Corus Automotive

www.corusautomotive.com
Care has been taken to ensure that this information is accurate, but Corus Group plc, and its subsidiaries, does not accept responsibility or liability for errors or information which is found to be misleading. Copyright 2007 Corus UK Limited

Pocket book of steel

Your complete reference guide to steel in the automotive industry

Corus Automotive IARC Building University of Warwick Coventry CV4 7AL t: +44 (0) 2476 241 200

Foreword
by Philippe Varin, Chief Executive of Corus
I am delighted to welcome you to this Pocket book of steel and hope that you will nd it packed with useful information on the role and importance of steel in the automotive industry. Since Corus was formed in 1999, we have been providing customers and others across the industry with knowledge and information about our products, services and technologies. This pocket book is the latest step in presenting steels credentials to a challenging market sector. It describes the issues that drive Corus to develop purpose-designed automotive steels for lightweight, durable, high-quality and cost-effective automotive body structures, power-train components, chassis frames and many other vehicle applications. It also provides background on how steel is processed for its wide range of applications and the steel technologies that are essential for modern car making. Our hope in producing this book is that it will not just inform, but provide a basis for deeper and more sustainable dialogue and understanding between us. With around 16 per cent of our total turnover coming from the automotive sector more than 2bn we are committed to our automotive customers, who trust us to deliver Value in steel.

Contents
Corus in automotive Steel: the basics Steel in cars The multi-materials car Steelmaking Chemical compositions Characteristics Steel types From steelworks to assembly line Automotive industry issues Drivers for change The history of the car Safety Environment Weight and cost reduction Quality and service Corus in action: Case studies Steel R&D technologies Looking to the future About Corus Glossary 4-7 8-23 10-11 12-13 14-15 16 17 18-19 20-23 24-41 24-25 26-27 28-31 32-35 36-39 40-41 42-47 48-53 54-57 58-59 60-63

Corus in Automotive: Working in partnership

Corus in automotive

Working in partnership making a difference

With 16 per cent of our business in the automotive sector, Corus is committed to this industry. Corus combines its materials knowledge, automotive engineering expertise and manufacturing-process innovation to offer its customers unique solutions. We help customers to produce cost-effective, lighter weight, higher quality vehicles.
Corus works in partnership with customers, offering advanced technology and hands-on help at pre-development, design engineering and production stages. This helps facilitate improvements in the design, manufacture and durability of cars, enhancing their appearance, performance and endof-life recyclability. We understand the industry challenges Be it changes in emissions, safety performance legislation, the contemporary needs of car designers, or pushing the boundaries of material performance, we share knowledge and respond to the challenges of our automotive customers. Our aim is to help customers get the best value from every gram of steel they buy from us. By listening to customers, attending key European automotive forums and through focused market analysis, our specialists keep abreast of industry trends and look for opportunities to bring a new competitiveness or performance edge to automotive manufacturing through the specication and application of steel.
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When Ford was looking for ways to improve the crash performance and lightness of its latest Galaxy model, Corus was ready with its High Strength Steels and the advanced automotive engineering services needed to implement them in body structures. Just as the automotive industry was moving to eliminate hexavalent chromium commonly used in the production of adhesive coated metals, Corus was ready with Envirobond an alternative adhesive coating process for metal trim parts. When Mitsubishi wanted help to improve press-shop performance on its ve-door Colt model, Corus was ready with a unique portable measurement and analysis system, PHAST and In-Form, which helped NedCar to improve capability in its bodyside stamping process.

We listen, and we respond Sometimes, specic adjustments to material specications are needed to enhance the manufacturability and performance of specialised components. Corus supports new and ongoing vehicle and product development programmes, working with customers to develop tailored specications for their needs, and giving advice on the selection of steel t for task. When Xtrac approached Corus asking for gear steels with better impact resistance, machinability and carburising qualities, Corus offered to adjust the standard chemistry of its Hy-Tuf product, improving its chemical tolerances and cleanness. The resulting XMO materials enabled Xtrac to make narrower gears that can run at higher temperatures, requiring smaller oil-coolers and thereby improving the aerodynamics of the vehicle.

When Corus was asked for steels with better machinability by Wigpool a supplier of machined parts to motorcycle manufacturer Triumph Corus worked with the company to select Hitenspeed 65, a material that delivered machinability improvements to a factor of three, but with no loss of strength performance.

Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com

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Corus in Automotive: Making a difference

Making a difference
Our customers get value from every gram of steel they buy from us
We innovate Our customers dont just buy our metal, they buy the thinking and innovation that have gone into the development, distribution and technology needed to deploy that metal for its most effective use intelligent metal. One example of this is the CorusVegter materials model, for which data is made freely available on the internet for engineers studying how to form complex 3D parts from 2D blanks. This advanced data model bridges the gap in knowledge between how traditional steels stretch as they are pressed in a press shop, and how the particular properties of Advanced High Strength Steels modify this behaviour. Years of research and development have resulted in a model that is used directly inside the industry standard PAM-STAMP forming analysis software package. It is an innovation that improves the accuracy of simulated virtual prototypes. Improved condence in this process permits engineers to develop parts by computer simulation long before hardware prototypes are made, beneting original equipment manufacturers (OEMs) and their Tier suppliers. The model is easy to download from the Corus automotive website. We make a difference Corus realises that building longterm relationships with customers is key to our success. Our customers know that by involving Corus early in their new product development cycles, substantial savings can be made when their product eventually goes into production. We deliver To make cars efciently it is vital that supplies of parts and materials are delivered to OEMs and their Tier suppliers on time. Consistent quality, integrated supply chains and timely supply are all critical factors that need to be satised. To meet these needs, Corus has its own distribution network, including numerous pre-production capabilities at service centres around the world for de-coiling and blanking sheet steel. When BMW wanted to use extrathick sheet steel bodysides for its new Mini Cabriolet (compensating for the lack of roof), Corus was ready with a large-bed press blanking line, capable of pressing out blanks up to the required 3mm thickness. The Wedneseld Automotive Service Centre that supplied these blanks boasts a comprehensive line-up of dedicated automotive processing facilities. A range of automotive customers, including Land Rover, benet from the full-bodysidecapable 400 and 600-tonne blanking lines, and a Tailor Welded Blank facility to create blanks for door and body-structure parts. With all Corus service centres accredited to TS16949 quality standards, automotive component makers are enjoying the benets of signicant Corus investment. Corus distribution and service centres are sited throughout Europe. More recently, Corus Distribution has been responding to the gradual eastward migration of automotive manufacturing, setting up a service centre near Gyor in Hungary at the end of 2006.

Did you know? In the UK alone, Corus makes over 21,000 strip steel deliveries a year to automotive customers, most of it via the rail network.

Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/vegter

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Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com

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Steel - the basics

Steel the basics

Steel is a very special material. With the addition of tiny amounts of other elements, iron can be transformed into a versatile engineering metal capable of withstanding extreme gearbox pressures or the immense forces in a car crash.
In this section The following pages illustrate some of the basic facts about carbon steel and how its versatility enables it to be used throughout automotive manufacturing and endlessly recycled into new products. Steel in cars Illustrating the versatility of steel and the types of components and applications it is used for in cars. The multi-materials car Comparing steels physical properties with those of other materials used in the manufacture of a passenger car. Steelmaking Describing how steel is made using one of two main production methods, outlining the benets of each. Chemical compositions Explaining how the chemical composition of steel affects its strength and other properties. Characteristics Describing how the different characteristics of steel are used to best advantage in automotive manufacturing. Steel types Explaining the differences between types of steel and what they mean for automotive manufacturing. From steelworks to car plant Outlining the processes that transform steel into myriad automotive components.
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Did you know? Steel is the most widely recycled engineering material in the world. It can be recycled over and over again without loss of properties.

Page 10-11

Page 12-13

Page 14-15

Page 16

Page 17

Page 18-19

Page 20-23

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Steel - the basics: Steel in cars

Steel in cars
Steel accounts for more than 50 per cent of the weight of an average passenger car. The major applications are shown here.
Electroplated strip for brake and fuel lines, and electrical parts Thick section strip and tube for structural reinforcements and seat structures Deep drawing quality steels for complex shapes Deep drawing quality for surface appearance

Electrical steels for starter motors and alternators Gear steels tuned for machinability and hardenability

High Strength Steels for crash performance

Alloy steel rod for high-temperature applications, eg. engine valves Ultra-clean steels for precision parts, eg. diesel injectors Steel tubes for hydroformed subframes and other chassis parts
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Bake-hardenable steel for door skins and bonnets Engineering services to prove out materials Ultra High Strength selection and Steels for B pillars engineering solutions. Steel for chassis bolts Services to make and and rivets weld blanks for vehicle Advanced High Strength Steels for lighter vehicle structures structural parts. R&D services to assist selection of materials for formability and weldability.

