Power System Analysis

Fundamentals of Power Systems (EEL 3216)

basic models of power apparatus,
transformers, synchronous machines, transmission lines

simple systems
one feeder radial to single load

What more is there?

large interconnected systems
multiple loads; multiple generators

why have large interconnected systems?

reliability; economics

analysis of the large system

flow of power and currents; control and stability of the system proper handling of fault conditions; economic operation
Power Systems I

Modern Power Systems

Power Producer
generation station
prime mover & generator step-up transformer

Transmission Company
HV transmission lines switching stations
circuit breakers transformers

Distribution Utility
distribution substations
step-down transformers

MV distribution feeders
distribution transformers Power Systems I

Network Layout
HV Networks
Large quantities of power shipped over great distances Sharing of resources
Improved reliability Economics of large scale

MV Networks
Local distribution of power Numerous systems
Economics of simplicity Autonomous operation

Loads
Industrial & Commercial Residential
Power Systems I

System Control
Network Protection
Switchgear
instrumentation transformers circuit breakers disconnect switches fuses lightning arrestors protective relays

Energy Management Systems

Energy Control Center
computer control SCADA - Supervisory Control And Data Acquisition Power Systems I

Computer Analysis
Practical power systems
must be safe reliable economical

System Analysis
for system planning for system operations requires component modeling types of analysis
transmission line performance power flow analysis economic generation scheduling fault and stability studies Power Systems I

Chapter 2
AC Power

FAMU-FSU College of Engineering

Single-Phase Power Consumption

i(t)

v (t ) = Vm cos( t + v ) p (t ) = v (t ) i (t ) = Vm I m cos( t + v ) cos( t + i ) p (t ) = 1 Vm I m {cos( v i ) + cos(2 t + v + i )} 2 p (t ) = V I cos { + cos 2(t + v )}+ V I sin sin 2(t + v ) 1
energy flow into the circuit
Power Systems I

i (t ) = I m cos( t + i )

v(t)

cos A cos B = 1 cos( A B ) + 1 cos( A + B ) 2 2 Im = 2 I

= v i Vm = 2 V

energy borrowed and returned by the circuit

Average Active (Real) Power

p(t ) = V I { + cos 2( t + v )}cos + V I sin 2( t + v )sin 1 1 P= 2
2

p(t ) dt
2 v v

=V I

{1 + cos 2( t + )}cos + sin 2( t + )sin dt

0

cos( t ) dt = 0

sin ( t ) dt = 0

P = V I cos pf = cos =
Power Systems I

P V I

Apparent Power
P = V I cos S=V I p(t ) = V I { + cos 2( t + v )}cos + V I sin 2( t + v )sin 1 pR (t ) = V I { + cos 2( t + v )}cos = P { + cos 2( t + v )} 1 1 p X (t ) = V I sin 2( t + v )sin = S sin sin 2( t + v )

Power Systems I

Reactive Power
p X (t ) = V I sin sin 2(t + v ) = S sin sin 2(t + v ) Q S sin = V I sin
for a pure resistor
the impedance angle is zero, power factor is unity apparent power and real power are equal

p X (t ) = Q sin 2(t + v )

for a purely inductive circuit

the current lags the voltage by 90 average power is zero , no transformation of energy

for a purely capacitive circuit

the current leads the voltage by 90 average power is zero ,
Power Systems I

AC Power
Example
the supply voltage is given by v(t) = 480 cos t the load is inductive with impedance Z = 1.2060 determine the expression for the instantaneous current i(t) and instantaneous power p(t) plot v(t), i(t), p(t), pR(t), pX(t) over an interval of 0 to 2

Power Systems I

Complex Power
Real Power, P
RMS based - thermally equivalent to DC power

Reactive Power, Q
Oscillating power into and out of the load because of its reactive element (L or C). Positive value for inductive load (lagging pf)

Complex Power, S

V I * = V I ( v i ) = V I = S S = V I cos + j V I sin = P + jQ S = P2 + Q2
Power Systems I

Complex Power
V v I i P
Lagging Power Factor

S Q
Leading Power Factor

I v

V P S Q

Power Systems I

The Complex Power Balance

From the conservation of energy
Real power supplied by the source is equal to the sum of the real powers absorbed by the load and the real losses in the system Reactive power must also be balanced
The balance is between the sum of leading and the sum of lagging reactive power producing elements

The total complex power delivered to the loads in parallel is the sum of the complex powers delivered to each

0 = Pgen Ploads Plosses 0 = Qleading + Qcaps Qlagging Qind 0 = S gen Sloads Slosses
Power Systems I

Complex Power
Example
in the circuit below, find the power absorbed by each load and the total complex power find the capacitance of the capacitor to be connected across the loads to improve the overall power factor to 0.9 lagging

V 1200 V

I1 Z1=60+j0

I2

I3

Z2=6+j12 Z3=30-j30

Power Systems I

Complex Power Flow

Consider the following circuit
For the assumed direction of current

Z = R+j X =|Z| V1 I12 V2

V1 = V1 1

V2 = V2 2

V1 1 V2 2 V1 V2 I12 = = ( 1 ) ( 2 ) Z Z Z
The complex power
* 12

V1 V2 ( 2 ) S12 = V1 I = V1 1 ( 1 ) Z Z V1 V1 V2 = ( + 1 2 ) Z Z
2

Power Systems I

Complex Power Flow

The real and reactive power at the sending end

V1 V1 V2 P = cos cos( + 1 2 ) 12 Z Z V1 V1 V2 Q12 = sin sin ( + 1 2 ) Z Z

Transmission lines have small resistance compared to the reactance. Often, it is assumed R = 0 (Z = X90)
2

