Electronics

Principles & Applications

Sixth Edition

Solving DC Analysis and

Plotting Load Line with Q Point
 INTRODUCTION

•Load Line
•Q Point
•Common-Emitter Amplifier
•Voltage Divider Bias
 1.5 V 5V

In Amplifier Out

The units cancel

5V
Out
Gain = = 3.33
InV
1.5
A small-signal amplifier can also be called a voltage amplifier.

Common-emitter amplifiers are one type.

The emitter terminal is grounded

Start with Next,
andThen
A coupling
Add
an NPN
Connect
commonaapower
load
a base
capacitor
abipolarresistor
bias
signal
to the resistor
issupply
often required
junction
source
input andtransistor
output signal circuits.

RB RL
VCC
C
B
CC E
 The output
is phase inverted.
RB RL
VCC
C
B
CC E
The maximum value of VCE for this circuit is 14 V.

The maximum value of IC is 14 mA.

These are the limits for this circuit.

14 V
IC(MAX) =
1 kΩ

350 kΩ 1 kΩ
14 V
C
B
CC E
 The load line connects the limits.
This end is called The linear region is between the limits.
saturation.
SAT. 14 100 μA
LINEAR
12 80 μA
10 60 μA
IC in mA 8
6 40 μA
4 20 μA
2
0 μA
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
This end is called cutoff. CUTOFF
Use Ohm’s Law to determine the base current:

14 V
IB = = 40 μA
350 kΩ

350 kΩ 1 kΩ
14 V
C
B
CC E
 An amplifier can be operated at any point along the load line.
The base current in this case is 40 μA.

14 100 μA
12 Q 80 μA
10 60 μA
IC in mA 8
6 40 μA
4 20 μA
2
0 μA
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
Q = the quiescent point
 The input signal varies the base
current above and below the Q point.

14 100 μA
12 80 μA
10 60 μA
IC in mA 8
6 40 μA
4 20 μA
2
0 μA
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
 Overdriving the amplifier causes clipping.

14 100 μA
12 80 μA
10 60 μA
IC in mA 8
6 40 μA
4 20 μA
2
0 μA
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
The output is non-linear.
 What’s wrong with this Q point?

14 100 μA
12 80 μA
10 60 μA
IC in mA 8
6 40 μA
4 20 μA
2
0 μA
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts
How about this one?
 14 V
IB = = 40 μA
350 kΩ
IC = β x IB = 150 x 40 μA = 6 mA
VRL = IC x RL = 6 mA x 1 kΩ = 6 V
VCE = VCC - VRL = 14 V - 6 V = 8 V
This is a good Q point for linear amplification.

350 kΩ 1 kΩ
14 V
C
B
CC E β = 150
 14 V
IB = = 40 μA (IB is not affected)
350 kΩ
IC = β x IB = 350 x 40 μA = 14 mA (IC is higher)
VRL = IC x RL = 14 mA x 1 kΩ = 14 V (VR is higher)
L
VCE = VCC - VRL = 14 V - 14 V = 0 V (VCE is lower)
This is not a good Q point for linear amplification.

350 kΩ 1 kΩ
14 V
C
B
CC E β = 350
β is higher
 The higher β causes
saturation.
14 100 μA
12 80 μA
10 60 μA
IC in mA 8
6 40 μA
4 20 μA
2
0 μA
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
VCE in Volts

The output is non-linear.

This common-emitter amplifier is not practical.

It’s β dependent!
It’s also temperature dependent.

RB RL
VCC
C
B
CC E
 Basic C-E Amplifier Quiz
The input and output signals in C-E
are phase ______________. inverted
The limits of an amplifier’s load line
are saturation and _________. cutoff

Linear amplifiers are normally operated

near the _________ of the load line. center
The operating point of an amplifier is
also called the ________ point. quiescent
Single resistor base bias is not practical
since it’s _________ dependent. β
This common-emitter amplifier is practical.

RB1 RL
VCC
CC C
B
E
RB2
RE

It uses voltage divider bias and

emitter feedback to reduce β sensitivity.
 +VCC

Voltage divider bias

RL
RB1

RB1 and RB2 form

a voltage divider

RB2 RE
 Voltage divider +VCC

bias analysis:

RB1

RB2
VB = VCC +VB
RB1 + RB2

The base current is normally RB2

much smaller than the divider
current so it can be ignored.
 Solving the practical circuit for its dc conditions:

VCC = 12 V RB2
VB = x VCC
RB1 + RB2

RB1 22 kΩ RL= 2.2 kΩ

2.7 kΩ
C VB = x 12 V
2.7 kΩ + 22 kΩ
B
E VB = 1.31 V
RB2 2.7 kΩ
RE = 220 Ω
 Solving the practical circuit for its dc conditions:

VCC = 12 V

RB1 22 kΩ RL= 2.2 kΩ VE = VB - VBE

C
VE = 1.31 V - 0.7 V = 0.61 V
B
E
RB2 2.7 kΩ
RE = 220 Ω
 Solving the practical circuit for its dc conditions:

VCC = 12 V
VE
IE =
RB1 22 kΩ RL= 2.2 kΩ RE

C 0.61 V
IE = = 2.77 mA
B 220 Ω
E
RB2 2.7 kΩ IC ≅ IE
RE = 220 Ω
 Solving the practical circuit for its dc conditions:

VCC = 12 V VRL = IC x RL

VRL = 2.77 mA x 2.2 kΩ

RB1 22 kΩ RL= 2.2 kΩ VRL = 6.09 V
C VCE = VCC - VRL - VE
B
E VCE = 12 V - 6.09 V - 0.61 V
RB2 2.7 kΩ
RE = 220 Ω VCE = 5.3 V

A linear Q point!
 Review of the analysis thus far:
1. Calculate the base 4. Determine the drop
voltage using the across the collector
voltage divider resistor.
equation. 5. Calculate the collector
2. Subtract 0.7 V to get to emitter voltage
the emitter voltage. using KVL.
3. Divide by emitter 6. Decide if the Q-point
resistance to get the is linear.
emitter current. 7. Go to ac analysis.
 Solving the practical circuit for its ac conditions:

VCC = 12 V
The ac emitter resistance is rE:
RB1 22 kΩ RL= 2.2 kΩ
C 25 mV
rE =
IE
B
E 25 mV
RB2 2.7 kΩ rE = = 9.03 Ω
RE = 220 Ω 2.77 mA
 Solving the practical circuit for its ac conditions:

VCC = 12 V
The voltage gain from base to collector:

RB1 22 kΩ RL= 2.2 kΩ RL

AV =
RE + rE
C
B 2.2 kΩ
E AV = = 9.61
220 Ω + 9.03 Ω
RB2 2.7 kΩ
RE = 220 Ω
 Solving the practical circuit for its ac conditions:

VCC = 12 V An emitter bypass capacitor

can be used to increase AV:

RB1 22 kΩ RL= 2.2 kΩ RL

AV =
rE
C
B 2.2 kΩ
E AV = = 244
9.03 Ω
RB2 2.7 kΩ
RE CE
 Practical C-E Amplifier Quiz
β-dependency is reduced with emitter
feedback and voltage _________ bias. divider
To find the emitter voltage, VBE is
subtracted from ____________. VB

To find VCE, VRL and VE are

subtracted from _________. VCC

Voltage gain is equal to the collector

resistance _______ by the emitter resistance. divided
Voltage gain can be increased by
________ the emitter resistor. bypassing