High-grade wire rod drawn into tyre cord

Aluminium-coated strip for exhausts Spring steels for suspension components Billets for suspension and engine part forgings

Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/en/products

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Steel - the basics: The multi-materials car

The multi-materials car

A brief guide to the materials that make up the cars of today.
A car is built from many different materials, although the main structure known as the Body In White (BIW) is usually made of steel pressings welded together to form a strong and stiff frame. This method of construction accounts for 99.9 per cent of all the cars produced in the world. The remaining 0.1 per cent are mostly constructed with an aluminium BIW, while a very small number (less than 0.01 per cent) are constructed from carbon-bre composite (see Fig. 2 opposite). Fig. 1 Fig. 1 8% 6% 4% 3% The material properties of steel (with its wide range of yield strength combined with high modulus) together with ease of manufacture and low cost, mean that steelintensive vehicles have by far the largest share of the market. The high cost of alternative materials such as aluminium or composites mean that steels position as the rst-choice material is secure. The BIW of a vehicle accounts for 20 per cent of the vehicle mass. The weight of the closures (doors, bonnet and boot/rear hatch), chassis (suspension parts) and driveline bring the total amount of steel and other ferrous metals to more than 60 per cent (see Fig. 1). In recent years, the amount of ferrous metal has declined, mostly driven by manufacturers replacing iron with aluminium for engine castings. The percentage of sheet steel per car has also dropped, mainly due to: Higher levels of equipment, trim and soundproong. More aluminium used in wheels and suspension parts. More moulded plastics, especially under the bonnet. The environmental and economic requirements for reduced fuel consumption have also led to an increase in the use of lightweight materials for components that bolt on to a conventional steel vehicle, but at a cost: see Table 1 opposite. Fig. 2 Vehicle production vs vehicle price vs market share

Carbon bre Aluminium Vehicle price Euro (x1000) Steel <0.01% <0.1% >99.9%

Annual production (x 1000 units) Source of Fig. 2 and Table 1: Corus Table 1: Alternative materials - potential weight saving vs cost steel (kg) Body in white
(BIW)

11% 56% 12%

steel 56% plastics 11% aluminium 6% glass 3% iron 12% others 8% rubber 4%

aluminium magnesium (kg) (kg)

% weight reduction (part) (vehicle)

example vehicle mass of 1700kg

% cost increase (part)

285

218

N/A

23.5

3.90

250

Source: SMMT 2001 report

Bonnet (assembly) Door

(assembly)

14.8

8.3

N/A

44

0.48
example vehicle mass of 1350kg

300

Did you know? The human body contains 4.2g of iron, enough to make a piece of car door 27mm x 27mm.
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15.7

9.5

N/A

39

example vehicle mass of 1550kg

0.40

275

IP Beam

(instrument panel support)

11.4

N/A

6.3

45

0.33
example vehicle mass of 1550kg

350

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Steel - the basics: Steelmaking

Steelmaking
Here we explain the principal commercial methods for making steel: Basic Oxygen Steelmaking (BOS) and the Electric Arc Furnace (EAF).
Since BOS relies on a supply of liquid iron from a blast furnace, we must rst describe iron making. Iron ore (iron oxides), coke and limestone are fed into a blast furnace where they are heated to around 15000 C. At this temperature carbon monoxide is formed by the reactions of coke and limestone with furnace gases. The lime now acts as a uxing agent, removing impurities in the form of a slag which oats on Blast furnace top of the iron. Carbon monoxide reacts with iron ore to give molton iron, which collects at the bottom of the furnace. The resulting carbonrich pig iron is then poured off and transported to the BOS plant. Basic Oxygen Steelmaking In the BOS process, steel is made by blowing oxygen into liquid iron using a water-cooled lance. Oxygen reacts with excess carbon and other impurities, which are released as gases. This exothermic reaction takes place under alkaline conditions (i.e. basic), with the rise in temperature controlled to some extent by the addition of scrap steel. A steelworks that makes steel by this route and shares a site with a blast furnace for the provision of liquid iron is known as an integrated steelworks. The BOS process is used where large volumes of similar steel types are required. It is the most common route for making formable strip steels for car bodyshells and ultraclean steels with low residuals for products such as tyre cord and valve springs. These steels have low levels of trace elements, which make them ideal for forming into body panels and other thin-section, deep-drawn parts.
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Electric Arc Furnace steelmaking The Electric Arc Furnace (EAF) process is simpler and more exible. The process uses electric current to produce a high-temperature arc inside a furnace containing scrap steel. One furnace can be used to produce smaller batches of a wider variety of steel types than the BOS process. While the feedstock for the BOS process is molten pig iron, for the EAF process it is almost 100 per cent steel scrap resulting in steel being the most recycled engineering material in the world. The EAF process is preferred for making specialist steels such as heat-treatable forging billets, hightemperature alloys and stainless steels. Secondary steelmaking The steel from either BOS or EAF then goes through a series of operations while still liquid, which can include vacuum degassing, argon stirring and the addition of other metallic alloying elements by powder injection. Fine tuning of the steel chemistry in this way allows the steelmaker to produce thousands of grades of steel from the same basic composition. The steel is then poured by a continuous-casting process to form a range of thickness known as slabs, blooms or billets.

Further processing Billets may be supplied directly to forgers for hot forging components such as crankshafts, camshafts and connecting rods, or hot rolled into sections for reinforcement brackets and door hinges. However, most steel for automotive use is supplied in the form of sheet, ranging in thickness from 0.5mm to 4mm, in widths up to two metres. This sheet is produced by hot rolling a slab, with the resultant oxide surface being removed by pickling in an acid bath. For optimum mechanical properties and control of surface nish, most automotive sheet steel is cold rolled. A corrosion-preventing metallic coating, usually zinc based, is then applied by electro or hot-dip galvanizing. Cold-rolled sheet requires heat treatment (annealing) that is often carried out within the coating process, before a nal cold roll (temper rolling). Sheet steel is rolled into coils weighing up to 20 tonnes for shipment by road or rail. Electric arc furnace

Find out more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility

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Steel - the basics: Chemical compositions

Steel - the basics: Characteristics

Chemical compositions
Alloying elements are added to steel to create the desired strength and formability properties for specic automotive components.
Iron atoms Interstitial atoms (carbon, nitrogen) Steel for automotive purposes is made up of iron (generally more than 99 per cent) and a range of other alloying elements, the most important of which is carbon. Under a microscope, at x1000 magnication it can be seen that steel is actually made up of tiny crystals known as grains. These grains of steel are formed when liquid steel cools to a solid, the atoms of iron within each grain, aligning in a precise crystalline array. The size, shape and composition of these grains has a major effect on the strength and formability of the steel. A carbon atom is smaller than an iron atom, and provides a strengthening mechanism by sitting between the iron atoms, preventing the rows of atoms sliding over one another. At carbon levels below 0.001 per cent, the steel is known as interstitial free (IF) and therefore has a low yield strength. Other alloying elements, such as phosphorous or vanadium, have larger atoms that strengthen by substitution for an iron atom. This is known as solid-solution strengthening. Steel manufacturers combine this with other techniques to produce steel with an optimum balance of properties.
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Characteristics
Steel offers an impressive range of properties to meet the demands of every automotive application.

Steel for use in automotive applications ranges from the most formable grades with a low yield strength of 140 N/mm to ultrahigh-strength tyre-cord steel with a strength of 2,500 N/mm. Some grades have specialised processing for a specic end use, such as super-clean steels for use in fuel injection systems and forging grades for crankshafts, camshafts and connecting rods. Grades specic to connecting rods, for example, can be deliberately fracture split as part of the manufacturing process. A key requirement for sheet steel intended for use in automotive pressings is that it is formable, so that it can be stretched without undue thinning in a press to form complex shapes. Softer grades of steel, having low yield strength, tend to be highly formable but lack the strength needed for the main loadbearing members of a vehicle. Higher-strength steel parts may be more difcult to form, since they do not stretch so readily, but offer potential for weight reduction.

Substitutional atom (eg. phosphorous, vanadium) Source of diagrams above and below: Corus

Above: Automotive crankshaft hot forged from a steel billet. Component shown is from an in-line six-cylinder engine. Below: A tailgate inner pressing

Steel grade DP600 through microscope at x1000 magnication

Find out more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility

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Steel - the basics: Steel types

Steel types
Steel grades fall into a number of general types, each suitable for different categories of component in a car.
As well as solid-solution strengthening, steel manufacturers can use a range of techniques to make higher-performance steels. These techniques include grain renement, work hardening, precipitation hardening and heat treatment. Using these techniques, sheet steels can be developed with the ideal combination of formability and strength for specic automotive applications. For example, Fig. 3 below demonstrates the range of formability (elongation) and yield strength for a wide range of automotive sheet steel types. (Yield strength is dened as the point at which the steel begins to permanently stretch or deform.) Fig. 3 Types of sheet steel Each ellipse below represents the grades available within each steel type or family. The name for each family see Table 2 reects the method by which the steel achieves its formability or strength. Table 2: Steel types Type IF BH HSLA CMn DP Boron TRIP MART TWIP Description Interstitial Free Bake Hardening High Strength - Low Alloy Carbon Manganese Dual Phase Boron steel Transformation Induced Stress N/mm2 Plasticity Martensitic Twinning Induced Plasticity Strength range Ultra High Strength Steels, for safety-critical parts, especially for maintaining a passenger survival space in crash events Fig. 4 below illustrates the properties of three different grades of sheet steel, and identies where in a vehicle structure they are most likely to be found. The highest strength steel shown here has a yield strength (at point X) of 800N/mm roughly equal to eight tonnes per square centimetre.

