The entire unit is maintained under vacuum. 6.10.17. Spray dryer: Spray dryers are extensively used for drying solutions, pharmaceuticals, detergent products, fruit juices and milk. Many designs are available. A typical design shown in Fig. 6.16, the liquid to be dried is atomized and introduced into the large drying chamber with a conical bottom. The droplets are dispersed into a stream of hot air. The particles of liquid evaporate rapidly and dry before they can be carried to the sides of the chamber and the bulk of the dried powder which results falls to the bottom of the chamber from where they are removed by a stream of air to the dust collector. For atomization either spray nozzles or rapidly rotating disks are used. Nozzles are relatively inflexible in their operating characteristics and do not permit even moderate variation in liquid flow rates with out large changes in droplet size. They are also subject to rapid erosion and wear. Rotating disks are about 30 cm in diameter and rotate at speeds of 3000 to 12000 rpm. They also easily handle variations in liquid flow rates. 134

6.10.18. Freeze drying: Substances which cannot be heated even to moderate temperatures, are frozen by exposure to very cold air and placed in a vacuum chamber, where the moisture sublimes and is pumped off by steam jet ejectors or mechanical vacuum pumps. This is used for drying fish, vegetables like peas, vitamins and other heat sensitive materials. 6.10.19. Infrared drying: It has been used in the drying of paint films on objects such as automobile bodies. The radiation is usually supplied by infrared lamps and the material to be dried travels in a tunnel lined with banks of such lamps. This process is suitable only for the drying of thin films on the surface of the material to be dried and never for cases where the water or solvent to be removed is deep inside the solid. It is a very expensive drying operation. 6.10.20. Dielectric drying: 135

In this operation the object to be dried is passed through a very high frequency (2 to 100 106cycles) electrostatic field. This generates heat uniformly throughout the object. Its only important field is in polymerizing the resign that forms the bond between layers of plywood which is a rare drying operation. However, some people will disagree in calling it as a very expensive during operation. Worked Examples: 1) Air containing 0.005 kg of water vapour per kg of dry air is preheated to 52C in a dryer and passed to the lower shelves. It leaves these shelves at 60% relative humidity and is reheated to 52C and passed over another set of shelves, again leaving at 60% relative humidity. This is again repeated for the third and fourth sets of shelves, after which the air leaves the dryer. On the assumption that the material in each shelf has reached the wet bulb temperature and heat loss is negligible, estimate: (i) the temperature of the material on each tray; (ii) the amount of water removed, in kg/hr, if 300m3/min of moist air leaves the dryer. (i) Air leaves the pre-heater of the dryer at 325K Humidity of incoming air = 0.005 kg water/kg dry air It enters the first shelf. So, wet bulb temperature = 25C Moisture is removed along constant wet bulb temperature line till 60% R.H. is reached This gives the exit condition of air from first shelf. From the chart, Humidity of air leaving first shelf = 0.016 kg water/kg dry air. Dry bulb temperature of exit air is at 27C and is at humidity of 0.016 kg water/kg dry air. This air is again heated to 52C dry bulb temperature in second heater. So, air leaves heater at 52C and humidity of 0.016 kg water/kg dry air. When it leaves the Second shelf, the corresponding dry bulb temperature is 34C and humidity is 0.023 kg water/ kg dry air. This air enters the third shelf after preheating to 52 C. Similarly for third shelf, exit air has a humidity of 0.028 kg water/ kg dry air and a dry bulb temperature is 39C. The air leaving the fourth shelf has a humidity of 0.032 kg water/ kg dry air and a dry bulb temperature of 42C

136

The solid temperatures correspond to WBT and they are 23 C, 27C, 32 C and 34 C respectively.

