UNIT 9 MICRO-MACHINING

Structure
9.1 9.2 9.3 Introduction
Objectives

Micro-machining

Micro-machining Ion Beam Machining (IBM)

9.3.1 9.3.2 9.3.3 9.3.4 Ion Beam Machining Equipment Mechanism of Material Removal Parametric Study Applications

9.4

Electron Beam Machining (EBM)

9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 Equipment Process Parameters and Characteristics Applications

9.5

Magnetic Abrasive Finishing (MAF)

9.5.1 9.5.2 9.5.3 Working Principle Material Removal (or Stock Removal) and Surface Finish Magnetic Flux Density

9.6

Chemical Machining (ChM)

9.6.1 9.6.2 9.6.3 Maskants Etchant Merits and Demerits

9.7 9.8

Summary Answers to SAQs

9.1 INTRODUCTION
The unit on micro-machining (-machining) deals with the removal of material in very small quantities. Most of the time, the processes involved in -machining are used mainly for finishing purposes rather than correcting the dimensions. These processes are also used for making micro-miniature-components. During some of these processes, material is removed at atomic or molecular level specially in ion beam machining and elastic emission machining. In case of electron beam machining, material removal takes place due to thermal erosion. Here, the size of beam is so small that even a few micron size diameter holes can be drilled, thousands in numbers, in a few seconds. This process is suitable for -hole drilling in very thin electrically conducting as well as non-conducting sheets. But these processes cannot be employed for finishing large size components. Magnetic abrasive finishing process can be used to produce sub-micron (as low as 8-10 nm) level surface finish on flat and cylindrical (internal as well as external) surfaces. However, to transfer the patterns one would need a process like chemical machining. For example, to produce ICs or very large scale integrated circuits, one has to use photochemical machining which has gone through many developments recently. This unit deals with all the four types of processes mentioned above.

Objectives
After studying this unit, you should be able to understand the working principles of the above mentioned processes, 39

Surface Finishing Processes

select a suitable process depending upon the requirements of the component, and know the mechanism of material removal of each process, know about the basic equipment used for the process, and know various applications of each process.

9.2 MICRO-MACHINING
Machining can be defined in simple words as an operation performed to remove a specified amount of material from the given workpiece in order to produce its desired shape and size economically and accurately. For performing a machining operation, the operator selects the machine tool (m/t), cutting tool (c/t), cutting conditions (speed, feed, and depth of cut) and performs the operation. Sometimes, the inspection of these parts reveals that the accuracy and surface quality are not satisfactory. With the advent of numerical control (NC), computer numerical control (CNC) and direct numerical control (DNC), accuracy, uniformity and repeatability of the machined parts have improved and manufacturing has gained the flexibility. With time, the miniaturisation of the machines and devices has led to the demand for parts with dimensions of the order of micrometers (1 m = 10 6 m). For example, a small bearing in a watch supports a spindle of -gear. The size of the bearing hole is smaller than the size of the microspindle. With its extrapolation, it is quiet safe to say that there is a need to have the machining processes, which are capable of dealing with atomic and molecular dimensions. Hence, such processes come under the category of -machining. The demand of industries for -machining of various types of materials (metallic, ceramic and plastics) is increasing day by day. Conventional machining methods (turning, drilling etc.) with modified versions have been employed for -machining of various types of materials. Conditions for chip production by conventional material removal processes are affected by molecular scale phenomena. The depth of cut is in the range of nanometers (= 10 9 m). It should be noted that with decreasing depth of cut the specific cutting energy (i.e. energy required for removing unit volume of material) increases substantially (Figure 9.1).

Specific Energy

10-1

100

101

102

Depth of cut (mm)

Figure 9.1 : Effect of Change in Depth of Cut on Specific Energy Requirement

In case of advanced machining processes, material is removed, at micro level, either by mechanical means (USM, AJM, MAF), thermal erosion (EBM, LBM), anodic dissolution (ECM), chemical reaction, or combination of two or more processes called hybrid machining. Figure 9.2 shows that the present day -machining processes are capable of making parts of the dimensions smaller than the leg of a housefly. -machining can be classified under precision machining and ultraprecision machining. -machining can produce two dimensional parts comparatively more comfortably than three dimensional parts. In -machining processes employing conventional mechanical means for material removal, the chip-thickness lies in the range of a few nanometer. In

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such cases, the specific cutting energy requirements are high. In non-chipping -machining processes (thermal, chemical or electrochemical dissolution), the specific energy requirement is much higher. Therefore, machinability of the materials in -machining state is an important issue to be considered. -machining processes can be classified as : bulk -machining where comparatively large amount of material is removed compared to surface -machining where the objective is just to improve the surface finish in the sub-micron range. Surface roughness values obtained by these processes have been reported to be as low as the size of an atom or even a fraction of the size of an atom. The natural question that arises now is how to measure such a fine surface finish, or which equipment should be used to measure such low values of surface roughness? Atomic force microscope is the latest equipment used to measure such a low value of surface roughness.