Source of diagrams Fig. 3 and Fig. 4: Corus Fig. 4 Application of types of sheet steel

(X)
High Strength Steels with a good balance of strength, formability, energy absorption and durability
600

Yield strength N/mm2

Ultra High Strength Steel

Steels with excellent formability, eg. for deep drawing

High Strength Steel Formable steel 10 20 30 40 50 Elongation % Elongation %

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Steel - the basics: From steelworks to assembly line

From steelworks to assembly line

A range of secondary processes is used to give a steel component its nal properties and shape.
Heat treatment Heat treatment alters the mechanical properties of metal, improving ductility or strength or a combination of both. Annealing at around 6000 C is used to remove the work hardening that results from cold rolling creating a softer, more formable steel. Quenching (rapid cooling) of steel from a temperature of around 7500 C results in the formation of (very hard) martensite. Bake-hardening (BH) steels gain additional strength as the pressed components (such as outer panels and closures) go through the paint oven after painting. Coatings Coil-applied coatings (i.e. applied at the steelworks) for automotive use are generally metallic and based on zinc, aluminium, copper and tin. Zinc coatings are used to enhance corrosion resistance, while other
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metal coatings can enhance wear resistance and electrical conductivity or promote adhesion. It is now possible for a vehicle manufacturer to offer 30-year anti-perforation warranties due to the combined performance of coilapplied metallic coatings and paintshop applied organic coatings.

Blanking Steel strip leaves the steelworks in the form of coils. The process of de-coiling and cutting the strip into shapes ready for pressing into threedimensional components is known as blanking. Blanks of different thicknesses, grades or coatings can be welded together. These Tailor Welded Blanks (TWBs) are typically used for parts that need additional strength and stiffness in applications such as door inners, reinforcing the areas where hinges and locks are attached.

Forming Press forming converts at sheet steel into the three-dimensional shapes used to generate complex parts and box sections in a cars body in white (BIW). Sheet steel blanks are inserted into a press, the outer edge of the sheet is clamped and the sheet stamped between a male and a female die. To obtain a deep section requires extra metal, which is pulled from the clamped region; the part is then described as drawn. Very deep shapes, such as door inners or spare-wheel wells, are deep drawn and require the most formable grades of steel. The higher-strength steel used in modern cars requires presses with higher press forces. Press Hardening, also known as die-quenching, is similar to press forming, but in the press-hardening process the steel is rst heated to 9500 C and simultaneously pressed and quenched in the die to produce a very strong martensitic steel. Roll forming is a process where sheet metal is progressively folded to shape through a series of rollers.
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Did you know? The highest strength steel in everyday use is the cold-drawn wire used for piano wire and tyre cord a 12mm diameter cable made from this wire is strong enough to lift a 30tonne truck.

Did you know? A 283mm x 230mm bloom measuring four metres long can be rolled into a coil of rod measuring up to 11 km long (for 5.5mm diameter rod) and weighing 2.2 tonnes.

Steel - the basics: From steelworks to assembly line

From steelworks to assembly line

The resulting proles are used for seat rails and chassis rails for trucks. Hydroforming can be used to form tube or sheet steel. In tube hydroforming, a tube is lled with uid and pressurised. The tube then expands to match the shape of an external die. Chassis frames, subframes and instrument panel support beams are examples of hydroformable parts. Forging Engine parts such as camshafts, crankshafts and piston connecting rods are examples of parts made by forging. In the forging process, a steel billet is rst heated in a furnace. The red-hot billet is then transferred to a press where it is progressively stamped into shape between two dies. The steel forging produced is close to the nal part shape and therefore requires little machining. The ow of material in the forging process results in a preferred grain structure, enhancing both toughness and fatigue performance.

Joining Commonly used joining techniques in automotive assembly include spot welding, laser welding, hybrid welding, arc welding, adhesive bonding, mechanical joining and brazing. Efcient and reliable joining is a critical technology in the assembly of automotive structures, and the quality of joins can greatly affect the durability of the nished product. Joining of dissimilar metals (eg. steel to aluminium) is an emerging technology, as carmakers tune weight distribution to enhance a vehicles handling or stability. Machining As well as forgings, steel in the form of rod, bar and tube is machined to produce a wide range of powertrain and suspension components, such as gear shafts, stub axles and constant-velocity joints. Typical machining operations are cutting, milling, boring and grinding. Grinding provides the high surface nish required for the longevity of plain bearings and oil seals.

Free-cutting engineering steels are designed to enable the rapid removal of metal during machining, and to prolong tool life. Surface treatment Wear resistance of bearing surfaces or cylinder bores can be increased by a number of chemical, thermal and mechanical methods. One popular method is nitriding where a heated component is immersed in nitrogen-rich uid. The atoms of nitrogen that diffuse into the surface of the steel increase surface hardness without causing embrittlement. A mechanical method, such as shot peening (hammering with metal beads), leaves residual compressive stresses in the surface of the component, which considerably improves fatigue performance.

Fracture splitting Connecting rod big ends are bolted together to produce a strong and stiff circular housing for the big end bearing shells. These big ends can be made by fracture splitting using a grade of steel that, under the right conditions, breaks cleanly to provide precision-matching surfaces. This method reduces the number of further machining operations and is a good example of material choice enabling lean manufacturing.

Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/hydroforming

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Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/publications

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Automotive industry issues: Drivers for change

Automotive industry issues

Drivers for change
Steelmakers need to work closely with carmakers to develop advanced materials that respond to the issues that drive the automotive industry.
In this section This section explains how materials suppliers like Corus are changing to help carmakers through the development of new products helping them to meet the challenges they face in the areas of: Safety Environment Weight and cost reduction Quality and service The main drivers of change in the global automotive industry are: Marketing & brand management for product differentiation and image Cost reduction - improving development & production processes and introducing new technology. Legislation - the need to meet rising safety, emissions and environmental challenges Feature content - to satisfy increasing consumer expectations For steelmakers, satisfying the demands created by these drivers means developing new materials and more efcient processes. It also means building a good working knowledge of the industries that their materials are supplied into. The natural consequence is that steelmakers must maintain constant dialogue with carmakers, and work collaboratively with them. Carmakers are acutely aware that good and early selection of materials is essential to the integrity of a vehicles structure and the effectiveness of manufacturing processes. The combination of these demands and the constant pressure to bring cars to market faster, means that steelmakers like Corus are taking an increasingly active role in recommending the optimum steels for particular engineering applications. All participants in the vehicle design process now accept that the cost of developing new platforms is mostly committed before designs are xed and any tooling metal is cut. This increases the reliance on ever more accurate computer simulation methods.

Legislative changes
The diagram below shows the timetable for some of the anticipated global legislation that is driving change in the industry. This legislation covers: Occupant safety making cars safer for their passengers. Pedestrian safety increasing the chances of survival for pedestrians hit by cars. Emissions meeting legislative targets. End of Life Vehicle Directive (ELVD) reducing landll by recovery and reuse of vehicle mass (85 per cent by 2006, 95 per cent by 2015).

Dates and targets below are subject to continual revision.

2010 Pedestrian Protection Directive 2003/102/EC: Phase II 2010 Upgrade to FMVSS216 increased roof crush load 2010 Euro 5 emissions: diesel particulates 80% reduction, petrol NOx & HC 25% reduction 2010 NCAP to begin testing active safety systems for collision avoidance

2006 Car manufacturers will achieve waste recovery target of 85% 2006 Granulated tyres banned from landll 2007 Cost free take-back, all vehicles 01/2007 85% reuse/recycle 2007 Upgrade FMVSS208 increased impact speed (mid-sized dummy) 2008 New vehicle target 140g/km CO2 (new cycle) 2008 FMVSS202 rear impact head restraint 2009 Revised FMVSS214 (side impact) - new dummies, pole test

2006
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2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015
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2015 95% per vehicle mass reused/ recovered, 85% per vehicle mass reused/recycled

2013 Computer simulation to supplement testing for legislative assessment? 2013 Legislation changes due to harmonisation?

2012 New vehicle target 120g/km CO2 (new cycle)

2011 Publication of European crash compatibility legislation?

Automotive industry issues: History of the car

The history of the car

This timeline demonstrates how changes in legislation, technology and the market in the automotive industry have driven material development and application.
Start of transportation for the masses Advancements in steel quality & pressing techniques Volkswagen Beetle Oil shortages

Steel became the material of choice as soon as mass production and moving production lines dramatically lowered the cost of vehicle manufacture in the early

20th century. The challenge for steelmakers has been to keep pace with the ever increasing rate of technological change in this dynamic industry.
Green issues Safety/product liability issues

Increased use of higher strength steels & improvements in design optimisation techniques

Citroen 2 CV Morris Minor

Citroen DS Mini

Chevrolet Corvair Jaguar E-Type

Range Rover VW Golf Fiat Ritmo/Strada Renault Espace Toyota Prius

BMW 5/6 series

Austin 7
Dodge
Ford model T

Fiat 500 Topolino Willys Jeep

Lancia Lambda

Citroen Traction Avant

Panhard Dyna Z 1965 Compulsory tting of front seat belts (EU) 1968 Compulsory tting of front seat belts (US)

Porsche 911

Lotus Elise

Renault Laguna

1910
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1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1960

1970

1980

1990

1996 First bonded structure 1997 Start of European New Car Assessment Programme. Public awareness of safety issues 2001 First car to achieve 5 star NCAP 2003 First aluminium/steel hybrid body 2000 2010
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1940 First four wheel drive multi-purpose vehicle

1914 First mass-produced all-steel body

1980s Start of use of Finite Element Analysis & Computer Aided Design

1975 First fully galvanised steel body 1978 Start of US NCAP 1978 First fully robotised body assembly

1920 Hydraulic braking was introduced.

1933 First mass-produced monocoque

1923 First monocoque body structure

1954 First mass-produced aluminium monocoque

1958 First European crash regulation

1973 Static side crush test (US)

1910 Start of mass production

1974 First air bags tted

Automotive industry issues: Safety

Safety for vehicle occupants

Most new cars now achieve a ve-star rating for Euro-NCAP (European New Car Assessment Programme) performance in protecting vehicle occupants from collisions. In future, further stars may be awarded for other test cases, such as rear impact, roll over or crash compatibility.
The increasing array of crashtest scenarios will require more sophisticated crash structures that take account of a wider range of potential accidents. To meet the changing requirements placed upon a vehicle to protect its occupants, there have been many innovations in passive safety devices such as air-bags, knee-bolsters and anti-submarining seats. Together these life-saving devices work to protect occupants if they are unfortunate enough to be involved in an accident. The body structure of modern vehicles has developed from the simple crumple-zone approach of the 1980s to become a sophisticated load and energy management device, providing not only for dayto-day in-service performance, but also for the extreme conditions of a crash event. As well as contributing to the manufacture of these components, Corus assists vehicle manufacturers and their suppliers in developing materials and application technologies that reduce cost while meeting the increasing demands for safety in ever-shorter development times.
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Safety for side impact

Safety in side impact is a key automotive design requirement, covered by extensive legislation and consumer testing in each of the major world markets.

