Introduction to Basic Vibration Analysis

By: Jack D. Peters

Connection Technology Center, Inc 7939 Rae Boulevard Victor, New York 14564

www.ctconline.com

Eastman Kodak
1976 2004
9

Senior Engineer for Vibration Monitoring of Photographic Film and Paper Manufacturing Machines world wide. 24/7 Permanent Monitoring using dynamic signal analyzers and proprietary statistical process control software generating quality alerts and alarms.

Jack D. Peters - CTC

Vibration Institute
Category IV Analyst
ISO 18436-2 9 Instructor 9 Past Chairman CNY
9

www.cnyvi.com

Jack D. Peters - CTC

Connection Technology Center

2004 Present

Jack D. Peters - CTC

Data Collection
Auto Pwr Spec 1 0.2 G rms

Magnitude

0 3 Hz 2.5 kHz

Portable Route Based Permanent Continuous On-line

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Portable Data Collectors

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Portable Data Collectors

9 9 9 9 9 9

Route Based Frequency Spectrum Time Waveform Orbits Balancing Alignment

9 9 9 9 9 9

Data Analysis History Trending Download to PC Alarms Smart algorithms

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On-Line Systems (permanent)

24/7

Rack mounted systems with large numbers of channels.

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Dynamic Signal Analyzers Test & Measurement

Large PC driven solutions with multiple channels and windows based software.

Smaller portable units with 2 4 channel inputs and firmware operating systems.
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Tape Recorders
Insurance Policy
Multi-channel digital audio tape recorders.

For the Measurement that cant get away !

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Whats This ?
1 0.0002 inch Peak

Magnitude

0 0 Hz 100 Hz

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FFT, Frequency Spectrum, Power Spectrum

1 0.0002 inch Peak

Magnitude

0 0 Hz 100 Hz

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Scaling X & Y
1 0.0002 inch Peak

Magnitude

0 0 Hz 100 Hz

X
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Scaling X & Y
A M P L I T U D E
0 0 Hz Magnitude 1 0.0002 inch Peak

FREQUENCY

100 Hz

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Scaling X & Y
1

H o w B a d i s i t

0.0002 inch Peak

Magnitude

0 0 Hz

What is it

100 Hz

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Whats That ?
1 0.0004 inch

Real

-0.0004 0 s 7.996094 s

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Time Waveform
1 0.0004 inch

Real

-0.0004 0 s 7.996094 s

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Scaling X & Y
1 0.0004 inch

Real

-0.0004 0 s 7.996094 s

X
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Scaling X & Y
A M P L I T U D E
-0.0004 0 s 7.996094 s Real 1 0.0004 inch

TIME

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Scaling X & Y
H o w B a d i s i t
-0.0004 0 s 7.996094 s 1 0.0004 inch

Real

What is it

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The X Scale

What is it ?

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Single Frequency
X:55 Hz Pwr Spec 1 1 V rms Magnitude 0 0 Hz X:27.00806 ms dX:18.18848 ms Time 1 1 V Real -1 0 s
Jack D. Peters - CTC

Y:706.8129 mV

55 Hz

100 Hz Y:3.579427 mV dY:2.449082 mV

8.82 ms
62.46948 ms
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Frequency & Time

fHz = 1/tSec tSec = 1/fHz

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Frequency & Time

FT = 1
If: F = 1/T and T = 1/F Then: FT = 1

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Concept !
FT = 1 If: F increases

Then: t decreases If: T increases

Then: f decreases
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Single Frequency
X:55 Hz Pwr Spec 1 1 V rms Magnitude 0 0 Hz X:27.00806 ms dX:18.18848 ms Time 1 1 V Real -1 0 s
Jack D. Peters - CTC

Y:706.8129 mV

55 Hz

100 Hz Y:3.579427 mV dY:2.449082 mV

8.82 ms
62.46948 ms
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Multiple Frequencies
X:55 Hz Pwr Spec 1 1 0 Hz X:78 Hz Pwr Spec 1 1 0 Hz X:21 Hz Pwr Spec 1 1 0 Hz X:42 Hz Pwr Spec 1 1 0 Hz 100 Hz Y:706.9266 mV 100 Hz Y:706.7825 mV 100 Hz Y:706.9236 mV 100 Hz Y:706.8129 mV

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Multiple Time Waveforms

Time 55 1 1 V 0 s Time 78 1 1 V 0 s Time 21 1 1 V 0 s Time 42 1 1 V 0 s 62.46948 ms 62.46948 ms 62.46948 ms 62.46948 ms

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Real Life Time Waveform

55 + 78 + 21 + 42 = Trouble !
TIME 1 4 V Real -4 0 s 62.46948 ms

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FFT Capabilities
TIME 1 4 V Real -4 0 s X:21 Hz X:42 Hz X:55 Hz X:78 Hz FREQUENCY 1 1 V rms 0 Hz 100 Hz Y:706.7825 mV Y:706.9266 mV Y:706.8129 mV Y:706.9236 mV 62.46948 ms

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The Most Copied Slide in the History of Vibration Analysis !

Amplitude

Inp ut

Tim e

Fr

cy n e equ

Tim eW

ave for m

tru c e Sp

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Lines or Bins
1

The FFT always has a defined number of lines or Bins. 100, 200, 400, 800, 1600, and 3200 lines are common choices.

0.0002 inch Peak

Magnitude

This spectrum has 800 lines, or the X scale is broken down into 800 bins.