Micro-machining

Leg of a Housefly

Figure 9.2 : Miniaturisation of Components Produced and Comparison with the Length of a Housefly Leg [Ready and Farion, 2001]

9.3 ION BEAM MACHINING (IBM)

Ion Beam Machining (IBM) is an unique mechanical type advanced machining process, where material removal occurs at atomic level. In this process, atoms from the top surface of the workpiece are ejected out by the bombarding ions of other material (gas). The phenomenon would occur only when the impinging ion energy is more than the bonding energy of the atoms at the top surface of the workpiece to be machined. This process is capable of producing surface finish of nanometer (10 9 m) range. In this process, the incident ion hits an atom on the top surface of the workpiece and transfers the momentum to it. If the energy transferred by the incident ion to the workpiece atom is more than the bonding energy of the atoms then there is every likelihood that the atom from the top surface of the workpiece will be detached. This leads to material removal from the work surface atom by atom. By virtue of this method, it is possible to achieve ultimate surface finish that can be thought of, i.e. equal to or even lower than the size of an atom of the workpiece material.

9.3.1 Ion Beam Machining Equipment

The ion beam machining equipment comprises two main components: plasma generation unit, and a device to separate out ions from the plasma. However, the work table which holds the specimen (or workpiece) during machining, also plays a significant role. Plasma source consists of a heated cathode, which is a heated filament (made of tungsten) as shown in Figure 9.3. Due to very high voltage between the anode and cathode, the electrons from the cathode are accelerated towards the anode, and on the way these electrons collide with the plasma gas (say, argon) atoms in the low vacuum chamber (10 4 torr or so). Ar + e Ar+ + 2e A magnetic field coil (Figure 9.3) enables the electrons to move along a spiral path, which increases the distance travelled by the electrons and hence results into increased 41

Surface Finishing Processes

ionization of the gas. The ions are next separated from the plasma, which is done by the extraction grids. This consists of an array of 2 or 3 perforated sheets of carbon or molybdenum such that the holes in each sheet are properly aligned one above another. To separate out the ions from the plasma [MeGeough, 1988], the outer grid (extraction grid at ground potential) is maintained at the negative potential compared to that of the anode and hence it provides the required negative field. To prevent the escape of electrons along with the ions from the plasma, the second grid is held at negative potential below the ground value. Sometimes, a third grid at anode potential is added between the plasma and electron suppressor grid to improve the source performance.

Figure 9.3 : Ion Beam Machining Apparatus [McGeough, 1988]

The beam of ions exiting the neutralization filter enters in the field free zone where the workpiece to be machined is kept. Water-cooled workpiece table can be tilted through any angle between 0 to 90o. It helps in directing the ion beam at an angle on the work surface.

9.3.2 Mechanism of Material Removal

There are two ways in which an ion can hit an atom of the workpiece surface : (a) (b) at an angle, = 90o to the workpiece surface, and at an angle other than 90o to the workpiece surface.

In both of these cases, an ion may have its mass less than, equal to, or greater than the mass of the atom of the workpiece material. Suppose an ion having its mass less than the mass of the atom of target material, hit it at an angle, = 90o to its workpiece surface. The ion in this case will bounce back and the atom may be driven inside the material (Figure 9.4(a)). If the mass of the incident ion is more than that of the surface atom then the ion and the atom both will move towards the interior of the work surface (Figure 9.4(b)). However, the energy imparted to the particles in both the cases (Figures 9.4(a) and (b)) should be greater than the lattice energy of the work material. But in both these cases, there is no removal of atoms (or material) from the workpiece surface. Hence, this situation is not desirable, as far as machining is concerned. The pre-condition for the ejection of an atom from the worksurface is that the incident ion should strike the atom obliquely (0 < < 90o). It is found experimentally that the

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incident momentum vector has a great influence on the ejection process. The atoms eject out mainly in the forward direction.