The basic principles of side-impact design require the control of vehicle intrusion, intrusion prole and intrusion rate. This is typically achieved using a strong B-pillar structure which pivots around the connection with the roof and deects more at the base, while avoiding collapse in the middle. Manufacturers employ a number of strategies for achieving the desired performance, ranging from using High Strength Steels and fewer parts to using lower strength grades but with more parts and thicker gauges. A good illustration is the extent to which press-hardened boron steel is used in B-pillar structures. Boron steel parts offer very high strength and are hot-formed, which enables complex shapes to be made, facilitating a reduction in the number of parts required. The disadvantages are high forming costs, slow process times and more complex joining and coating. High Strength Steel parts offer an alternative to boron steel. These steel grades also provide good performance and are cold pressed, giving faster production times. Forming and joining are more demanding than with conventional steel, and there is little scope for reducing the number of parts. Lower-strength steel structures can also be used but are more difcult to engineer to achieve the desired performance. Thicker gauges and more parts are required, leading to heavier vehicles with less internal packaging space. The ideal material for side-impact protection would be a low-cost, high-strength grade that can be formed, joined and coated easily. Corus continues to develop their products towards this goal. In the meantime, vehicle designers are using their expertise to nd solutions that still give the desired performance.

Image courtesy of Essex County Fire & Rescue Service

By using its computer simulation expertise to predict the effects of these changing requirements upon the vehicle structure, Corus is able to dene the best materials, manufacturing and assembly methods. It is anticipated that the increased condence in virtual testing as engineering analysis models become more sophisticated will lead to crash testing of only the worst-case scenarios.

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Automotive industry issues: Safety

Safety for pedestrians

In the European Union, around 8,000 pedestrians and cyclists are killed and around 300,000 are injured each year in road trafc accidents. In October 2005, the European Union enforced Phase I legislation (2003/102/EC) aiming to minimise pedestrian injuries.
Vehicles now have to be more compliant to pedestrians and meet legislative impact criteria, protecting leg and head in simulated collisions. Phase I of the legislation is already posing major challenges for vehicle manufacturers. Pedestrian safety has a signicant inuence on styling, under-bonnet packaging and structure crushability. Vehicle bonnets, fronts and bumpers must now deform at lower loads over longer distances, requiring additional package space and revised components. Achieving this space and stiffness at the same time as making the vehicle aesthetically pleasing and considering all other design requirements, is extremely challenging. Advanced computer simulation capabilities and detailed materials knowledge have enabled Corus to work with OEMs and their Tier suppliers to develop new concepts for vehicle bonnets, wings and bumpers that satisfy these requirements Phase II legislation is being discussed at the European Commission and should be conrmed in the near future. Initial texts are suggesting more stringent safety targets with an enforcement date of 2010. It is expected that pedestrian safety design will continue to be a signicant requirement, being incorporated into new model types very early in the vehicle programme. Corus is investigating the technological requirements to meet this more demanding legislation.

Safety at the roadside

In addition to the demands of vehicle safety, Corus is keen to help improve safety on the roadside by developing ever-more advanced vehicle-restraint systems.
The rst of a new set of six parts of standard EN1317 was released in 2004 by the European Commission. This consolidated the previously disparate standards for roadside safety fences and bridge parapets, also known as vehicle restraints. The other parts of the standard will come into force by 2010. Corus is a key contributor to the technical debate that will ensure the new standards address the safety issues on our roads. Corus has been a vehicle-restraint system manufacturer for more than 40 years, testing and producing the safety fences and bridge parapets that have become a familiar sight on our major road networks. Corus applies its computer-simulation technology to solve the complex problems of redirecting errant vehicles from high-energy collisions with roadside obstructions. The fruit Find out more: www.corusconstruction.com/saferoads
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of this work is a series of products that are already contributing to safer roads. The Corus portfolio includes products ranging from motorway safety barriers to high-containment bridge parapets.

An innovative Corus bumper solution that protects pedestrians legs

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Automotive industry issues: Environment

End of Life Vehicle Directive (ELVD)

Table 3: Evaluation of a clutch pedal Design Advantages Disadvantages High mass, moderate tooling cost, poor NVH Piece Mass cost (euro) (kg) 2.81 0.58

Steel Recyclable, fabrication low parts cost, stiff, robust

Plastic injection moulding

Low mass, good for complex shapes, good NVH Recyclable, low parts cost, robust, stiff

Poor recycling, 3.51 high parts cost, low stiffness, not robust

0.30

The use of steel for an increasing range of components is helping carmakers to improve vehicle recyclability and meet the demands of legislation.
Carmakers have a real challenge on their hands. In an effort to reduce landll, the End of Life Vehicle Directive (ELVD) legislation states that from early 2007, 85 per cent of the mass of any new car sold in the EU must be recycled or reused. By the end of 2015 this target rises to 95 per cent. Corus is working to maximise the benet of recycling steel, using its materials and engineering expertise. Advances in steel technology over recent years mean that components like fuel tanks, pedals, engine covers, uid reservoirs and front-end structures can now revert costeffectively from plastics back to steel to improve recyclability. Research shows that if just 25 components in a modern car were to revert from plastic to steel, it could increase the vehicles recyclability by ve per cent. When it comes to car components, sustainability involves nding more cost-effective ways of using recyclable steel. A recent vehicle engineering study by Corus on designs for a clutch pedal in aluminium, plastic and steel demonstrates that improving recyclability need not have an adverse effect on cost or performance (see Table 3 opposite). Carmakers will increasingly need this type of support from materials suppliers as the ELVD legislation comes into force.

Steel pressing

High mass, 2.20 high tooling cost, not suited to complex shapes High parts 4.20 cost, poor NVH (noise, vibration and harshness)

0.39

Aluminium Recyclable, alloy low mass, low tooling cost, robust, good for complex shapes Source of Table 3: Corus

0.36

Wonder material More than 400 million tonnes of steel is recycled globally every year. It is the most widely recycled engineering material in the world. Around 40 per cent of the worlds production of new steel is made from steel recyclate. Like water, steel can be recycled over and over again without performance degradation.

Did you know? Analysis shows that if just 25 key components were converted back to steel from plastics, it would increase vehicle recyclability by ve per cent.

Find our more: http://ec.europa.eu/environment/waste/elv_index.htm

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Automotive industry issues: Environment

Sustainable solutions
ELVD legislation demands that carmakers remove harmful substances from vehicles, including hexavalent chromium, lead, mercury and cadmium.
Hexavalent chromium is commonly used in the production of adhesivecoated metals. Corus has developed a unique hexavalent chromiumfree adhesive-coated metal called Envirobond, for use in a wide range of automotive applications. Going the extra mile In recent years, improvements in the selection of raw materials and better process controls mean that primary steelmaking by-products now meet strict quality standards. As a result, these by-products are being used as secondary materials in sectors such as cement and chemicals manufacture. This results in non-renewable primary raw materials being conserved. A good example is blast-furnace slag, a by-product from the production of pig iron in a blast furnace. For years this was considered as waste and ended up in landll. Corus has optimised its iron-making processes and invested in granulation facilities to generate tightly specied slag products, which are now used as a valuable secondary raw material in the cement industry. This approach helps to conserve non-renewable resources such as limestone, and signicantly reduces emissions of CO2.

Ultra Low CO2 Steelmaking (ULCOS)

The steel industry accounts for six per cent of all man-made CO2 emissions and is therefore in the frontline of efforts to combat global warming.
Although typical CO2 emissions per tonne of steel are now around 50 per cent lower than 40 years ago, more needs to be done. This requires both a short-term effort on incremental reduction and a long-term strategy to nd innovative ways to reduce carbon gas emissions. This effort is being spearheaded by the European steelmakers who have launched the Ultra-Low Carbon Steelmaking programme (ULCOS), which is examining a range of radical technologies to reduce the steel industrys emissions. In addition to the European steel companies, consortium members include other industries, universities and research institutes who bring a fresh perspective to the issues faced by steelmakers. Corus is a major partner in ULCOS whose short to medium term emphasis is on reducing emissions incrementally, wherever this can be achieved in a cost-effective way. Although more than 80 per cent of emissions from Coruss integrated steelworks are irreducible process emissions, the combustion-related CO2 emissions are closely linked with energy use. In recent years, Corus has been successful in signicantly reducing the amount of energy used to make each tonne of steel. The restructuring of UK operations, which involved rationalising steelmaking activities from six sites in 2001 to four at the end of 2005, has played a substantial part in this.