0 0 Hz 100 Hz

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LRF
The Lowest Resolvable Frequency is determined by:
Frequency Span / Number of Analyzer Lines

The frequency span is calculated as the ending frequency minus the starting frequency. The number of analyzer lines depends on the analyzer and how the operator has set it up. Example: 0 - 400 Hz using 800 lines Answer = (400 - 0) / 800 = 0.5 Hz / Line

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Bandwidth
The Bandwidth can be defined by: (Frequency Span / Analyzer Lines) Window Function Uniform Window Function = 1.0 Hanning Window Function = 1.5 Flat Top Window Function = 3.8
Example: 0 - 400 Hz using 800 Lines & Hanning Window Answer = (400 / 800) 1.5 = 0.75 Hz / Line
Note: More discussion later on window functions for the analyzer !

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Resolution
The frequency resolution is defined in the following manner:
2 (Frequency Span / Analyzer Lines) Window Function or Resolution = 2 (Bandwidth) Example: 0 - 400 Hz using 800 Lines & Hanning Window Answer = 2 (400 / 800) 1.5 = 1.5 Hz / Line

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Using Resolution
The student wishes to measure two frequency disturbances that are very close together. Frequency #1 = 29.5 Hz. Frequency #2 = 30 Hz. The instructor suggests a hanning window and 800 lines. What frequency span is required to accurately measure these two frequency disturbances ?

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Using Resolution
Resolution = 30 - 29.5 = 0.5 Hz / Line Resolution = 2 (Bandwidth) BW = (Frequency Span / Analyzer Lines) Window Function Resolution = 2 (Frequency Span / 800) 1.5 0.5 = 2 (Frequency Span / 800) 1.5 0.5 = 3 (Frequency Span) / 800 400 = 3 (Frequency Span) 133 Hz = Frequency Span

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Data Sampling Time

Data sampling time is the amount of time required to take one record or sample of data. It is dependent on the frequency span and the number of analyzer lines being used.

TSample = Nlines / Fspan Using 400 lines with a 800 Hz frequency span will require: 400 / 800 = 0.5 seconds

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Average & Overlap

9 9 9

Average - On Overlap Percent - 50% Overlap is the amount of old data that is used

TR#1 TR#2 TR#3

FFT#1 FFT#2 FFT#3

0% Overlap

TR#1 How long will it take for 10 averages at 75% overlap using a 800 line analyzer and a 200 Hz frequency span? TR#2 TR#3
FFT#1

50% Overlap

FFT#2 FFT#3

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75% Overlap ?
9 10

Averages 9 75% Overlap 9 800 Lines 9 200 Hz

Average #1 = 800 / 200 Average #1 = 4 seconds Average #2 - #10 = (4 x 0.25) Average #2 - #10 = 1 second each Total time = 4 + (1 x 9) Total time = 13 seconds

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Filter Windows
9 Window

filters are applied to the time waveform data to simulate data that starts and stops at zero. 9 They will cause errors in the time waveform and frequency spectrum. 9 We still like window filters !

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Window Comparisons

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Filter Windows
9 9 9 9

Hanning (Frequency) Flat Top (Amplitude) Uniform (No Window) Force Exponential

Hanning 16% Amplitude Error

Force/Expo Set-up (Frequency Response)

Flat Top 1% Amplitude Error

Window functions courtesy of Agilent The Fundamentals of Signal Analysis Application Note AN 243

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Filter Windows
9 Use

the Hanning Window for normal vibration monitoring (Frequency) 9 Use the Flat Top Window for calibration and accuracy (Amplitude) 9 Use the Uniform Window for bump testing and resonance checks (No Window)

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The Y Scale

How bad is it ?

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Amplitude
Acceleration = gs rms. or peak Velocity = inch/s rms. or peak Displacement = mils peak to peak
Note: 1 mil = 0.001 inches

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Pk-Pk (Peak - Peak)

The Peak - Peak value is expressed from the peak to peak amplitude. The peak to peak value is measured in the time waveform.
X:55 Hz Pwr Spec 1 2 V Pk-Pk Magnitude 0 0 Hz X:22.43042 ms dX:9.094238 ms Time 1 1 V Real -1 0 s 62.46948 ms Y:-993.8563 mV dY:1.994871 V 100 Hz Y:1.999169 V

Peak - Peak. = 2 V

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Pk (Peak)
The time wave has not changed. The Peak value is expressed from zero to the largest positive or negative peak amplitude. The peak value is measured in the time waveform.
X:55 Hz Pwr Spec 1 1 V Peak Magnitude 0 0 Hz X:27.00806 ms dX:4.516602 ms Time 1 1 V Real -1 0 s 62.46948 ms Y:3.579427 mV dY:997.4356 mV 100 Hz Y:999.5843 mV

Peak. = 1 V

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RMS (Root Mean Square)