Fig. : P 6.1 Humidity vs Temperature (ii) Final moist air conditions: (Y) = 0.032 kg water/ kg dry air Dry temperature 42C VH = 8315 [(1/Mair) + (Y/Mwater)] [(tG + 273)/Pt] VH = 8315 [(1/28.84) + (0.032/18)] [(42 + 273)/1.013105] VH = 0.945 m3/kg dry air. Amount of dry air leaving/hr = (300 60)/0.945 = 1.905104 kg Water removed/hr = 1.905 104(0.032 0.005) = 514.35 kg/hr. 2) A batch of the solid, for which the following table of data applies, is to be dried from 25 to 6 percent moisture under conditions identical to those for which the data were tabulated. The initial weight of the wet solid is 350 kg, and the drying surface is 1 sq m/8 kg dry weight. Determine the time for drying. X 100, kg moisture kg dry solid N 100, kg moisture evaporated /hr.m2 35 30 25 30 20 30 18 26.6 16 23.9 14 20.8 12 18 10 15 9 0 . 80. 9.7 7 7 4.3 6.4 2.5 bulb =

137

Fig. : P6.2 1/N vs X for falling rate period X1= 0.25/ (1 0.25) = 0.333, Initial weight of wet solid = 350 kg Initial moisture content = 0.333 kg moisture/kg dry solid So total moisture present in wet solid (initially) = 350 0.25 = 87.5 Kg moisture Weight of dry solid = 262.5 kg = LS A = 262.5/8 = 32.8125 m2, XCr = 0. 20, So for constant rate period tI = LS/ANC [X1 XCr] = [262.5/ (32.8125 0.3)] [0.333 0.2] = 3.55 hr. For falling rate period, we finding time graphically or LS/A = 8 kg/m2 NC = 0.3 kg/m2hr X2 = 0.06/ (1 0.06) = 0.0638,

138

X 1/N

0.2 3.33

0.180 0.16 5.56 6.25

0.14 7.14

0.120 0.100 0.090 0.080 0.07 8.32 10.00 11.11 12.5

0.064

14.29 15.625

Area = 1.116, time = Area under the curve LS/A = 1.116 LS/A = 1.116 8 = 8.928 hr. Total time = 8.928 + 3.55 = 12.478 hr. 3) A wet slab of material weighing 5 kg originally contains 50 percent moisture on wet basis. The slab is 1 m x 0.6 m x 7.5 cm thick. The equilibrium moisture is 5 percent on wet basis. When in contact with air, the drying rate is given in the table below. Drying takes place from one face only. (i) Plot the rate of drying curve and find the critical moisture content. (ii) How long will it take to dry the wet slab to 15 percent moisture on wet basis? Wet slab wt, kg 5.0 4.0 3.6 3.5 3.4 3.06 2.85 Drying rate, kg/(hr)(m2) 5.0 5.0 4.5 4.0 3.5 2.00 1.00

Weight of wet solid = 5 kg Moisture = 0.50 moisture/kg wet solid = 0.5/ [(0.5 moisture) + (0.5 dry solid)] = 0.5/ (1 0.5) = moisture/dry solid X1 = 1 For 5 kg wet solid, moisture = 5 0.5 = 2.5 kg.

139

Fig. : P 6.3 (a) Drying rate Curve Weight of dry solid = 5 2.5 = 2.5 kg. x* = 0.05, X* = 0.05/ (1 0.05) = 0.0526 = weight of wet solid weight of dry solid weight of dry solid X, (kg moisture)/(kg drysolid) N, (kg/hrm2) 1 5 0.6 5 0.44 4.5 0.4 4 0.36 3.5 0.224 0.14 2.0 1.0 Moisture content in Dry basis

(i) XCr = 0.6 kg moisture/kg dry solid. (ii)From X= 0.6 to 0.44 the falling rate curve is non-linear and from X = 0.44 to 0.14, falling rate period is linear. X2 = 0.15/ (1 0.15) = 0.1765. So, we can find time for drying from 0.6 to 0.44 graphically and then for X=0.44 to 0.1765, we can go in for analytical solution.

140

Fig. : P6.3 (b) 1/N vs X Time taken for constant rate drying period. (From X = 1 to X = 0.6) tI = [LS/ANC] [X1 XCr] = [2.5/ (5 0.6)] [1 0.6] = 0.333 hr. tII In falling rate period from X = 0.44 to 0.1765 tII = LS/ANC {(XCr X*) ln [(X1 X*)/ (X2 X*)]} (X* = 0.05/ (1 0.05) = 0.0526) tII = [2.5/ (5 0.6)] {(0.6 0.0526) ln [(0.44 0.0526)/ (0.176 0.0526)]} = 0.522 hr From graph, tIII (From X = 0.6 to X = 0.44) = (0.0336 2.5)/0.6 = 0.14 hr. Total time = tI + tII + tIII = 0.333 + 0.522 + 0.14 = 0.995 hr or 59.58 min. 4) Data on drying rate curve of a particular solid is given below. The weight of the dry material in the solid is 48.0 kg/m2. Calculate the time required to dry the material from 25% to 8% moisture (dry basis). Data: X 0.30 0.20 0.18 0.15 0.14 0.11 0.07 0.05 N 1.22 1.22 1.14 0.90 0.80 0.56 0.22 0.05 where X is the moisture content in kg water/kg dry solid and N is the drying rate in kg/(hr)(m2).