Envirobond provides an alternative for components where pre-applied reactivatable adhesives are required, such as weather strips for door linings, sunroofs, bonnets, boots, body side mouldings, brake shims and interior trims. Envirobond is capable of meeting the stringent quality requirements demanded by the industry, without any loss of corrosion or adhesion performance. It can be used on a full range of metal substrates for bonding to plastics and rubbers in many automotive applications.

Find our more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility/environment/

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Find our more: www.corusgroup.com/en/responsibility/environment/

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Automotive industry issues: Weight and cost reduction

Weight and cost reduction

More than 25 per cent of all European emissions of CO2 result from the use of transport. One of the ways to reduce fuel consumption and CO2 emissions is to reduce the weight of vehicles.
Corus Automotive has developed a proven approach for reducing cost and weight of both existing and new prototype vehicles, called VA/VE (Value Analysis/ Value Engineering). The value analysis part of this approach systematically evaluates the gauge, grade and coatings of vehicle body and chassis components, to identify materialsbased cost and weight reduction opportunities. The value engineering part of the process identies design change opportunities to reduce tooling and other manufacturing costs, while maintaining or enhancing structural performance. Using this approach, customers are assured of the optimum deployment of materials to achieve required performances at the lowest practical cost. Some examples of the output from previous VA/VE studies are shown in Table 4 below.

Fewer parts mean lower cost

By combining their knowledge of Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) and automotive engineering, Corus engineers are constantly looking for new applications that will reduce cost and weight for automotive customers.
Door inner Corus recognises the need for costeffective, lightweight solutions that Integrated DP800 do not compromise performance. reinforcement For this reason, the company strives to use its extensive materials knowledge to develop ideas for extracting the maximum benet out of the steel used. As part of its efforts, Corus has developed a one-piece AHSS door concept. The design integrates the intrusion beam, waist rail, lock and hinge reinforcements into a one-piece panel manufactured from DP800-grade steel. The reduced gauge gives a weight saving of 0.65kg/door, while maintaining the equivalent side-impact performance of the conventional design.

Door outer

Source of Table 4: Corus

Table 4: Output from previous VA/VE studies Vehicle Light van Corus task Saving potential VA/VE 70/vehicle 30/vehicle 20/vehicle 10/vehicle 10/vehicle & 10kg 30/vehicle & 16kg 150kg 50/vehicle & 9kg Approx saving/year 14m 3.6m 3m 2.5m 1.5m 22.5m N/A 7.5m

Did you know? A Smart Fortwo weighs more than a 1974 Mark I Golf.

4x4 chassis VA B segment C segment D segment C segment MPV C segment

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VA/VE VA VA/VE VA VA VA

Corus Automotive engineers working on a VA/VE subframe study

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Automotive industry issues: Weight and cost reduction

Vehicle weight in decline at last?

For an average-sized car driven 14,000 miles (22,000 km) in a year, four tonnes of CO2 are emitted. Lighter vehicles mean lower fuel consumption and trends nally seem to be moving in the right direction.
Vehicle weight has been increasing steadily over the last 40 years, as typied by the average C segment car (see Fig. 5). Cars in this segment have been getting heavier by ve to ten per cent at every model change, mostly driven by safety, stiffness and increased equipment levels. Table 5 shows how this weight increase (of 700kg) breaks down. The weight increase by segment is compounded by fashion trends people carriers, 4x4s and performance expectations. The popularity of these larger vehicles has slowed the rate of reduction of CO2 levels. Fig. 5 Weight increase year by year C segment car Vehicle weight the good news Social and economic pressures are now reversing the trend toward large vehicles. Most cars are now achieving 5 stars in the Euro-NCAP tests. Larger cars (especially in the luxury E segment) are levelling out on size and weight. In the C and D segments the rate of increase of vehicle weight is slowing and looks likely to reverse in the next ve to ten years The European Commission plan to ensure a new car average of 120g CO2/km by 2012 will result in strong competition and weight reduction in the high-volume B and C segments.

Table 5: Breakdown of 40 years of weight increases (700kg) Outcome Comments Contribution to weight increase (%) 30

Vehicle size Vehicle strength Vehicle stiffness Comfort/ renement Features/ equipment Occupant safety Performance Emissions Use of plastics Use of HSS/ AHSS

Latest Polo is the Longer, wider and taller same size as the 1974 Golf Safer and more durable Improved Noise, Vibration, Harshness (NVH) and handling Air Conditioning, NVH, seats In car entertainment, electrical EuroNCAP has raised consumer awareness Vehicle stiffness contributes to the quality feel The biggest recognisable change in vehicle quality The average car now contains more than 20 electric motors

25

15

13

Safety cell improveAirbags, pre-tensioners ment is included in vehicle strength Acceleration, handling and brakes Noxious emissions reduced by two orders of magnitude Plastics and rubber now account for 15% of a vehicle mass Includes fuel systems, powertrain and driveline. Bigger, thicker, exhausts now include catalysts
Many materials (aluminium, zinc, wood, steel) have been replaced by plastic

17 5 (-) 5

Rapidly increasing over Now accounts for over 50% of BIW and the past ve years closures Total

(-)5 100

Source of Table 5: Corus Cost effective lightweighting by the use of Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) will allow vehicle manufacturers to reverse model on model weight increases without recourse to expensive or environmentally unsound solutions. Diagram courtesy of Thatcham Find out more: www.acea.be/node
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The successful introduction of AHSS by European steelmakers, demonstrating material performance and supplier support through Early Vendor Involvement (EVI) and innovation, will ensure steel remains the rst choice material for automotive structures for the foreseeable future.

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Automotive industry issues: Quality and service

Quality and service

Every automotive component made from steel is designed and built to deliver a reliable and predictable service life. Steels mechanical properties of strength, cleanness and surface nish must be reliable if carmakers are to create their products cost effectively.
Manufacturing quality As soon as decisions are made about which steel grades to produce, product quality becomes a priority. Careful selection of raw materials, steelmaking process and renement and nishing processes all improve the quality of Corus steel products. Corus mills take great care to ensure that the dimensional, surface nish, strength and mechanical properties of every steel product that leaves its plants are within required tolerances. Distribution quality Once steel products have been made, it is essential that their hardwon quality is not compromised during the delivery process. One example of the way Corus controls the delivery quality of its steel is in its wire rod mill. Wire rod is used to manufacture an incredible range of automotive components including tyre reinforcement cord, valve springs, headrest supports, air bag and seatbelt wire and windscreenwiper components. Scratches on the surface of the rod can cause it to break during wire drawing, creating unacceptable production downtimes. As part of a 14m investment in its rod mill, Corus has introduced a state-of-the-art automated warehouse. Here, coils are protected from damage by storage in individual compartments, and manual handling is virtually eliminated. The results have been instant, with incidences of damaged rod dramatically reduced.

Services to support engineering, design and production quality Carmakers are increasingly seeking access to in-depth materials knowledge to assist in the selection of cost-effective materials, and to ensure a smooth transition from the design and development stages of carmaking into full production. Thats why the Corus team of design and engineering specialists (mostly recruited from the automotive industry) work with their carmaker customers to select materials and nd ways to efciently manufacture vehicle structures and components at the lowest weight and cost. High-technology engineering analysis capabilities are used to, for example, review fatigue performance of proposed parts, including advanced methods to assure fatigue performance in critical seam and spot-welded joints. Technical help services like this, when applied early in the concept and design stages of car development, can demonstrate the business case for a wide range of components, including body

structures, chassis and suspension parts, hydroformed sub-frame parts and driveline components. Corus Technical Services also offer press shop support bringing many years of experience to bear in helping to troubleshoot and ensure that mass-production presses turn out components of acceptable and consistent quality. Corus Automotive Service Centres offer a range of pre-production services to make 1D and 2D tailorwelded blanks, using CO2 laser welding cells. Corus also uses specialised lasers which deliver intense light via bre-optic cables, meaning that complex curved welds are possible.

Image courtesy of Xtrac

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Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/en/products/engineering_services/

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Corus in action: Case studies

Corus in action
The case studies in this section illustrate how Corus combines its materials knowledge, automotive-engineering expertise and manufacturing innovation to offer its customers unique solutions to their specic needs.

Consistent delivery of high-quality material and service

Expertise optimises con-rod manufacture

Carmakers are increasingly turning to companies like Corus to develop innovative solutions that help designers to reduce component weight, improve service life and cut manufacturing costs
Smethwick Drop Forge (SDF), the UKs leading forger of connecting rods for passenger and commercial vehicles, approached Corus for help in developing its con-rods. The company needed to satisfy the ongoing demand from customers for lighter-weight components, improved fatigue performance and reduced machining taking costs out of the manufacturing process on current production components. Corus has extensive expertise in computer modelling techniques and in-depth knowledge of the application of different steel grades, which it used to reduce the weight of SDFs con-rods by up to 15 per cent. This lighter component design in turn improves engine efciency and contributes towards meeting stringent environmental legislation. The improved machining responses were delivered without sacricing the strength or durability of the part.

Corus materials and vehicle engineering expertise have helped to deliver weight and cost benets to UK-based manufacturer LDV.
LDV approached Corus to undertake a number of studies to help identify weight-reduction and vehicleassembly improvements prior to the launch of its new MAXUS range of light commercial vehicles. Corus was able to offer the support of its Automotive Engineering Group, based in Coventry, which specialises in developing innovative vehicleengineering solutions using the latest thinking in materials and manufacturing technologies. Corus carried out gauge optimisation studies to help identify weight-saving opportunities, while maintaining the vehicles body stiffness and performance characteristics. The studies resulted in a 15kg per vehicle weight saving, without detriment to the robust body and chassis structural targets for MAXUS. This was no easy task, as MAXUS is 20 per cent stiffer than the companys existing range. Clearly, the ideal time to employ this unique approach is before vehicle launch, so that savings can be introduced before capital expenditure for production tooling has begun.