Micro-machining

Figure 9.4 : Ion (Shaded) Hits at 90o to the Workpiece Surface (After Stuart, 1983)

Figure 9.5 : Effects of Low and High Energies on Atom Removal (After Spencer and Schmidt, 1972) (a) Low Energy Case; (b) High Energy Case

The number of atoms ejected out from the workpiece surface per incident ion is known as sputtering yield. The value of sputtering yield is higher for the case when the incident angle 0o < < 90o as compared to the case when it is = 0o or = 90o. The material removal in IBM depends on the transfer of momentum from the incident ion to the atoms on the surface of the work material. The binding energy of atoms is in the range of 5 to 10 ev. The incident ion should, therefore, transfer momentum greater than this value of binding energy to the work atoms in the appropriate direction to eject them out (Figure 9.5(a)). The magnitude of transferred energy depends on the incident ion energy and the angle of incidence. When an ion has energy much more than the required one to remove one atom, sufficient momentum may be transferred by the impinging ion for several atoms to be removed from the material in a cascade type effect near its surface (Figure 9.5(b)). The incident ion then will get implanted deep into the workpiece material by displacement of many atoms/molecules. This situation is usually not desirable because it can damage the work surface.

9.3.3 Parametric Study

Various researchers have concluded that the sputtering yield mainly depends on the type of workpiece material, the type of atoms and their lattice energy, the angle of incidence and type of ion (or gas), ion energy and in some cases, the gas pressure. These factors affect the machining characteristics (material removal rate and machined surface characteristics specially surface roughness and surface damage (at nano level), if any). It has been found that sputtering yield (number of atoms released per ion) increases non-linearly with incident ion energy. Figure 9.6 shows the effect of ion energy on the sputtering yield. Spencer and Schmidt [1972] have reported that the etching rate is higher at grain boundaries, and is also affected by crystallographic orientation. Typical removal rate by ion beam machining is like 2 m/hour for quartz as work material. As a single ion impinges on the work material, each one can be regarded as removing one atom. Somekh [1976] has also concluded that yield depends on the material being etched (type of atom and their energy), and the angle of incidence of the ion.

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Surface Finishing Processes

Yield, Atoms/Ion

Ion Energy, ev Figure 9.6 : Effect of Ion Energy on Sputtering Yield

It is reported that the introduction of reactive gases in the machining chamber would reduce the bonding energy in the material being etched hence affects the etch rate. On the other hand optimum machining performance occurs at a definite value of . Deviation from the optimum value of leads to a deterioration of performance of the IBM process. It is evident from Figure 9.7, when = 0o then the yield becomes very small, almost zero (point B) because the ions leave the atoms just after touching them on the top surface without separating the atoms from the work surface. When = 90o, most of the atoms are pushed inside the workpiece, hence material removal is very low (point A).

Sputtering Yield, Atoms/Ion

B
o

Ion Incident Angle,

Figure 9.7 : Effect of Incident Angle on Sputtering Yield

9.3.4 Applications
Jolly et. al. (1983) have reported that with IBM it is possible to achieve as small as 100 nm dimensions. It can produce cone and ridge like configurations of the order of 1 m size. IBM has been employed for smoothening of laser mirrors and for changing the thickness of thin films and membranes. Microlevel thinning, polishing and shaping have been employed for the fabrication of magnetic heads and other devices. IBM has been applied for aspherizing of lenses and sharpening of diamond indentors, cutters, and cutting tools. Texturing of surfaces using IBM method on various types of materials has also been possible. Atomically clean surfaces can be obtained by the application of IBM. Being a non-thermal process as compared to EBM and EDM, it does not damage the work surface unless the incident ions possess very high energy that would lead to cascading effect.

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9.4 ELECTRON BEAM MACHINING (EBM )

The process of Electron Beam Machining (EBM) can be divided into two categories : Thermal type and Non-thermal type. In non-thermal EBM process, the electron beam is used to cause a chemical reaction. In the thermal type EBM process, a thermoelectronic cathode is heated to a very high temperature resulting into the release of electrons from the cathode surface. The free electrons are made to travel towards the anode at high speed in the form of a very small diameter electron stream. Thus, a large number of free electrons travel towards the anode per unit time. The velocity of the electrons stream is closer to the velocity of light. The workpiece is heated in a localised area by the bombardment of high velocity electrons beam, to such a high temperature that it melts and, in some cases, and it vaporises also. The kinetic energy of the striking electrons is converted into heat which is responsible for melting and vaporisation of workpiece material. This process can machine both electrically conducting as well as non-conducting materials like metals, ceramics, plastics, etc. Before machining starts, vacuum is created in the machining chamber. However, with present day configuration of the EBM machine, the vacuum is not essential. The diameter or the size of the hole machined in this case is slightly larger than the diameter of the electron beam focussed onto the workpiece surface. The properties of the workpiece surface like strength and hardness do not affect the EBM performance. On the exit side of the hole or cavity being made, the synthetic or organic backing material is placed. The electron beam after complete penetration into the workpiece, partly penetrates into the auxiliary backing material, which vaporises and flows out of drilled hole at a high pressure. This helps in expulsion of the molten material out of the cavity along with the vaporized backing material. This process can be used to make circular as well as non-circular holes. The electron beam can be deflected with the help of the computer control, along the perimeter of the hole to be produced. However, usually, the beam is kept stationary but the work-table is moved in the desired path with the help of computer numerical control (CNC).