The time wave has not changed. The rms. value is expressed from zero to 70.7% of the peak amplitude for a single frequency. The rms. value is calculated for the spectrum.
1 V rms Magnitude 0 0 Hz X:27.00806 ms dX:2.288818 ms Time 1 1 V Real -1 0 s 62.46948 ms Y:3.579427 mV dY:709.1976 mV 100 Hz X:55 Hz Pwr Spec 1 Y:706.8129 mV

rms. = 707 mV

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Suffix Comparison
X:27.00806 ms dX:2.288818 ms Time 1 Y:3.579427 mV dY:709.1976 m 2 V rms Magnitude 0 0 s X:27.00806 ms dX:4.516602 ms Time 1 62.46948 ms Y:3.579427 mV dY:997.4356 m 2 V Peak Magnitude 0 0 s X:22.43042 ms dX:9.094238 ms Time 1 62.46948 ms Y:-993.8563 mV dY:1.994871 V 2 V Pk-Pk Magnitude 0 0 s 62.46948 ms 0 Hz 100 Hz 0 Hz X:55 Hz Pwr Spec 1 100 Hz Y:1.999169 V 0 Hz X:55 Hz Pwr Spec 1 100 Hz Y:999.5843 mV X:55 Hz Pwr Spec 1 Y:706.8129 mV

RMS

1 V Real -1

Peak

1 V Real -1

Peak - Peak

1 V Real -1

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Changing Suffixes
Many times it is necessary to change between suffixes.

Pk-Pk / 2 = Peak Peak x 0.707 = RMS RMS / 0.707 = Peak Peak x 2 = Pk-Pk
(Peak / 1.414 = RMS) (RMS x 1.414 = Peak)

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Converting the Unit Suffix

x2 Peak - Peak 2

Peak

Peak

0.707

RMS

x 0.707

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Engineering Units (EU)

Engineering units are used to give meaning to the amplitude of the measurement. Instead of the default volts, it is possible to incorporate a unit proportional to volts that will have greater meaning to the user. Examples: 100 mV / g 1 V / in/s 50 mV / psi 33 mV / %
Jack D. Peters - CTC

20 mV / Pa 200 mV / mil 10 mV / fpm 10 mV / V

54

EUs the Hard Way

Sometimes we forget to use EUs, or just dont understand how to set up the analyzer. The measurement is in volts! There is no immediate need to panic if ???? You know what the EU is for the sensor you are using. Example: An accelerometer outputs 100 mV / g and there is a 10 mV peak in the frequency spectrum. What is the amplitude in gs ? Answer = 10 mV / 100 mV = 0.1 g

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The Big Three EUs

Acceleration Velocity Displacement

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Converting the Big 3

In many cases we are confronted with Acceleration, Velocity, or Displacement, but are not happy with it. Maybe we have taken the measurement in acceleration, but the model calls for displacement. Maybe we have taken the data in displacement, but the manufacturer quoted the equipment specifications in velocity. How do we change between these EUs ?

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Changing Units
Velocity = 2 f D Acceleration = 2 f V or (2 f)2 D f = frequency, cycles/sec or Hz D = displacement, inches (mm) V = velocity, in./sec. (mm/sec) A = acceleration, in/sec2 (mm/sec2)
(divide by 386.1 in/sec2/g to obtain acceleration in gs) (divide by 9807 mm/sec2/g to obtain acceleration in gs)
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386.1 What ?
1g = 32.2 feet/second 32.2 feet 2 second
X 2

12 inches foot
2

386.1 inches/second g

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Doing the Math Units

0.5g x 386.1 inches second2 g

There is a 0.5 g vibration at 25 Hz. What is the velocity ?

2 x 25 cycles second 0.5g x 386.1 inches g second2 x 1 second 2 x 25 cycles

0.5 x 386.1 inches 2 x 25 cycles second cycle

1.23 inches/second
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Radians, Degrees, or Time

2 3600 = 2 Radians 3600 / 2 Radians 57.3250 / Radian 1800 00 0 3600 2 900

2700 3 2

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Radians, Degrees, or Time

2 900

1800

00 0 3600 2

2700 3 2

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Radians, Degrees, or Time

2 900

0 00

1800 Period

(seconds/cycle) 2700 3 2

3600 2

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Changing Units: Acceleration to Velocity

= 2 f V
A =V 2 f
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Changing Units: Velocity to Displacement

= 2 f D
V =D 2 f
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Converting the Unit Measure

386.1 Acceleration (inch/s2) x 2(Pi)f Velocity (inch/s) x 2(Pi)f Displacement (inch)
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Acceleration (gs)

x 386.1 Acceleration (inch/s2) 2(Pi)f Velocity (inch/s) 2(Pi)f

Converting the SI Unit Measure

9807 Acceleration (mm/s2) x 2(Pi)f Velocity (mm/s) x 2(Pi)f Displacement (mm)
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Acceleration (gs)

x 9807 Acceleration (mm/s2) 2(Pi)f Velocity (mm/s) 2(Pi)f

Acceleration - Velocity
Example: Find the equivalent peak velocity for a 25 Hz vibration at 7 mg RMS ? = (g x 386.1) / (2 Pi x F) = (0.007 x 386.1) / (6.28 x 25) = 0.017 inches / second RMS Answer = 0.017 x 1.414 = 0.024 inches / second Pk

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Velocity - Displacement
Example: Find the equivalent pk-pk displacement for a 25 Hz vibration at 0.024 in/s Pk ? = Velocity / (2 Pi x F) = 0.024 / (6.28 x 25) = 0.000153 inches Pk Answer = 0.000153 x 2 = 0.000306 inches Pk-Pk

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Acceleration - Displacement
Example: Find the equivalent Pk-Pk displacement for a 52 Hz vibration at 15 mg RMS ? = (g x 386.1) / (2 Pi x F)2 = (0.015 x 386.1) / (6.28 x 52)2 = 0.000054 inches RMS Answer = (0.000054 x 1.414) 2 = 0.000154 inches Pk-Pk