Commenting on the collaboration, Mark Adams, Managing Director SDF, said: By partnering with Corus and utilising their material knowledge and expertise in computer simulation techniques, we have been able to carry out many iterations in a short space of time to determine optimum con-rod design for our customers. Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/sdf
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Did you know? A steel body panel begins life as a 250mmthick cast slab, which is then hot rolled to reduce it to a 3mm-thick strip steel. This is then cold rolled to 0.8mm or less.

Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/maxus

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Corus in action: Case studies

Collaboration cuts cost and weight

Pre-production studies by Corus enabled Ford to reduce the costs of manufacturing its new Ford Galaxy at the same time as reducing the vehicles weight.

Tubular hydroform components for Discovery 3

Precision tubes are delivering cost-effective hydroformed components that improve strength and stiffness while reducing weight.
increasingly being used by vehicle manufacturers. Hydroforming can be used by automotive engineers to optimise future car designs with fewer components, helping to increase the strength and stiffness of critical parts, while contributing to reduced vehicle weight and therefore lower fuel consumption and CO2 emissions. The Corus Tubes Automotive and Engineering business has achieved registration to the new ISO/TS 16949:2002 qualityapproval standard. Until recently, car manufacturers had focused on their own quality standards. TS 16949:2002 is a breakthrough because it represents a consensus among most of the worlds largest carmakers and is a starting point in the harmonisation and globalisation of designer-specied standards. Aimed primarily at Tier One suppliers, TS 16949:2002 is a technical specication developed and supported by vehicle manufacturers in Europe, America and Japan. It will help to dene quality system requirements for the global automotive supply chain.

With the growing use of high-tech steels in todays automotive press shops, it is increasingly important for carmakers to fully understand how a material will deform and ow during the pressing process, in order to ensure capability, quality and performance in the nished component. Working closely with Ford engineers at Merkenich, Germany, a collaborative project was undertaken by Corus on the new Ford Galaxy. This included feasibility, partsintegration and cost and weight reduction studies on the rear oor, rear cross member and heel kick panels. The study on the rear-oor panel

looked at opportunities to reduce the gauge, and therefore the weight of the panel, while ensuring that the complex panel shape was feasible to press. A detailed parts-integration study of the rear-oor panel showed that it was possible to use just one part instead of the originally planned two, allowing Ford to save on tooling, process and manufacturing costs. By utilising the superior properties of dual-phase steel, it was also possible to down-gauge the heel board and rear cross members from the traditionally specied High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) grades, while retaining the same side-impact performance.

The Corus precision tubes facility in Zwijndrecht, the Netherlands, is supplying high-quality tubes to specialist German hydroformer Finow Automotive Eberswaldle, based in Berlin. Finow Automotive in turn supplies hydroformed components to Chassis Systems Ltd (CSL), based in Telford, UK, the joint-venture business created by DANA and GKN to produce the chassis for Land Rovers highly acclaimed Discovery 3. The demand for lighter components remains a primary driver in the automotive industry. Tube hydroforming is one of the new enabling technologies that has the capacity to deliver cost-effective mass-produced solutions and is

Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/galaxy

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Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/hydroforming

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Corus in action: Case studies

Clean steels for critical engine components

High-quality camshaft blanks from Corus save time and boost productivity for Volvo Trucks.
Corus has a contract to supply Volvo Trucks with precisionmachined camshaft blanks for use in the manufacture of critical engine components. Corus supplies the camshaft blanks directly to Volvo Trucks manufacturing facility in Skovde, Sweden. The blanks, which have been faced and centred, can be placed directly onto Volvos CNC machining cell, which produces the nal cam prole. This saves a considerable amount of time in setting up and processing the camshafts.

Gearing up for spring market

Corus has developed a grade of wire rod suitable for manufacturing the most demanding and quality-critical automotive springs.
Valve springs are in constant motion when in use, making them one of the most demanding applications for any steel. Valve-spring steel must be super-clean and meet very strict quality criteria. Experience in making other super-clean steels for automotive applications has enabled Corus to meet the signicant challenge of manufacturing this premium grade. Manufacturing valve-spring steel requires low levels of non-metallic inclusions in the surface layers of the steel and tight control over other metallurgical parameters, such as surface cracks and decarburisation. A lengthy development process at Corus, employing carefully controlled casting and rolling techniques, has resulted in the successful production of an automotive spring-grade steel. This steel is now undergoing rigorous fatigue tests for valvespring applications. As these trials continue, Corus is in a position to supply material for other critical automotive spring applications, such as clutch, suspension and transmission springs.

Lars Andersson, Corus product manager, said: This contract demonstrates Coruss commitment to helping the supply chain enhance productivity and improve component performance.

Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/volvo

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Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/springs

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Steel R&D technologies

Steel R&D technologies

to bring a new car to market. Therefore, the ability to choose the right materials for the task, based upon reliable engineering analysis and properties data, is critical to an efcient development cycle. Many aspects of a parts performance must be considered: How light can it be made? Will it form correctly into an accurate shape? Will it split or tear during manufacture? Can it be joined with other parts? Will it corrode? How will it be dismantled at the end of the cars life? Will it be durable in service? Can one material be substituted for another? Corus Research, Development and Technology operations offer the in-depth knowledge, experience and facilities needed to provide answers for all of these questions. Design and engineering Corus Automotive offers advanced technical services to help customers select the right materials. Corus services and expertise in structural performance optimisation for crashworthiness and durability, for example, enable rapid evaluation and characterisation of material properties for proposed or in-service components. Strength and stiffness, fatigue strength, high-speed impact properties, machinability and dent resistance must all be considered.

Solutions for a technology-driven marketplace

Carmaking has a high-technology image for good reason over the past 100 years, almost every aspect of a cars function has either been enhanced or newly introduced, in many cases as a result of new materials technologies.
Todays carmakers and their suppliers face signicant technical challenges in proving out the benets and implementation of the higher performance grades of steel that they have been seeking. R&D expertise and supporting services are essential to optimise the use of the grades and gauges of steel required for existing and new car product lines. These are all areas in which the best steelmakers are involved, in partnership with their carmaker customers. A technology commitment Corus invests 75m every year in research and development, looking at materials science, steelmanufacturing technologies and specic application technologies. More than 900 researchers and industry experts at facilities in the UK and the Netherlands combine world-class innovation, cutting-edge technology and market knowledge, to offer Corus customers a truly unique combination of materials and application solutions. Corus collaborates with universities, research institutes and its customers, to deliver innovative steel solutions and services for a constantly changing world. Optimum materials selection Choosing the most cost-effective materials and manufacturing processes to make a new car can mean the difference between nancial success and failure. Added to these challenges is the constant pressure to reduce the time taken

We use our experimental facilities to characterise materials and performance and generate specic experimental data for use by customers. Extensive use of computer-aided engineering design and analysis methods is made by Corus in areas such as ValueAnalysis, Value-Engineering and other advanced methods to prove out a designs durability, weight, manufacturing feasibility and true cost. From these activities come new methodologies, such as the development of an integrated weld optimisation tool to improve the placement and length of seam welds on chassis subframes. Studies such as design for dismantling are also carried out to assess how easily materials can be recovered and re-used once the car has reached the end of its life.

Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/automotive_applications

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Steel R&D technologies

Steel R&D technologies

Applied research expertise Researchers at Corus RD&T in IJmuiden, the Netherlands, and Rotherham, UK, offer advanced material data models to engineers in car companies who are charged with proving out formability. Tools like this are essential to simulate new design ideas and support decisions about which grades and thicknesses of steel to use in which parts the virtual prototype. Like every other material, every gram of steel needs to justify its use in the modern car It is not just the applications for steel sheet that are researched, new steel chemistries for parts that must be highly durable at high temperatures such as engine valve-spring steels or the steels used to make transmission gears are also studied. New steels that are dimensionally stable during carburising (hardening) are just one example of this work. Technologies for manufacturability Deep drawing, bending, roll forming, hydroforming and warm/hotstamping, are all processes that can change the physical properties of a material. For components to become truly production-feasible, it is essential that carmakers have a solid understanding of how steel will behave as it are formed into shape within the press and other tools. Fig. 6 Material strength increase due to forming strain

True stress (MPa)

Strength increase

Enabling a smarter use of materials With growing use of high-tech steels and greater part complexity, Corus is increasingly called upon to help optimise the production of stamped parts on existing equipment. As virtual-prototype simulation models are now being used to produce products with shorter development times, it is essential to understand the material properties for those critical components that must withstand, for example, in-service crash and durability loads. Corus has developed the unique and advanced Corus-Vegter material model. When combined with other specialist analysis techniques, including F2C (Forming to Crash), F2F (Forming to Fatigue) and F2S (Forming to Strength), much more accurate crash and durability simulation results can be achieved enabling a smarter use of the available material and design space. (See Fig. 6 and Fig. 7 opposite).

Forming strain

True strain

Fig. 6 Simply using the standard factory-coil material properties can introduce inaccuracies in the prediction of intrusion in the subsequent crash analysis. F2C improves accuracy by including in the crash analysis the predicted forming-induced strength and thickness changes, introduced by the manufacturing steps. This gives more reliable simulation results and provides opportunities to reduce weight. Fig. 7 This illustrates the differences in predicted intrusion performance of a vehicle front-end structure in a crash, which resulted when the formed properties were/were not included in the crash analysis. These subtle inaccuracies can easily mean the difference between a pass and a fail for the nished car design.