141

Fig. : P 6.4 1/N vs X for falling rate NC = 1.22 kg/m2hr, XCr = 0.2, X1 = 0.25, X2 = 0.08, LS/A = 48 kg/m2

142

Time taken for constant rate drying period, tI = [LS/ANC] [X1 XCr] tI = 48 [0.25 0.2]/1.22 = 1.967 hr. X 1/N 0.18 0.877 0.15 1.111 0.14 1.25 0.11 0.07 0.05 20

1.7857 4.545

2 Area under the curve = 14 0.025 1 =0.35 tII = 0.35 48 = 16.8 hr Total time taken = tI + tII = 1.967 + 16.8 = 18.767 hr 5) In a drying experiment, a tray drier, containing a single tray of 1 sq.m area is used, to dry crystalline solids. The following data has been collected: (a) Calculate and plot drying rates. Find the critical moisture content. (b) If dry air is available at 40C with an absolute humidity of 0.01 kg/kg dry air and the drier is maintained at 90C, calculate the amount of air required in first 2 hours. Assume the air is heated up to 90C and the dry air leaves the drier at 90C with 5% saturation. (c)Test the consistency of the falling rate period. (Choose critical moisture content and any one point in falling rate period). Sl.No 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Time (hr) 0.0 0.4 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 4.2 4.6 5.0 6.0 Infinite Weight of wet material. Kg 5.314 5.238 5.162 5.124 5.048 4.972 4.895 4.819 4.743 4.667 4.524 4.468 4.426 4.340 4.120

143

S.No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15

Time, hr 0 0.4 0.8 1.0 1.4 1.8 2.2 2.6 3.0 3.4 4.2 4.6 5 6 Infinity

Weight of Wet material, kg 5.314 5.238 5.162 5.124 5.048 4.972 4.895 4.819 4.743 4.667 4.524 4.468 4.426 4.340 4.120

Moisture content (dry basis) 0.29 0.271 0.253 0.244 0.225 0.206 0.188 0.169 0.151 0.133 0.098 0.084 0.074 0.053 0.0

Drying rate, kg/hr . m2 --0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.1925 0.19 0.19 0.19 0.179 0.14 0.105 0.086 ---

From the above data after getting the rate curve it is clear that Xcr = 0.11 The loss in weight is due to moisture evaporated. After two hours the weight is = (4.972+4.895) /2 = 4.934 kg The water evaporated in 2 hours is = 5.314 4.934 = 0.38 kg Humidity of incoming air = 0.01 kg/kg

144

Humidity of leaving air = 0.03 kg/kg (For 90C with 5% saturation)

Fig.: P6.5 Drying rate curve Water carried away by air = Gs (Yout Y in) 0.38 = Gs (0.03-0.01) Therefore, Gs is = 0.38/0.02 = 19 kg of air for 2 hours. t falling = LS/ANC {(XCr X*) ln [(X1 X*)/ (X2 X*)]} Let us choose readings (11) and (13) to check the consistency =[ 4.12/(1) (0.19)] (0.11-0) ln[0.098/0.074] = 0.67 hours Here, X* is taken as = 0 Actual time is 0.8 hours. 6) Woolen cloth is dried in a hot air dryer from initial moisture content of 100% to a final content of 10%. If the critical moisture content is 55% and the equilibrium moisture content is 6% (at dryer condition), calculate the saving in drying time if the material is dried to 16% instead of 10%. All other drying conditions remain the same. All moisture contents are on the dry basis. 145

X1 = 100%, X2, = 16%

XCr = 55%,

X2 = 10%,

X* = 6% all are in dry basis.