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Sensors
Sp ee d

Displacement

Frequency
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Accelerometers
9

IEPE
Electronics inside Industrial

Charge Mode

Charge Amplifier Test & Measurement

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Industrial Requirements and Applications

Requirements
9 9 9

Functionality Durability Affordability Trending Alarming Diagnostics One sensor does not fit all applications Fit, Form & Function

Applications
9 9 9

Remember
9 9

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Accelerometer Advantages
9 Measures

casing vibration 9 Measures absolute motion 9 Can integrate to Velocity output 9 Easy to mount 9 Large range of frequency response 9 Available in many configurations

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Accelerometer Disadvantages
9 Does

not measure shaft vibration 9 Sensitive to mounting techniques and surface conditions 9 Difficult to perform calibration check 9 Double integration to displacement often causes low frequency noise 9 One accelerometer does not fit all applications
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Mass & Charge

Relative movement between post & mass creates shear in ceramic producing charge. Mass Ceramic/Quartz Post
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Accelerometer Parameters
Performance Suited for Application
9 Sensitivity (mV/g) 9 Frequency Response 9 Dynamic Range

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Typical Frequency Response

Amplification Region Transmission Region
The natural frequency is excited causing gain around resonance

Isolation Region
Phase between sensor & machine is shifted by 180 degrees and signal rolls off to zero

Amplitude

The usable frequency range of the accelrometer based on acceptable amplitude limits

+/- 3dB

+/- 10%

+/- 5%

Frequency

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Mounting the Accelerometer

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Realistic Mounting
Stud

Vibration Institute, Basic Machinery Vibrations & Machinery Vibration Analysis

Bees Wax Adhesive Magnet

Hand Held

In the real world, mounting might not be as good as the manufacturer had in the lab ! What about paint, rust, grease, oil, etc?

100

1,000 Frequency, Hz Jack D. Peters - CTC

10,000

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Sensitivity, Range & Application

Sensitivity Range Output
10 mV/g 50 mV/g 100 mV/g 500 mV/g +/- 500 g +/- 100 g +/- 50 g +/- 10 g +/- 5 VAC +/- 5 VAC +/- 5 VAC +/- 5 VAC

Application
A 10 mV/g accelerometer will have a dynamic range of +/- 500 gs, and a dynamic output of +/- 5 volts AC. They are typically used for machinery that is generating high amplitude vibrations. With the large dynamic range, they are much less likely to become saturated as a result of the high amplitude vibrations.

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Sensitivity, Range & Application

Sensitivity Range Output
10 mV/g 50 mV/g 100 mV/g 500 mV/g +/- 500 g +/- 100 g +/- 50 g +/- 10 g +/- 5 VAC +/- 5 VAC +/- 5 VAC +/- 5 VAC

Application
A 50 mV/g accelerometer will have a dynamic range of +/- 100 gs, and a dynamic output of +/- 5 volts AC. They are typically used for general purpose machinery measurements, and are sometimes offered as standard sensors for data collectors.

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Sensitivity, Range & Application

Sensitivity Range Output
10 mV/g 50 mV/g 100 mV/g 500 mV/g +/- 500 g +/- 100 g +/- 50 g +/- 10 g +/- 5 VAC +/- 5 VAC +/- 5 VAC +/- 5 VAC

Application
A 100 mV/g accelerometer will have a dynamic range of +/- 50 gs, and a dynamic output of +/- 5 volts AC. Approximately 90% of all vibration analysis and data collection is accomplished with a 100 mV/g accelerometer. Some sensors are also available with a +/- 80g dynamic range for measuring larger signal amplitudes.

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Sensitivity, Range & Application

Sensitivity Range Output
10 mV/g 50 mV/g 100 mV/g 500 mV/g +/- 500 g +/- 100 g +/- 50 g +/- 10 g +/- 5 VAC +/- 5 VAC +/- 5 VAC +/- 5 VAC

Application
A 500 mV/g accelerometer will have a dynamic range of +/- 10 gs, and a dynamic output of +/- 5 volts AC. This high output sensor is typically used for low speed equipment, low frequency measurements, and low amplitude analysis. The high output provides a much better signal to noise ratio for low amplitude signals.

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Mounting Location
Vertical

Load Zone 9Axial Radial 9Vertical 9Horizontal

Axial Horizontal

Vibration Institute, Basic Machinery Vibrations & Machinery Vibration Analysis

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Mounting Location
Load Zone 9Axial Radial 9Vertical 9Horizontal

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Accelerometer Alarms
Machine Condition Velocity Limit rms peak < 0.08 < 0.12 0.12 - 0.28 > 0.28 < 0.16 < 0.24 0.24 - 0.7 > 0.7 Acceptance of new or repaired equipment Unrestricted operation (normal) Surveillance Unsuitable for Operation

Note #1: The rms velocity (in/sec) is the band power or band energy calculated in the frequency spectrum. Note #2: The peak velocity (in/sec) is the largest positive or negative peak measured in the time waveform.