Micro-machining

9.4.1 Equipment
There are three important elements of EBM equipment, viz., vacuum system, electron beam gun and the DC power supply. Electron Beam Gun (Figure 9.8) is used to produce electrons beam of the desired size, and to focus at the predetermined location. EBM gun is operated in the pulsed mode. A superheated cathode (tungsten filament type) generates the electrons cloud. Sometimes cathode may be used as a solid block indirectly heated by radiation emitted from a filament. Due to the force of repulsion from the cathode, electrons move at a very high acceleration towards the anode, which attracts them. The velocity with which electrons pass through the anode is approximately 66% that of light. On the path of electrons, there is a kind of switch (bias electrode), which generates pulses. A magnetic lens is used to shape the electrons beam into a converging beam. This beam is passed through a variable aperture to reduce the diameter of the focussed beam by removing the stray electrons. Deflection coils are used to pinpoint the location of the beam. The electric power supply generates a voltage as high as 150 kV in order to help accelerate the electrons. The system usually operates at about 12 kW and an individual pulse energy as high as 120 J/pulse. The power density at the work surface is very high which is capable to melt and vaporize any workpiece material. The electrons beam generation and the machining take place in a vacuum chamber. The vacuum of the order of 10 4 10 5 torr helps in two ways: it does not allow rapid oxidation of incandescent filament and also there is no loss of energy of electrons as a result of collision with air or neutral gas molecules. 45

Surface Finishing Processes

9.4.2 Process Parameters and Characteristics

The important parameters in EBM process are the beam current, duration of pulse, lens current and signals for the deflection of beam. The values of these parameters during EBM are controlled with the help of a computer.

Figure 9.8 : Schematic Diagram of Electron Beam Machining System [McGeough, 1988]

Beam current varies from 100 A to 1A and it governs the rate at which a hole can be drilled. It also affects the HAZ as well as thickness of the recast layer which is normally 25 m or less. HAZ should be kept as small as possible. The working distance is defined as the distance between the electron beam gun and the focal point. The working distance and the focussed beam size (diameter) are determined by the magnitude of the lens current. It is always desirable to have the focal point of the electron beam lying on the workpiece surface being machined. Hence, in case of deep holes, the linear material removal rate and feed rate should always be equal. The shape of the hole along its axis (straight, tapered, etc.) is determined by the location of the focal point above or below the top surface of the workpiece. To obtain a hole shape other than circular and to cut large size holes, trepanning operation concept should be used. To execute the concept of trepanning, relative movement between the electrons beam and workpiece can be programmed on a CNC-EBM machine. It is experimentally found that hole drilling rate decreases as the diameter of the hole increases as shown in Figure 9.9.

Figure 9.9 : Effect of Depth of Hole on the Hole Drilling Rate for Different Diameters

As can be seen in Figure 9.8, the workpiece has no electric polarity. Hence, this process can be used to machine both electrically conductive as well as non-conductive materials, viz. Ni, Cu, Al, ceramics, leather, plastics, etc. It has been observed that at the entry side 46

of the electron beam, a small size burr (a solidified layer) is left out. Material removal rate of the EBM process is not influenced significantly by the physical, mechanical and metallurgical properties of workpiece material. This process can machine small diameter (0.1 to 1.4 mm) high aspect ratio (up to 15 : 1) holes to a large depth (say, 10 mm). The geometry of the hole and the depth of the hole to be drilled determine the average machining rate (or penetration rate). Fragile (or brittle), thin, and low strength workpieces can be easily machined by this process because no mechanical force is exerted on to the work. Further, by tilting the workpiece appropriately, off-the-axis holes and inclined holes can also be machined (Figure 9.10). However, very high temperature gradient produced during the process may result into the generation of residual thermal stresses.