tT1 = LS/ANC [X1 XCr] + {LS/ANC (XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]} tT = LS/ANC [X1 XCr] + {LS/ANC (XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]}... (1) tT = LS/ANC [X1 XCr] + {LS/ANC (XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]}. (2) (i.e.) (1)/ (2) is, tT = tT [X1 XCr] + {(XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]} [X1 XCr] + {(XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]} [1 0.55] + {(0.55 0.06) ln [(0.55 0.06)/ (0.16 0.06)]} tT/ tT = 1.678/1.2287 tT = 0.732 tT tT/ tT = 1.3657 tT/tT = 0.7322 The reduction in drying time is, (tT tT)/tT = 0.2678 (i.e.) the time reduces by 26.78%. 7) A filter cake is dried for 5 hours from an initial moisture content of 30% to 10% (wet basis). Calculate the time required to dry the filter cake from 30% to 6% (wet basis) Equilibrium moisture content = 4% on dry basis Critical moisture content the free moisture content. xi = 0.3, xf = 0.10, Xi = 0.3/ (1 0.3) = 0.4286, XCr = 0.14 X* = 0.04 = 14% on dry basis Assume that the rate of drying in the falling rate period is directly proportional to

tT/ tT = [1 0.55] + {(0.55 0.06) ln [(0.55 0.06)/ (0.1 0.06)]}

X2 = 0.1/ (1 0.1) = 0.111, X2= 0.06/(1-0.06) =0.064

tT = LS/ANC [(Xi XCr)+ {(XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]}] 5 = LS/ANC[ (0.4286 0.14) + {(0.14 0.04) ln [(0.14 0.04)/ (0.111 0.04)]}] LS/ANC = 15.487 tT = LS/ANC [(Xi XCr) + {(XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]}] tT = 15.487 [(0.4286 0.14) + {(0.14 0.04) ln [(0.14 0.04)/ (0.064 0.04)]}]

146

tT = 6.68 hrs. 8) 1000 kg dry weight of non-porous solid is dried under constant drying conditions with an air velocity of 0.75 m/s, so that the area of surface drying is 55 m 2. The critical moisture content of the material may be taken as 0.125 kg water / kg dry solids? (i) If the initial rate of drying is 0.3 g / m2.s. How long will it take to dry the material from 0.15 to 0.025 kg water per kg dry solid? (ii) If the air velocity were increased to 4.0 m/s. what would be the anticipated saving in time if surface evaporation is controlling. LS = 1000 kg, X1 = 0.15, kg/m2s tT = (LS/ANC) [(X1 XCr) + {(XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]}] tT = [1000/ (55 0.310 -3)] [(0.15 0.125) + {(0.125 0) ln [(0.125 0)/ (0.025 0)]}] tT = 3.8077 hr (ii) Assuming only surface evaporation, and let air move parallel to surface NC G0.71 i.e. NC V0.71 NC1/ NC2 = (V1)0.71/ (V2)0.71 (0.310 -3)/ NC2 = (0.75)0.71/ (4)0.71 NC2 = 0.985 10 -3 kg/m2s. tT = [1000/ (55 0.98510 -3) [(0.15 0.125) + {(0.125 0) ln [(0.125 0)/(0.025 0)]}] = 1.1597 hrs. So, time saved = 3.8077 1.1597 = 2.648 hr. 9) A plant wishes to dry a certain type of fiberboard. To determine drying characteristics, a sample of 0.3 x 0.3 m size with edges sealed was suspended from a balance and exposed to a current of hot dry air. Initial moisture content was 75%. The sheet lost weight at the rate of 1 x 10 4 kg/s until the moisture content fell to 60%. It was established that the equilibrium moisture content was 10%. The dry mass of the 147 G=V Air velocity = 0.75 m/s, X2 = 0.025, assume X* = 0, A = 55m2, XCr = 0.125,
-3