V1 V2 P = sin ( 1 2 ) 12 X

V1 Q12 = X

[V

V2 cos( 1 2 ) ]

Power Systems I

Complex Power Flow

For a typical power system with small R / X ratio, the follow observations are made
Small changes in 1 or 2 will have significant effect on the real power flow Small changes in voltage magnitude will not have appreciable effect on the real power flow Assuming no resistance, the theoretical V1 V2 maximum power (static transmission Pmax = capacity) occurs when the angular X difference, , is 90 and is given by: For maintaining stability, the power system operates with small load angle The reactive power flow is determined by the magnitude difference of the terminal voltages
Power Systems I

Three-Phase Power
Balanced three-phase power
Assumes balanced loads Assumes voltage and currents with phases that have 120 separation

P3 = 3 V p I p cos = 3 VLL I L cos Q3 = 3 V p I p sin = 3 VLL I L sin

S3 = 3 V p I = 3 VLL I L p

Power Systems I

Chapter 3
Power Apparatus Modeling

FAMU-FSU College of Engineering

System Modeling
Systems are represented on a per-phase basis
A single-phase representation is used for a balanced system
the system is modeled as one phase of a wye-connected network

Symmetrical components are used for unbalanced systems

unbalance systems may be caused by: generation, network components, loads, or unusual operating conditions such as faults

The per-unit system of measurements is used

Review of basic network component models

generators transformers loads transmission lines
Power Systems I

Generator Models
Generator may be modeled in three different ways
Power Injection Model - the real, P, and reactive, Q, power of the generator is specified at the node that the generator is connected
either the voltage or injected current is specified at the connected node, allowing the other quantity to be determined

Thevenin Model - induced AC voltage, E, behind the synchronous reactance, Xd E Xd Node Norton Model - injected AC current, IG, in parallel with the synchronous reactance

IG

Xd
Power Systems I

Node

Transformer Model
Equivalent circuit of a two winding transformer

R1

X1

N1 : N2

R2

X2

V1

E1 Rc Xm

E2

V2

Power Systems I

Transformer Model
Approximate circuit referred to the primary

REQ1

XEQ1

V1

Rc

Xm

N1 V2 = V2 N2

Power Systems I

Load Models
Models are selected based on both the type of analysis and the load characteristics Constant impedance, Zload
Load is made up of R, L, and C elements connected to a network node and the ground (or neutral point of the system)

Constant current, Iload

The load has a constant current magnitude I, and a constant power factor, independent of the nodal voltage Also considered as a current injection into the network

Constant power, Sload

The load has a constant real, P, and reactive, Q, power component independent of nodal voltage or current injection Also considered as a negative power injection into the network
Power Systems I

Per Unit System

Almost all power system analyses are performed in perunits x ( engr. unit )

x per unit ( pu ) =

engineering ( actual )

xbase ( engr. unit )

x% = 100

Per unit system for power systems

Based on a per-phase, wye-connect, three-phase system 3-phase power base, S3
common power base is 100 MVA

Line-to-line voltage base, VLL

voltage base is usually selected from the equipment rated voltage

I Lbase =

S3 base 3 VLLbase
S1 base

Phase current base, IL Phase impedance base, Z

Power Systems I

Z base

(VLLbase )2 = (VLN base )2 =

S3 base

Per Unit System

Equipment impedances are frequently given in per units or percentages of the impedance base
The impedance base for equipment is derived from the rated power and the rated voltage When modeling equipment in a system, the per unit impedance must be converted so that the equipment and the system are on a common base

Z old pu Z
new pu

old Z Sbase = old = Z old 2 Z base (Vbase )

new Z pu

(V )

new base new 2 base

(V )
S

new Z Sbase = new = Z new 2 Z base (Vbase )

old 2 base old base

old pu

=Z

old pu

S S

new base old base

V V

old base new base

It is normal for the voltage bases to be the same: Z

Power Systems I

new pu

=Z

old pu

new Sbase old Sbase

Per Unit System

The advantages of the per unit system for analysis
Gives a clear idea of relative magnitudes of various quantities The per-unit impedance of equipment of the same general type based upon their own ratings fall in a narrow range regardless of the rating of equipment.
Whereas their impedances in ohms vary greatly with the ratings.

The per-unit impedance, voltages, and currents of transformers are the same regardless of whether they are referred to the primary or the secondary side.
Different voltage levels disappear across the entire system. The system reduces to a system of simple impedances

The circuit laws are valid in per-unit systems, and the power and voltages equations are simplified since the factors of 3 and 3 are eliminated in the per-unit system
Power Systems I

Per Unit System

Example
the one-line diagram of a three-phase power system is shown use a common base of 100 MVA and 22 kV at the generator
draw an impedance diagram with all impedances marked in per-unit the manufacturers data for each apparatus is given as follows
G: T1: L1: T2: T3: L2: T4: M: Ld: Power Systems I 90 MVA 50 MVA 48.4 ohms 40 MVA 40 MVA 65.43 ohms 40 MVA 66.5 MVA 57 MVA 22 kV 22/220 kV 220/11 kV 22/110 kV 110/11 kV 10.45 kV 10.45 kV 18% 10% 6% 6.4% 8% 18.5% 0.6 pf lag

G T1 L1 T2 T3 L2 T4

Ld