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Velocity Sensors
9 9

9 9 9 9 9 9

Self Generating no power supply required Magnet inside coil generates velocity proportional to vibration Spring mass system 10 Hz. to 1000 Hz. Phase change Directional mounting Large & Heavy 500 mV/inch/sec

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PiezoVelocity Sensors
9 9 9

Remember everything that you just learned about an accelerometer The output of the accelerometer has been integrated to velocity 100 mV/inch/sec

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Proximity Probes, Cables, & Drivers

9 9

Overview Technical Background Technical Specifications Applications

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5 Meter & 9 Meter Systems

Proximity Probe

Typical lengths: 0.5 and 1.0 meters

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5 Meter & 9 Meter Systems

Extension Cable

Probe Length + Extension Cable Length must equal 5 or 9 meters in system length

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5 Meter & 9 Meter Systems

Driver

Electronics tuned for 5 or 9 meter systems

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Application
9 Measure Displacement
9 Vibration in plain bearing applications 9 Non Contact sensing of the shaft 9 Ideal for measuring:
9 Shaft vibration 9 Shaft centerline position 9 Shaft axial position (Thrust Bearing) 9 Rod drop 9 Speed (key phaser)

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Common Applications
9Compressors 9Steam Turbines 9Pumps 9Fans 9Blowers 9Generators 9Gear Boxes Plain Bearings 9 Journal Bearings 9 Fluid Film Bearings 9 Babbitt Bearings 9 Sleeve Bearings 9 Tilting Pad Bearings 9 Recips (cross head)
9

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Displacement Probes Advantages

9 9 9 9 9 9 9

Non-contact Measure relative shaft vibration Measure shaft centerline position (DC gap) Measure axial position (Thrust) Flat frequency response dc 10KHz Simple calibration Suitable for harsh environments

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Displacement Probes Disadvantages

9 9 9 9 9 9

Probe can move (vibrate) Doesnt work on all metals Plated shafts may give false measurement Plated shaft is round, but core Measurement is affected by material is not.. scratches & tool marks in shaft Available system lengths (probe, cable & driver) 5 meter or 9 meter are standard Must have relief at sensing tip from surrounding metal (counter bore)
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Technical Background
Driver Cable Probe The tip of the probe emits a radio frequency signal into the surrounding area as a magnetic field

Target

As a conductive target intercepts the magnetic field, eddy currents are generated on the surface of the target, and power is drained from the radio frequency signal

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Technical Background
Driver

Power varies with target movement in the radio frequency field creating Cable a variation in the output voltage of the driver
Probe
- A small DC voltage indicates that the target is close to the probe tip - A large DC voltage indicates that the target is far away from the probe tip

Target

- The variation of DC voltage is the AC dynamic signal indicating the vibration (displacement)

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Sensitivity, Range, Response

Driver Cable
Typical non-contact displacement sensor for measuring shaft vibration on a sleeve or journal bearing.

Probe

Sensitivity
Eddy Currents Shaft Journal/Sleeve

200 mV/mil (8 V/mm) 10 90 mils (.25 2.3 mm) DC 10 kHz

Dynamic Range Frequency Response

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Linearity
Gap mils 10 20 30 40 50 60 Gap mm 0.25 0.51 0.76 1.02 1.27 1.52 1.78 2.03 2.29 2.54 Output VDC -2.01 -3.97 -5.90 -7.88 -9.87 -11.80 -13.80 -15.69 -17.66 -19.58

200 mV/mil x 50 mils = -10.00 VDC

70 80 90 100

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Materials & Output Values

9 Typical
9 200 mv/mil (8 V/mm)
9

Calibration Examples
Copper Aluminum Brass Tungsten Carbide Stainless Steel Steel 4140, 4340 380 mV/mil 370 mV/mil 330 mV/mil 290 mV/mil 250 mV/mil 200 mV/mil

9 Depends on probe, 9 9 cable (length), and 9 driver. 9 9 Target material varies 9 output.

Based on typical output sensitivity of 200 mV/mil. (8 V/mm)

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Its a Harsh World Out There!

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Driver to Driven

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API Standard 670

(Typical Information)

American Petroleum Institute 4th Edition, December 01, 2000 www.techstreet.com $168.00 USD/Copy

Industry Standard for Proximity Probes

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Technical Background
Vertical (Y) Horizontal (X)

Probe orientation based on facing Driver to Driven

Gap Shaft Journal/Sleeve

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DC Gap with Dynamic AC

Time Record 1 -9.75 V

DC Gap A negative voltage level proportional to the gap spacing Dynamic AC

30 mV p-p VAC Dynamic -10.00 VDC Gap

Real

Varying DC voltage simulates dynamic AC voltage for vibration output

-10.25 0 s 79.96092 ms

30 mV/(200 mV/mil) = 0.15 mils p-p

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Looking at Orbits with a Scope

Vertical for Amplitude Y

Horizontal for Time Base X

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The Orbit Display

Y

X
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Rolling the Scope

Machine Vertical

Machine Horizontal

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Modern Instrumentation & Orbits

Modern instrumentation can compensate for the location of the X and Y probes providing a true machine vertical and horizontal measurement.

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115

Proximity Probe Alarms

Machine Condition Allowable R/C < 3,600 RPM < 10,000 RPM 0.3 0.3 - 0.5 0.5 0.7 0.2 0.2 - 0.4 0.4 0.6

Normal Surveillance Planned Shutdown Unsuitable for Operation

Note #1: R is the relative displacement of the shaft measured by either probe in mils peak-peak. Note #2: C is the diametrical clearance (difference between shaft OD and journal ID) measured in mils.