NC = 0.3 g/m2s or 0.310

sample was 0.90 kg. All moisture contents were on wet basis. Determine the time for drying the sheets from 75% to 20% moisture under the same drying conditions. x1 = 0.75, x* = 0.1, xCr = 0.6 LS = 0.90 kg, A = (0.3 0.3) 2 (both upper and lower surfaces are exposed) = 0.18 m2. A NC = 10- 4 kg/s, x1 = 0.75, x2 = 0. 2, X1 = 3, XCr = 0.6/0.4 =1.5, X2 = 0.25, X* = 0.1/0.9 = 0.111

tT = (LS/ANC) [(X1 XCr) + {(XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]}] tT = 0.90/10- 4 [(3 1.5) + {(1.5 0.111) ln [(1.5 0.111)/ (0.25 0.111)]}] = 11.74 hr. 10) A commercial drier needed 7 hours to dry a moist material from 33% moisture content to 9% on bone dry basis. The critical and equilibrium moisture content were 16% and 5% on bone dry basis respectively. Determine the time needed to dry the material from a moisture content of 37% to 7% on bone dry basis if the drying conditions remain unchanged. X1 = 0.33, X2 = 0.07, X* = 0.05, tT = 7 hrs XCr = 0.16, X2 = 0.09, X1 = 0.37,

tT = (LS/ANC) [(X1 XCr) + {(XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]}] 7 = LS/ANC [(0.33 0.16) + {(0.16 0.05) ln [(0.16 0.05)/ (0.09 0.05)]}] LS/ANC = 24.8866 Now, X1 = 0.37, = 9.893 hr. 11) A slab of paper pulp 1.5 meter x 1.5 meter x 5 mm, is to be dried under constant drying conditions from 65% to 30% moisture (wet basis) and the critical moisture is 1.67 kg free water per kg dry pulp. The drying rate at the critical point has been estimated to be 1.40 kg/(m2)(hr). The dry weight of each slab is 2.5 kg. Assuming drying to take place from the two large faces only, calculate the drying time to be provided. X2 = 0.07 tT = 24.8866 [(0.37 0.16) + {(0.16 0.05) ln [(0.16 0.05)/ (0.07 0.05)]}]

148

x1 = 0.65,

LS = 2.5 kg, x2 = 0.3, XCr = 1.67, X2 = 0.3/ (1 0.3) = 0.4286,

A = (1.5 1.5) 2 (drying takes place from both the larger surface only) = 4.5 m2. NC = 1.4kg/m2hr, Assuming X* = 0 tT = (LS/ANC) [(X1 XCr) + {(XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]}] tT = (2.5/4.5 1.4) [1.857 1.67] + {(1.67 0) ln [(1.67 0)/ (0.4286 0)]} tT = 0.976 hr. 12) A slab of paper pulp 1.5 meter x 1.5 meter x 5 mm, thick is to be dried under constant drying conditions from 15% to 8.5% moisture (dry basis). The equilibrium moisture is 2.5% (dry basis) and the critical moisture is 0.46 kg free water per kg dry pulp. The drying rate at the critical point has been estimated to be 1.40 kg/(m2)(hr). Density of dry pulp is 0.22 gm/cc. Assuming drying to take place from the two large faces only, calculate the drying time to be provided. X* = 0.025, NC = 1.4 kg/m2hr, XCr = 0.46, X1 = 0.15, X2 = 0.085, X1 = 0.65/ (1 0.65) = 1.857,

Density of dry pulp = 0.22 g/cc,

A = (1.5 1.5) 2 = 4.5 m2,

Volume of material = 1.5 1.5 0.5 = 1.125 10-2 m3, LS = 1.125 10- 2 0.22 103 = 2.475 kg tT = (LS/ANC) [(X1 XCr) + {(XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]}] But here initial moisture is more than the XCr. So there is no constant rate drying period and only falling rate period is observed. tT = LS/ANC [XCr X*] ln [(X1 X*)/ (X2 X*)]} tT = [2.475/4.5 1.4] [0.46 0.025] ln [(0.15 0.025)/ (0.085 0.025)]} = 0.125 hr or 7.526 min 13) Under constant drying conditions, a filter cake takes 5 hours to reduce its moisture content from 30% to 10% on wet basis. The critical moisture is 14% and the equilibrium moisture 4%, both on dry basis. Assuming the rate of drying in the falling rate period to be directly proportional to the free moisture content, estimate the time required to dry the cake from 30% to 6% moisture on wet basis. x1 = 0.3, x2 = 0.1, XCr = 0.14, 149 X1 = 0.3/0.7= 0.4286, X* = 0.04,