Fig. 7

Top - Standard crash analysis Bottom - Crash analysis including formed properties in subframe extension Source of Fig. 6 & Fig. 7: Corus
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Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/technical_papers

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Steel R&D technologies

Steel R&D technologies

Technologies for pilot production Corus has developed advanced tools and techniques to validate and troubleshoot formability (including springback) in stamping, press-tool geometry review and tube-forming feasibility. To speed this process, Corus has co-developed a portable troubleshooting tool for strain assessment, called Phast. This is used to understand and visualise how a material ows as it is stamped into physical parts. A second, complementary technology, called In-Form, uses a state-ofthe-art laser device to scan and capture the 3D surface of a part or stamping tool. This enables accurate geometry data from the actual tools that will be used to be fed into a forming simulation model. Together, these tools ensure accurate press performance and low scrap rates once full-scale production begins.

Technologies to enhance nish quality A great deal of the image projected by a car depends upon the accuracy of part dimensions, the quality of joints and the corrosion-resistance and adhesion properties of its surfaces. New coatings and methods for joining metals have been a key area of Corus research for many years.

Coating technologies Knowledge and application of surface technology has been used by Corus to improve corrosion resistance, enhance coating performance and engineer the surface appearance of metal parts for many customers over the years. This expertise enables Corus to design the surface and substrate of its products as an entire system, delivering cost-effective performance enhancement. The companys knowledge of its customers coating processes is a critical factor, enabling Corus to support them in optimising their own processes to achieve the best end-product properties. With the advent of alternative fuels and fuel-cell power generation, this is an area of metals technology that is expected to become increasingly important.

Welding and joining technologies The ability to make reliable metal joints is an essential technology in the assembly of a vehicle Body in White. Corus researches most joining techniques used in car manufacturing, from riv-bonding and laser welding for steel to uxless aluminium laser-brazing. Our researchers also use niteelement modelling to study weld optimisation and the effects of different chemistries and coatings on joinability and post-weld corrosion proong. Corus can also help its customers with weld-facility implementation.

Did you know? Steel sheet used on the outer panels of a vehicle is around 0.7mm thick about as thick as a ngernail.

Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/automotive_applications

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Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/automotive_applications

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Looking to the future: The next generation

Looking to the future

The next generation
As a major supplier to the European automotive industry, Corus recognises the importance of supporting and inspiring the automotive designers and engineers of the future.

Looking to the future: Graduate opportunities

Graduate opportunities
Depending on performance, UK graduates can enter a substantive position at any time from six months to two years after their start date. All UK entrants are encouraged to take part in a Corus ve-year training plan, on-the-job training, chartership/professional qualications and to develop a strong relationship with a mentor. Postgraduate sponsorship Corus also sponsors approximately 100 postgraduate students per year in a variety of technical and engineering programmes, typically in Engineering, Metallurgy and the Environmental sciences. The majority of these are supported by grants from the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC). The two main routes to postgraduate study are engineering doctorate research and industrially supported PhD projects. Apprenticeships Corus apprenticeship schemes lead to vocational and academic qualications, following study at a local further-education college. Recruits are provided with a rst-class training programme and receive an attractive salary or bursary. Apprentices have the opportunity to achieve senior levels within the company, as well as receiving additional education and training qualications.

Formula Student Corus frequently sponsors student engineering teams entering the International Formula Student programme. Formula Student provides the next generation of automotive engineers with a valuable insight into the engineering and projectmanagement processes of taking a race car from design through manufacture and, ultimately, to competition. Students gain access to the latest material, technology and industry techniques. Such engineering experience often proves invaluable after graduation when students enter the automotive and other industries. Some of Europes leading student race teams from the universities of Birmingham, Delft and Warwick have been supported by Corus in recent years.

Design shows To bridge the gap between the disciplines of advanced metal engineering and leading-edge product design, Corus has sponsored the Coventry University Automotive MA Design Show and automotive design projects at the Royal College of Art. These activities help to create opportunities for future car designers as they meet inuential industry gures, potential mentors among todays carmakers and their contemporaries in the elds of automotive manufacturing and journalism. The possibilities that new materials can offer to the designer are discussed in an open forum with leading industry gures such as Patrick Le Quement of Renault or Peter Horbury of Ford.

Recruitment Corus is constantly looking for passionate, dedicated staff to ensure it continues to deliver a world-class service to customers and maintains its cutting-edge research. To this end, Corus recruits personnel at all levels, from engineers to account coordinators and from logistics professionals to graduates. The scope and size of the company allows it to offer interesting, challenging and dynamic careers. In 2006, 120 graduates in the UK and more than 140 from the Netherlands began their careers with Corus. In the Netherlands, graduates go straight into a permanent role, at the same time taking part in a talentdevelopment programme which offers wider training awareness and career orientation.

Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com/en/news/events/

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Find out more: www.corusgroup.com/en/careers/recruitment

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Looking to the future: Looking to the future

Looking to the future

With new innovations, technology and steel grades constantly being developed, steel looks set to retain its status as the material of choice for carmakers worldwide.
History can teach us much about what might happen in the future. When the oil crisis struck in 1974 in the early days of automotive industry globalisation everyone agreed that cars would have to get lighter. Instead, cars have almost doubled in weight since then, due mainly to increases in size, added features and better safety. For automotive materials, the introduction of the Audi A8 about 15 years ago was a seminal event that single-handedly opened up the materials debate. Since then, the debate has been about aluminium versus steel. At the time, many viewed aluminium as the material of the future, with steel playing a decreasing role in vehicle design and development. However, today steel still dominates the vehicle structure so what happened to change the predicted course of events? Collaboration Firstly, the global steel industry recognised the challenge. It realised that steel was perceived as traditional, rather than a material for the 21st century, and embarked on one of the most successful collaborative development and communications programmes of modern times the UltraLight Steel Auto Body programme (ULSAB). This programme, initially launched in 1998, demonstrated and promoted the benets of existing materials and processes, showing that intelligent use of steel could readily provide cost-effective vehicle weight savings. Subsequent work on closures and suspension systems proved just as positive, as did the nal project, Advanced Vehicle Concepts (ULSAB-AVC). This heralded the availability of Advanced High Strength steels and supporting processes. Individual steel companies then worked directly with their customers to help implement these materials and technologies to deliver real benets. Secondly, possibly because so much of the modern world depends on steel, the benets are easy to underestimate. Formability, strength and ease of joining are signicant advantages over competitor materials. The past 15 years have seen the development of stronger steels with improved formability, together with the complementary technologies to process and assemble them within high-volume vehicle manufacturing plants. Computer analysis tools have been developed to model the properties and application of these new steels more accurately, which has given vehicle manufacturers the condence to implement them in their new designs. New vehicles Above all else, the conicting demands of consumers, legislators and global competition require costeffective solutions. The sharpening of emissions legislation will spark a drive for more efcient vehicles. This means that alongside the complexity of powertrain solutions, from hybrids to hydrogen, the search is on for simplicity de-contenting, integration of electronic systems, miniaturisation of components to increase occupant space while making vehicles smaller and lighter. New processes Steel will play a major role in this shift. We can expect the development of even stronger steels with improved formability to enable more complex panel shapes to be achieved. This will result in parts integration, reducing cost and increasing the value attractiveness of steel. Computer analysis tools will improve, helping to model changes in the mechanical properties of these new steels during panel manufacturing which is essential for the design process. Modelling of joining processes will improve too, leading to faster, more effective joining technologies. New materials With any prediction of the future, however, there is always the possibility that technology may be introduced that will completely change the course of events. This may enhance the cost-benet analysis for aluminium, magnesium or composites. However, the steel industry is well advanced with its own breakthrough material TWIP (Twinning Induced Plasticity) steel. This new breed of steel combines ultra high strength with incredible ductility. It is being developed in the research departments of the steel industry right now, and it will not be long before engineers have the opportunity to incorporate this new steel into their designs. The future is probably closer than we think.

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About Corus: Company prole

About Corus
Company prole
Corus is one of the worlds largest steel producers. Its operations are organised into three principal divisions: Strip Products, Long Products and Distribution & Building Systems.
Corus employs approximately 41,000 people, with the majority based in the UK, the Netherlands and other Western European locations. Strategy The companys strategy is focused on developing a strong and sustainable competitive position for its carbon steel in its Western European markets and improving its exposure to lower-cost, highergrowth regions. Steel The Corus Group produces carbon steel at three integrated steelworks in the UK, at Port Talbot, Scunthorpe and Teesside, and at IJmuiden in the Netherlands. Engineering steels are produced in the UK at Rotherham using the electric arc furnace method. Corus also has processing facilities in North America and Europe. Sales Corus has many sales ofces, stockholders, service centres and joint venture or associate arrangements for the distribution and further processing of its steel products. These are supported by various agency agreements. There is an extensive network in the EU, Find out more: www.corusgroup.com
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About Corus: Sources of further information

Corus Automotive Sources of further information

while outside Europe Corus has sales ofces in around 30 countries, supported by a worldwide trading network. Brand Combining its global expertise with local customer service, Corus offers value, reliability and innovation. The Corus brand represents a mark of quality, loyalty and strength. Manufacturing In 2005 approximately 60 per cent of Coruss steel production was rolled into hot-rolled coil. Most of the remainder was further processed into sections, plates, engineering steels or wire rod, or sold in seminished form. Approximately 35 per cent of hotrolled coil was sold without further processing to cold-rolling mills and coating lines, with the remainder transferred to Corus tube mills for the manufacture of welded tubes. Markets Principal end markets for Corus steel products are the construction, automotive, packaging, mechanical engineering, electrical engineering, metal goods, and oil and gas industries.