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Absolute Shaft Displacement

Vertical (Y) 1. Measure the vertical shaft displacement. 2. Measure the vertical casing velocity. 3. Include phase
Jack D. Peters - CTC

Velocity

Horizontal (X)

Vertical Measures D = 2.85 milsp-p @1650 V = 0.24 IPSpk @ 2110 3600 RPM

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Graphical Addition
Vertical Measures D = 2.85 milsp-p @1650 V = 0.24 IPSp @ 2110 1800 Velocity leads displacement by 900 2110 - 900 = 1210 Dp-p = 2[0.24/(2f)] Dp-p = 2[0.24/(6.28x60)] D = 1.27 milsp-p @ 1210 2700
118

900
3.86 milsp-p @ 1520 1.27 milsp-p @ 1210 2.85 milsp-p @ 1650

00

Jack D. Peters - CTC

Mathematical Addition
D = 2.85 milsp-p @1650 D = 1.27 milsp-p @ 1210
y = 2.85 milsp-p x sin y = 0.74 milsp-p y = 1.27 milsp-p x sin 1210 y = 1.09 mils p-p y = 0.74 + 1.09 = 1.83 milsp-p x = 2.85 milsp-p x cos 1650 x = -2.75 milsp-p x = 1.27 milsp-p x cos 1210 x = -0.65 milsp-p x = - 2.75 + - 0.65 = - 3.40 milsp-p 1650 D = y2 + x2 D = 1.832 + (-3.40)2 D = 3.86 milsp-p 3.86 milsp-p 1.83 milsp-p

900

1800

@ 1520 -3.4 milsp-p

00

900 + acos 1.83/3.86 900 + 620 = 1520

2700
119

Jack D. Peters - CTC

Shaft Centerline
Bore Dia. On Centers Zero RPM Shaft Dia. CCW Rotation CW Rotation

Diametrical Clearance

Jack D. Peters - CTC

120

Shaft Centerline @ Zero RPM

Diametrical Clearance = 8 mils

Dia. Clr. / 2 = Radial Clr. = 4 mils

Jack D. Peters - CTC

121

Plotting Shaft Position Change

Y -450

X +450

At Running Speed CCW Rotation Y = -1 mil X = +2 mils Shaft Change = 2.24 mils @ 71.60

Jack D. Peters - CTC

122

Attitude Angle & Eccentricity Ratio

Shaft Attitude Angle Y -450 X +450 320 Typical 200 to 500 Eccentricity Ratio =
5 3.8 s l mi

Rad Clr 4 mils

3.85 mils/ 4.0 mils = .96 Typical >.7 < 1.0 0 = On Centers 1 = Contact

32

Jack D. Peters - CTC

123

Axial Shaft Position (Thrust)

Shaft

Two axial oriented probes are used for redundancy to monitor the axial movement of the shaft or thrust collar.

Jack D. Peters - CTC

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Natural Frequency
A result of the Mass (m) and Stiffness (k) of the machine design 9 Resonance occurs when a natural frequency is excited by a force 9 Critical speed occurs when the machine speed matches the natural frequency and creates resonance
9

Jack D. Peters - CTC

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Natural Frequency
X:164.0625 ms dX:554.6875 ms Time Record 1 2 G Y:1.379613 G dY:-729.2974 mG

Time Waveform

TIME1.63

Real

-2 0 s X:109.125 Hz Auto Pwr Spec 1 0.3 G rms Real Y:214.7374 mG 8 s

Frequency Spectrum
HZ1.63

0 50.00001 Hz 150 Hz

Jack D. Peters - CTC

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fn = [1/(2)] k/m

INCREASE the stiffness ( k ) INCREASE the frequency (f)

INCREASE the mass ( m ) DECREASE the frequency ( f )

Jack D. Peters - CTC

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Natural Frequency

fN = [1/(2 )] k/m

10 lbs.

30 lbs.

50 lbs. Pull Strength

95 lbs.

Frequency Response 2000 Hz. k/m k/m k/m k/m

Jack D. Peters - CTC

129

Bump Testing Set-up

UNIFORM WINDOW
9 9 9 9 9 9

Take your time Bump around Do not over range or clip the input signal 800 1600 lines of resolution Try some different frequency spans Only 1 bump for each time record About 4 averages (depends on noise)

Jack D. Peters - CTC

130

Why the Uniform Window ?

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131

Bump It ! Two Responses !

X:23.4375 ms dX:76.17188 ms Time Record 1 2 G Y:1.63297 G dY:-1.36474 G

Time Waveform
TIME4.63

Real

-2 0 s X:58.75 Hz X:65.5 Hz X:70.75 Hz Auto Pwr Spec 1 0.015 G rms Real 0 0 Hz 100 Hz Y:8.550765 mG Y:12.23725 mG Y:8.475402 mG 1 s

Frequency Spectrum
HZ4.63

Jack D. Peters - CTC

132

Mental Health Check !