X2 = 0.1/0.9 = 0.111, tT = 5 hrs, x1 = 0.3 and hence, X1 = 0.4286. x2 = 0.06 and X2 = 0.0638, 5 = (LS/ANC) [(X1 XCr) + {(XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]}]..(1) tT = (LS/ANC) [(X1 XCr) + {(XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]}] (2) Dividing (1)/ (2) 5 = [0.4286 0.14] + {(0.14 0.04) ln [(0.14 0.04)/ (0.111 0.04)]} tT [0.4286 0.14] + {(0.14 0.04) ln [(0.14 0.04)/ (0.0638 0.04)]} 5/tT = 0.3228/0.4321 Hence, tT = 6.69 hr. 14) Sheet material, measuring 1m2 and 5 cm thick, is to be dried from 45% to 5% moisture under constant drying conditions. The dry density of the material is 450 kg per cubic meter and its equilibrium moisture content is 2%. The available drying surface is 1 m2. Experiments showed that the rate of drying was constant at 4.8 kg/(hr)(m2) between moisture contents of 45% and 20% and thereafter the rate decreased linearly. Calculate the total time required to dry the material from 45% to 5%. All moisture contents are on wet basis. A = 1m2, 0.05, X* = 0.02/ (1 0.02) = 0.02041, Density of dry pulp = 450 kg/m3 Volume of material = 1 5 10- 2 = 0.05 m3 LS = 450 0.05 = 22.5 kg tT = (LS/ANC) [(X1 XCr) + {(XCr X*) ln [(XCr X*)/ (X2 X*)]}]
tT = [22.5/ (1 4.8)][(0.818 0.25) +{(0.25 0.02041) ln [(0.25 0.02041)/(0.0526 0.02041)]}]

5cm thick,

xi = 0.45,

x* = 0.02,

xCr = 0.2, XCr = 0.25,

x2 =

NC = 4.8 kg/m2hr,

X1 = 0.45/ (1 - 0.45) = 0.818, X2 = 0.0526.

= 4.78 hr. 15) Wet solids containing 120 kg per hour of dry stuff are dried continuously in a specially designed drier, cross circulated with 2,000 kg per hour of dry air under the following conditions: Ambient air temperature = 20C

150

Exhaust air temperature Evaporation of water Inlet solids temperature Outlet solids temperature Power demand Heat loss evaporation of moisture. Data:

= 70C = 150 kg per hour = 15C = 65C =5kW = 18 k W

Outlet solids moisture content= 0.25 kg per hour

Estimate heater load per unit mass of dry air and fraction of this heat used in

Mean specific heat of dry air = 1 kJ kg- 1 K- 1 Enthalpy of saturated water vapour = 2,626 kJ per kg Mean specific heat of dry materials = 1.25 kJ kg- 1 K- 1 Mean specific heat of moisture Total quantity of solid 120 kg dry stuff Air used is 2000 kg/hr dry air = 4.18 kJ kg- 1 K- 1.

Basis: 1 hr. Heat required for heating 150 kg water from 15C to 65C = 150 4.18 (65 15)= 31350 kJ Heat required for 150 kg water evaporation = 150 2626 = 393900 kJ Heat required for heating air from 20C to 70C = 2000 1 (70 20) = 100000 kJ Heat required for heating moisture in solid from 15C to 65C = 0.25 4.18 (65 15) = 52.25 kJ Heat required for heating dry solid from 15C to 65C = 120 1.25 (65 15) =7500 kJ

151

Heat lost = 18 3600 = 64800 kJ So total heat required/hr = 31350 +393900 + 100000 +52.25 + 7500 + 64800 = 597602.25 kJ/hr.= 166 kw (i.e.) 166 kW of heat is needed for 2000 kg/hr of dry air Heat required/mass dry air = 166/ (2000/3600) = 298.8 kW (i) Heat needed for evaporation = [393900+ 31350]/3600 = 118.13 (ii) Fraction of this heat needed for evaporation = 118.13/298.8 = 0.3953 or 39.53%. 16) A drum drier is being designed for drying of a product from an initial total solid content of 12% to final moisture content of 4%. An overall heat transfer coefficient (U) 1700 W/m2 C is being estimated for the product. An average temperature difference between the roller surface and the product of 85C will be used for design purpose. Determine the surface area of the roller required to provide a production rate of 20 kg product per hour. Initial moisture content = 12% Final moisture content = 4% Production rate = 20 kg final product/hr

4 kg moisture in 100 kg product

In 20 kg product weight of moisture = (4 20)/100 = 0.8 kg Dry solid weight = 20 0.8 = 19.2 kg Total initial moisture content = 19.2 [0.12/ (1 0.12)] = 2.6182 kg Water evaporated = 2.6182 0.8 = 1.8182 kg/hr S at 85C = 2296.1 kJ/kg Heat required = WS (Assuming the solid mixture enters at 85C and only moisture removal by evaporation is alone considered ) = 1.8182 2296.1 = 4174.73 kJ/hr U A T = WS 1700 A 85 = 4174730/3600 A = 8.025 10- 3 m2 or 80.25 cm2.