You can access more information about Corus and its automotive products and expertise through a number of sources.
In print emotion magazine is focused on Corus customers in the automotive industry, reaching 15,000 managers and technical specialists twice a year. It includes guest articles discussing trends in the industry that affect the use of steel in car design and engineering, technical developments in materials and manufacturing techniques, and other articles of interest to anyone selecting materials for automotive applications. Back issues of emotion magazine can be found at www.corusautomotive.com/news/ emotion_magazine/ If you would like to receive future copies of emotion, please email your details to: [email protected] Online At www.corusautomotive.com you can nd more detailed information about Corus products, services and technology, as well as press releases, data sheets, technical information and further contact details.

Find out more: www.corusautomotive.com

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Glossary

Glossary of terms
AHSS Advanced High Strength Steel: any steel with high levels of both strength and formability. Annealing Heating to and holding at a suitable temperature and then cooling at a suitable rate to remove the effects of work hardening. This facilitates further cold working. Austenite See Phase. Bainite See Phase. Bake hardening Steel grades that exhibit an increase in hardness (and therefore strength) when heated to a relatively low temperature, typically in an automotive paint-bake oven. For the bake-hardening mechanism to work the steel has to be work hardened. BIW Body In White: the main structure of a vehicle, usually made of steel pressings welded together to make a strong and stiff frame. Boron steel See PHS. BOS Basic Oxygen Steelmaking: process for converting liquid pig iron into steel, excess carbon being removed by reaction with oxygen. Basic here means that the reaction takes place under alkaline conditions. Carburising Surface hardening by diffusion of carbon atoms. CMn Carbon Manganese: steels with carbon and manganese as the principal alloying elements. Mn is the chemical symbol for manganese, not to be confused with Mg (magnesium). Chassis Most cars built before the 1950s were constructed using a separate chassis frame and body. Nowadays, chassis refers to the components (subframes, suspension, etc) that connect the BIW to the engine, steering and wheels. Closure A panel attached to the Body In White, such as doors, bonnet and boot. Closures are usually hinged, although some vehicle manufacturers include bolted-on panels, such as front wings. Cold rolling Reducing the thickness of strip steel by rolling at ambient temperature, mostly used in thinner gauges for automotive applications. Continuous casting Non-stop manufacture of steel by pouring liquid steel into a mould, which is a water-cooled copper or ceramic jacket. Drawing A method of forming steel into complex three-dimensional shapes in a press, the metal being pulled (drawn) into the tool where it is stretched into shape. Dual Phase (DP) Steel composed of ferrite and martensite phases. (See Phase). EAF Electric Arc Furnace: uses electric current to melt scrap steel. The molten steel formulation can then be modied, with alloying elements added as required to produce a wide range of steel grades. Elastic limit The maximum stress to which a material may be subjected and yet return to its original shape and dimensions upon removal of the stress. (See Yield strength).
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Elongation The amount of permanent extension in a component under stress, usually described as a percentage of the initial length. ELVD End of Life Vehicle Directive: a European law that requires an increasing percentage of a vehicle to be recyclable. Euro-NCAP European New Car Assessment Program: the European automobile safety organisation providing motoring consumers with an independent assessment of vehicle safety performance. It awards stars for front and side impact performance, as well as pedestrian safety. Exothermic A chemical reaction that gives off heat. For example, the conversion of iron to steel using oxygen generates a large amount of heat. The resultant molten steel is three or four hundred Celsius hotter than molten pig iron. Fracture splitting A specialised manufacturing process in which the precision fracturing of a machined component results in matching, self-locating, surfaces. FEA Finite Element Analysis: a computational method of stress calculation in which the component under load is considered as a large number of small pieces (elements). The FEA software is then able to calculate the stress level in each element, allowing a prediction of deection or failure. Ferrite See Phase. Galvanise Coat with zinc, either by electroplating, or (more commonly) by dipping into molten zinc. Since the 1980s, most automotive strip steel has been supplied galvanised for optimal corrosion protection. Grain All steels are polycrystalline made up of minute crystals known as grains. The size, shape and crystalline alignment of these grains are a key to the performance of steel. Hot rolling Reducing the thickness of strip steel by rolling at elevated temperature, mostly used in thicker gauges for automotive applications. HSLA High Strength Low Alloy: steels that generally contain small amounts of highly effective alloying elements such as titanium, vanadium or niobium in amounts of less than 0.1 per cent. HSS High Strength Steel: steel with yield strength between 220 and 550MPa. Hydroforming The use of pressurised uid to change the shape of a metal sheet or tube. IF Interstitial Free: steels without the strengthening effect of interstitial elements such as carbon and nitrogen, making them very formable with low strength. These are manufactured by the addition of titanium or niobium, which form compounds with carbon and nitrogen. Interstitial The spaces between atoms are known as interstices. Atoms of carbon and nitrogen that are small enough to t into these spaces are known as interstitial atoms. They strengthen the steel by preventing layers of atoms sliding past one another. IS Isotropic Steel: strip steel with both chemistry and manufacturing processes specically designed to give the same mechanical properties in any direction along the length or across the width of the strip. Martensite See Phase.
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Glossary

Glossary of terms
Mild steel Low-strength steels containing low levels of carbon and insignicant amounts of alloying elements. Modulus The stiffness of a material. Calculated by measuring the stress on a test sample and dividing by the strain. Since strain is dimensionless, the unit of modulus is therefore the same as stress (N/m or Pa). Some examples of moduli: GPa Steel 207 Aluminium 69 Polyethylene 1 Diamond 1000 n-value A measurement of the work hardening (strengthening) of metal sheet during a forming process. OEM Original Equipment Manufacturer: in the automotive industry, this refers to a manufacturer of vehicles that provides the original product design and materials for its assembly and manufacture. Pearlite See Phase. Pig iron Iron direct from the blast furnace, containing high levels of carbon and other impurities. Originally sand-cast into a row of blocks, having the appearance of a sow feeding her piglets hence pig iron. Phase Steel can exist in a number of crystalline forms and combinations of crystalline forms. These are known as phases. Here are some of the most common: Austenite: A non-magnetic structure usually found in stainless steels and TWIP steel. Bainite: Ferrite containing needle shaped iron carbide (Fe3C) crystals tough and hard. Ferrite: Iron containing a small amount of carbon in solid solution. The softest form of steel. Martensite: Excess carbon (supersaturated) results in a distorted crystalline structure and the hardest form of steel. Pearlite: Alternating layers of ferrite and iron carbide. When viewed under a microscope it has the appearance of mother-of-pearl, hence pearlite. PHS Press Hardening Steels (also: hot-formed steel, die-quenched steel, boron steel) a grade of steel that can be processed at high temperature by heating in a furnace and pressing while still hot using a cooled tool. The rapid cooling rate transforms the microstructure to 100 per cent martensite (see Phase). PHS steels contain boron for optimum hardenability. Pickling An acidic-dip process for removing oxide (scale) from the surface of hot-rolled steel sheet. Rephos Rephosphorised steel: steel that contains phosphor as the main alloying element. Known as Rephos since the high levels of phosphor in pig iron are removed along with other impurities in the BOS process, but phosphor is then added during secondary steelmaking.
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r-value A measurement of the resistance to thinning of sheet metal during forming processes. Roll forming A process for producing prismatic shapes in steel sheet, the sheet being progressively bent and folded by passing through a series of proled rollers. Strain The amount a component stretches when a stress is applied. Strain is dimensionless: 100 per cent elongation equals a strain of one. Stress The applied force divided by the cross section of a component, measured in N/m (= Pascal, Pa). Note: these units are the same as the units for pressure. Indeed, stress may be considered as the pressure applied to a component. Substitutional Large alloying atoms (eg. phosphorus and manganese) take the place of, or substitute, an iron atom unlike small alloying atoms, which are positioned between the larger iron atoms (see Interstitial). Tensile strength Also called the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). The stress at which a material breaks. Temper rolling After annealing, strip steel is given enough cold rolling to take it beyond the yield point, resulting in more controllable stretching during subsequent forming processes and a better surface nish. TRB Tailor Rolled Blank: steel sheet cut to a size ready for pressing (i.e. blanked) where the blank has been rolled to give varying thicknesses along its length. TRIP Transformation Induced Plasticity: steel that contains a small percentage of phases (see Phase) that change to a harder phase (usually austenite transforming to martensite) during the forming process. The formed steel therefore has a much higher strength. TWB Tailor Welded Blank: steel sheet cut to a size ready for pressing (i.e. blanked) where the sheet has been welded together from smaller pieces of steel of varying gauge and/or grade. TWIP Twinning Induced Plasticity: steel that has high levels of manganese is austenitic (see Phase) at ambient temperature. The crystalline structure of austenite results in the occurrence of millions of pairs of crystalline faults known as twins. These twins allow for unusual levels of formability in Ultra High Strength Steel. UHSS Ultra High Strength Steel: any steel grade with a yield strength of 550MPa or greater. Work hardening The increase in the strength of a metal as it is stretched or otherwise formed. Yield strength The stress at which a material will permanently stretch or deform. Below this stress the material will return to its original shape and size once the stress is removed (see Elastic limit). Yield point The start of yielding in steel may be accompanied by a sudden drop in strength. This is known as the yield point and is undesirable in steel for automotive pressings (see Temper rolling).
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