X:23.4375 ms dX:76.17188 ms Time Record 1 2 G Y:1.63297 G dY:-1.36474 G

Time Waveform
TIME4.63

76.17 msec/5 = 15.23 msec F = 1/0.01523 sec = 65.64 Hz

0 s X:58.75 Hz X:65.5 Hz X:70.75 Hz Auto Pwr Spec 1 Y:8.550765 mG Y:12.23725 mG Y:8.475402 mG 1 s

Real

-2

Frequency Spectrum
HZ4.63

0.015 G rms Real 0 0 Hz

65.5 Hz

100 Hz

Jack D. Peters - CTC

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Using the Time Waveform

X:23.4375 ms X:99.60938 ms Time Record 1 2 G Y:1.63297 G Y:268.2297 mG

Time Waveform
TIME4.63

A0 = 1.633 G An = 0.268 G

F = 1/0.01523 sec = 65.64 Hz n = 5 cycles LN = natural log

Real

-2 0 s

1 s

Log decrement = (1/n)[LN(A0/An)] = (1/5)[LN(1.633/0.268)] = 0.36 Damping ratio = Log dec/2Pi = 0.36/2Pi = 0.36/6.28 = 0.057 Amplification factor = 1/(2*Damping) = 1/(2*0.057) = 8.68
Jack D. Peters - CTC 134

Using the Spectrum

X:58.75 Hz X:65.5 Hz X:70.75 Hz Auto Pwr Spec 1 0.015 G rms Real 0 0 Hz Y:8.550765 mG Y:12.23725 mG Y:8.475402 mG

Frequency Spectrum
HZ4.63

F = 65.5 Hz f2 = 70.75 Hz f1 = 58.75 Hz -3dB

100 Hz

Find the 3dB points = AF * .707 = 12.24 mG * .707 = 8.65 mG Find the frequencies at the 3dB points (f1 and f2) Amplification factor = F/ (f2 - f1) = 65.5/(70.75 58.75) = 5.46
Jack D. Peters - CTC 135

Bump Testing Summary

Take your time Choose your weapon Bump around Uniform Window Look at the time waveform Look at the frequency spectrum

Do a mental health check Calculate the amplification factor Change the mass Change the stiffness Add damping Bump around

Jack D. Peters - CTC

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1x (Running Speed)
9

Mass Unbalance 1X
Critical Speed 1X 9 Misalignment 1x, 2x, 3x 9 Looseness 1X, 2X, 3X, 4X, 5X, .Nx 9 Runout 1X
9

Jack D. Peters - CTC

137

1x Mass Unbalance
X:30 Hz X:60 Hz FREQ 1 0.7 inch rms Magnitude 0 0 Hz TIME 1 1.5 inch 100 Hz Y:584.5464 minch Y:88.18431 minch

fT = 1 ? 1600 Lines

1x 2x

Real

-1.5 0 s 15.99609 s

Jack D. Peters - CTC

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1x Mass Unbalance
FREQ 1 0.7 inch rms Magnitude

Ft = 1 ? 1600 Lines

0 0 Hz TIME 1 1.5 inch 6.4 kHz

Real

-1.5 0 s 249.939 ms

Jack D. Peters - CTC

139

1x Mass Unbalance
X:30 Hz X:60 Hz FREQ 1 0.7 inch rms Magnitude 0 0 Hz TIME 1 1.5 inch Y:584.5464 minch Y:88.18431 minch

FT 1 ! But it makes a nice set of plots to analyze !

1x 2x
100 Hz

Primarily 1x

Real

-1.5 0 s 249.939 ms

Jack D. Peters - CTC

140

1x, 2x, 3x Misalignment

1x 2x

1x 2x

Jack D. Peters - CTC

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1x, 2x, 3x Misalignment

1x Angular Misalignment

2x Offset Misalignment

Look for a 1800 phase shift across the coupling in axial vibration measurements. Be careful with the way you mount the accelerometer. Dont create the 1800 phase shift by flipping the accelerometer around.
Jack D. Peters - CTC 142

Rolling Element Bearings

9

9 9

Rolling element bearings will not generate frequencies that are even multiples of running speed. They are non-synchronous. They often generate low amplitudes They have stages of failure starting with high frequency stress waves deteriorating to low frequency components. When the vibration gets better shut the machine off immediately!

Jack D. Peters - CTC

143

Rolling Element Bearing Frequencies Inner Race Rotates

FTF = (Hz/2)[1-(B/P)cosCA] BPFO = (N/2)Hz[1-(B/P)cosCA] BPFI = (N/2)Hz[1+(B/P)cosCA] BSF = (PHz/2B){1-[(B/P)cosCA]2} Where: Hz. = rotor speed in cps N = number of rolling elements B = ball diameter P = pitch diameter CA = contact angle
Jack D. Peters - CTC 144

Inner race and shaft rotate. Outer race is held or fixed.

Rolling Element Bearing Frequencies Outer Race Rotates

FTF = (Hz/2)[1+(B/P)cosCA] BPFO = (N/2)Hz[1+(B/P)cosCA]
No Rotation

BPFI = (N/2)Hz[1-(B/P)cosCA] BSF = (PHz/2B){1-[(B/P)cosCA]2} Where: Hz. = rotor speed in cps N = number of rolling elements B = ball diameter P = pitch diameter CA = contact angle
Jack D. Peters - CTC 145

Inner race and shaft fixed. Outer race rotates.