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Exercise: 1) Sheet material, measuring 1m2 and 5 cm thick, is to be dried from 50% to 2% moisture under constant drying conditions. The dry density of the material is 400 kg/ m3 and its equilibrium moisture content is negligible. The available drying surface is 1 m2. Experiments showed that the rate of drying was constant at 4.8 kg/ (hr)(m2) between moisture contents of 50% and 25% and thereafter the rate decreased linearly. Calculate the total time required to dry the material from 50% to 2%. All moisture contents are on wet basis. (Ans : 6.653 hrs) 2) Calculate the critical moisture content and the drying rate during the constant rate period for drying a wet slab of size 20 cm 75 cm 5 cm, whose dry weight is 16 kg. Both the sides are used for drying. The steam used was at 3 atm. pressure and was consumed at the rate of 0.135 g/s. cm2 of the contact surface. The following drying data is available for the sample. Assume equilibrium moisture content sis negligible.
Drying Time, hrs Sample weight, kg 0 19.9 0.25 19.7 1.0 19.2 1.5 18.85 2.0 18.6 2.5 18.3 3.0 18.1 4.0 17.65 6.0 16.92 8.0 16.4 10.0 16.15 12.0 16.05

3) The following data is available for drying a substance. Estimate the drying time needed to dry a similar sample under similar drying conditions from 40% to 12% moisture content, on wet basis. The drying surface is 1 m2/4 kg of dry weight and the initial weight of the wet sample is 80 kgs. X (dry basis) 0.35 0.25 N, kg/hr. m2 0.3 0.3 0.2 0.3 0.18 0.26 6 4) 175 kg of wet material with 25% moisture is to dried to 10% moisture. Air enters at 65 C DBT and a WBT of 25 C. The velocity of air is 150 cm/s. Drying area equals 1 m2/40 kg dry weight. X(dry basis)
2

0.16 0.24

0.14 0.21

0.10 0.15

0.08 0.07

0.065 0.05

0.2

0.22 1.5

0.20 1.5

0.18 0.16 1.3 1.2

0.14 1.04

0.12 0.9

0.1 0.75

0.08 0.6

6 N, kg/hr. m 1.5 (Ans : 6.687 hrs)

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5) A wet solid is dried from 35 to 8% moisture in 5 hrs under constant drying condition. The critical moisture content is 15% and equilibrium moisture content is 5%. All the moisture contents are reported as percentage on wet basis. Calculate how much longer it would take place under the similar drying conditions to dry from 8% to 6% moisture on wet basis. 6) A certain material was dried under constant drying conditions and it was found that 2 hours are required to reduce the free moisture from 20% to 10%. How much longer would it require to reduce the free moisture to 4%? Assume that no constant rate period is encountered. 7) It is desired to dry sheets of material from 73% to 4% moisture content (wet basis). The sheets are 2 m 3 m 5 mm. The drying rate during constant rate period is estimated to be 0.1 kg/hr.m2. The bone-dry density of the material is 30 kg/m3. The material is dried from both the sides. The critical moisture content is 30% on wet basis and equilibrium moisture content is negligible. The falling rate period is linear. Determine the time needed for drying. (Ans : 2.798 hours) 8) A slab of paper pulp 1 meter 1 meter 5 mm, is to be dried under constant drying conditions from 60% to 20% moisture (wet basis) and the critical moisture is 1.5 kg water per kg dry pulp. The drying rate at the critical point has been estimated to be 1.40 kg/(m2)(hr). The dry weight of each slab is 2.5 kg. Assuming that drying rate is linear in falling rate period and drying takes place from the two large faces only, calculate the drying time needed. (Ans : 4.8 hrs) 9) 50 kg of batch of granular solids containing 25% moisture is to be dried in a tray dryer to 12% moisture by passing a stream of air at 92C tangentially across its surface at a velocity of 1.8 m/s. If the constant rate of drying under these conditions is 0.0008 kg moisture/m2.s and critical moisture content is 10%. Calculate the drying time if the surface available is 1.0 m 2.(All moisture contents are on wet basis). (Ans : 2.565 hours)

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10) A plant wishes to dry a certain type of fiber board in sheets 1.2 m 2 m 12 mm . To determine the drying characteristics a 0.3m 0.3 m board with the edge sealed, so that drying takes place only from two large faces only, was suspended from a balance in a laboratory dryer and exposed to a current of hot dry air. Initial moisture content is 75%, critical moisture content 60% and equilibrium moisture content 10%. Dry mass of the sample weighs 0.9 kg. Constant drying rate 0.0001 kg/m2.s. Determine the time for drying large sheets from 75% to 20% moisture under the same drying conditions. All moisture contents are on wet basis 11) A batch of wet solid was dried on a tray drier using constant drying conditions and the thickness of material on the tray was 25 mm. Only the top surface was exposed for drying. The drying rate was 2.05 kg/m2.hr during constant rate period. The weight of dry solid was 24 kg/m2 exposed surface. The initial free moisture content was 0.55 and the critical moisture content was 0.22. Calculate the time needed to dry a batch of this material from a moisture content of 0.45 to 0.30 using the same drying condition but the thickness of 50 mm with drying from from the top and bottom surfaces. (Ans : 1.756 hrs) 12) A sample of porous sheet material of mineral origin is dried from both sides by cross circulation of air in a laboratory drier. The sample was 3 m 2 and 6mm thick and edges were sealed. The air velocity is 3 m/s. DBT and WBT of air were 52C and 21C respectively. There was no radiation effect. Constant rate drying was 7.5 10-5 kg/s until critical moisture content of 15% (on wet basis) was obtained. In the falling rate period, rate of drying fell linearly with moisture content until the sample was dry. The dry weight of the sheet was 1.8 kg. Estimate the time needed for drying similar sheets 1.2 m1.2 m 12 mm thick from both sides from 25% to 2% moisture on wet basis using air at a DBT of 66C but of the same absolute humidity and a linear velocity of 5 m/s. Assume the critical moisture content remains the same. 13) A pigment material, which has been removed wet from a filter press, is to be dried by extending it into small cylinders and subjecting them to through circulation drying. The extrusions are 6 mm in diameter, 50 mm long and are to be placed in screens to a depth of 65 mm. The surface of the particles is estimated to be 295 155

m2/m3 of bed and the apparent density is 1040 kg dry solid/m 3. Air at a mass velocity of 0.95 kg dry air/m2s will flow through the bed entering at 120 C and a humidity of 0.05 kg water/kg dry air, estimate the constant drying rate to be expected. 14) It is necessary to dry a batch of 160 kg of wet solid from 30% to 5% moisture content under constant rate and falling rate period. The falling rate is assumed to be linear. Calculate the total drying time considering an available drying surface of 1m2/40 kg of dry solid.? The flux during constant rate period is 0.0003 kg/m2s. The critical and equilibrium moisture contents are 0.2 and 0.05 respectively. If the air flow rate is doubled, what is the drying time needed? The critical and equilibrium moisture contents do not change with velocity of air but Nc varies as G0.71 where G is the mass flow rate of air.. 15) A rotary dryer using counter current flow is to be used to dry 12000 kg/hr of wet salt containing 5% water (wet basis) to 10% water (wet basis) . Heated air at 147 C with a WBT of 50 C is available. The specific heat of the salt is 0.21 Kcal/kg C. The out let temperatures of air and salt are 72 C and 93 C respectively. Calculate the diameter of the dryer required. 16) During the batch drying test of a wet slab of material 0.35 m 2 and 7 mm thick, the falling rate N was expressed as 0.95 (X 0.01) where N is the drying rate in kg/ m2.s and X is the moisture content in kg moisture/kg dry solid. The constant drying rate was 0.38 kg/ m2.s and slab was dried from one side only with the edges sealed. Density of the dry material is 1200 kg/m3. It is desired to reduce the moisture content from 35% to 5% on wet basis. What is the time needed for drying?.

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