Approximate Rolling Element Bearing Frequencies

Approximate Calculations when Inner Race Rotates

Ball Pass Frequency Outer Race BPFO = .41 x number of rolling elements x speed Ball Pass Frequency Inner Race BPFI = .59 x number of rolling elements x speed Ball Spin Frequency BSF = .22 x number of rolling elements x speed Fundamental Train Frequency (Cage Frequency) FTF = .41 x speed

Jack D. Peters - CTC

146

Rolling Element Bearings (BPFI)

1.2 9 - CENTER ROLL 532E044D -MIH MOTOR INBOARD HORIZONTAL Route Spectrum 21-Feb-04 08:37:46

0.9 PK Velocity in mm/Sec

0.6

SKF 6326 7.66 FTF 43.01 BSF 61.31 BPFO 95.26 BPFI

OVERALL= 5.20 V-AN PK = 2.13 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1174. (19.57 Hz)

0.3

0 0 300 600 Frequency in Hz 900 1200 Freq: 589.03 Ordr: 30.10 Spec: .289 Dfrq: 94.91

Jack D. Peters - CTC

147

Rolling Element Bearings (BPFI)

20 15 9 - CENTER ROLL 532E044D -MIH MOTOR INBOARD HORIZONTAL Route Waveform 21-Feb-04 08:37:46 RMS = 3.52 LOAD = 100.0 RPM = 1506. (25.09 Hz) CF ALARM PK(+) = 17.23 PK(-) = 17.94 CRESTF= 5.10

10

Acceleration in G-s

5 PK ALARM PK ALARM -5

Angel Fish Impacts create Resonance of Inner Ring

150 200

-10

CF ALARM

-15

-20 0 50 100 Time in mSecs

Jack D. Peters - CTC

148

Rolling Element Bearings

ft = 1 ? t is very small F is very high
F max
Jack D. Peters - CTC 149

Rolling Element Bearings

ft = 1 ? t is longer f is lower
F max
Jack D. Peters - CTC 150

Rolling Element Bearings

ft = 1 ? T is really long f is really low
F max
Jack D. Peters - CTC 151

Rolling Element Bearings ?

As the frequency gets lower bad things are happening !

Jack D. Peters - CTC

152

Rolling Element Bearings ?

Jack D. Peters - CTC

153

Rolling Element Bearings ?

Jack D. Peters - CTC

154

Gear Mesh
Number of Teeth x Speed of the Shaft it is mounted on. 9 Sidebands around gear mesh will be spaced at the shaft speed the gear is mounted on. 9 Typically the vibration will be in the axial direction
9

Jack D. Peters - CTC

155

Gear Mesh & Shaft Speeds

1776 RPM (29.6 Hz) 46T 149T 25T 29T 16.09 Hz (965.2 RPM) 3.13 Hz (187.9 RPM)

Shaft Speeds Inter Speed = 29.6(25/46) = 16.09 Hz 16.09 x 60 = 965.2 CPM Output Speed = 16.09(29/149) = 3.13 Hz 3.13 x 60 = 187.9 CPM

Gear Mesh GMH = 29.6 x 25 = 740 Hz 740 x 60 = 44,400 CPM GML = 16.09 x 29 = 466.6 Hz 466.6 x 60 =27,996 CPM

Jack D. Peters - CTC

156

Gear Mesh with Sidebands of Shaft Speed

X:30.59605 Hz X:31.82788 Hz X:33.05971 Hz 1 0.1 psi rms Magnitude 0 20 Hz Y:31.80463 mpsi Y:89.65971 mpsi Y:25.62417 mpsi

Gear Mesh = 31.828 Hz Sideband spacing = 1.232 Hz 1.232 Hz x 60 = 73.9 CPM 73.9 RPM = Shaft Speed

Zoom Window

40 Hz

Jack D. Peters - CTC

157

Fans
9

Blade Pass
Number of Blades x Speed of the Shaft the rotor is mounted on. 9 Look at the damper and duct work for flow and restrictions. 9 Blade clearance, discharge angle, wear & tear
9

Unbalance, misalignment, bearings

Jack D. Peters - CTC 158

Pumps
9

Vane Pass
9 9 9

Number of Vanes x Speed of the Shaft the rotor is mounted on. Look at the input and output pressures Vane clearance, discharge angle, wear & tear Random noise in FFT & Time Waveform Axial shuttling, High back pressure, Low flow rate Fluid being forced back into pump Random noise in the FFT & Time Waveform Audible noise, Low back pressure, High flow rate Air entrained in fluid

Recirculation
9 9 9

Cavitation
9 9 9

Unbalance, misalignment, bearings

Jack D. Peters - CTC

159

Motors (synchronous)
9 9 9

Synchronous Speed
9

(2 x Line Frequency)/number of poles 2 x Line Frequency and Multiples Sidebands Around Running Speed = Slip Frequency x Number of Poles with Multiples

Stator
9

Rotor
9

Unbalance, Misalignment, Bearings

Jack D. Peters - CTC 160

Bibliography
9 9 9 9

9 9

Eisenmann, Robert Sr. & Eisenmann, Robert Jr., Machinery Malfunction Diagnosis and Correction, ISBN 0-13-240946-1 Eshleman, Ronald L., Basic Machinery Vibrations, ISBN 09669500-0-3 Vibration Institute, Basic Machinery Vibrations & Machinery Vibration Analysis LaRocque, Thomas, Vibration Analysis Design, Selection, Mounting, and Installation, Application Note, Connection Technology Center Agilent Technologies, The Fundamentals of Signal Analysis, Application note 243 Agilent Technologies, Effective Machinery Measurements using Dynamic Signal Analyzers, Application note 243-1

Jack D. Peters - CTC

161

Thank You !
You can find technical papers on this and other subjects at

www.ctconline.com
in the Technical Resources section

Jack D. Peters - CTC

162