Micro-machining

Figure 9.10 : Off-axis-hole Drilling using EBM

The EBM equipment cost is very high. The operator should be skilled one. Thermal properties of the workpiece material and the pulse energy [Kaczmarek, 1976] determine the quality of the edges of a hole produced. The heat-affected zone (HAZ) depends upon beam current, feed rate and the diameter of the hole being drilled.

9.4.3 Applications
To make complex shape accurate workpieces, the EBM machine parameters like beam power, focus, and mechanical motions are numerically controlled. This process is commonly used for making fine gas orifices in space nuclear reactors, very fine holes in dies, metering holes in injector nozzles, etc. It is being used for pattern generation in case of integrated circuit fabrication. This process is used for making thousands of holes (dia. < 1 mm) in very thin plates used for turbine engine combustor dome, filters used in textile and food processing industries and similar other applications. This process is also used in industries like aerospace, insulation, chemical and others.

SAQ 1
(i) Write true (T) or False (F) : (a) Can you achieve surface roughness value smaller than the size of an atom? (i) (ii) (b) Yes, No.

During IBM, an impinging ion can remove only one atom from the workpiece surface. (i) (ii) True, False.

(c)

During IBM, when an ion hits the work surface the electron also hits the work surface, simultaneously but due to its very low mass it is not able to remove a atom from the workpiece surface.

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Surface Finishing Processes

(i) (ii) (d)

True, False.

A grid used in IBM equipment filters out the ion so that the electrons can pass through it. (i) (ii) True, False.

(e)

Theoretically an ion will remove an atom from the work surface when its incident angle is (i) (ii) (iii) 90o, 0o, and between 0o and 90o. Ion incident angle is usually kept as 90o so that the material removal is maximum possible. Keeping ion incident angle at 90o, it transfers maximum moment to the hitting atom. A and B both are true, A and B are both are false, A is true and B is false, and A is false and B is true. thermal erosion, mechanical erosion, shearing, none of these. electrically conducting materials, ceramics, superalloys, none of these. The KE of electrons is rapidly translated into heat. This heat increases the temperature of the workpiece even beyond its boiling temperature. During EBM, the material removal takes place due to thermal erosion. Make the correct choice : (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) A is true and R is its correct explanation, A and R both are wrong, A is true but R is not correct explaination, A is wrong but R is correct.

(f)

(A) (B)

Make the correct choice. (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (g) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (h) (i) (ii) (iii) (iv) (i) (R)

In EBM, material is removed by

EBM cannot machine

(A)

(j)

Drilling rate increases with the decrease in drilled hole depth and increase in drilled hole diameter. (i) (ii) True, False.

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(k)

A filter consists of thousands of holes per centimeter square. It can be made by (i) (ii) (iii) EBM, AWJM, LBM.

Micro-machining

(ii)

Explain the mechanism of material removal in IBM. achieved during IBM is smaller than the atom size. Explain it.

(iii) Atom cannot be broken still it is claimed that the surface roughness value
(iv) (v) Explain the working principle of EBM process. Can you make 10 mm diameter hole using EBM? Justify your answer.

9.5 MAGNETIC ABRASIVE FINISHING (MAF)

In traditional machining processes, well-defined wedge shaped tools are used to remove the material from the workpiece. In these processes, very low level of forces cannot be applied due to the limitations of machine tools. Secondly, forces acting on the workpiece cannot be controlled by any external means except the cutting conditions (feed, depth of cut and cutting speed). It is still more difficult to control the forces when the cutting is performed using fixed abrasive tools (say, grinding wheel). In the later case, abrasive particles are randomly oriented. Lately, some processes have been developed in which the force acting on an abrasive particle can be externally controlled by magnetic field. As a result, very low values of depth of cut, in a controlled manner, can be achieved. One of such processes is called as magnetic abrasive finishing (MAF). This process can be used for finishing and deburring of flat surfaces as well as cylindrical (internal and external) surfaces. Further, the workpiece to be finished can be made of either ferromagnetic or non-ferromagnetic material.

9.5.1 Working Principle

In MAF process, ferromagnetic abrasive particles are used as the cutting tool. The ferromagnetic abrasive particles may be in bonded or unbonded form. In bonded form, the ferromagnetic particles and abrasive particles are sintered such that the fine abrasive particles, being smaller in size, are embedded in a matrix of ferromagnetic material to form a solid mass as shown in Figure 9.11(a). In unbonded form, a homogeneous mixture of ferromagnetic (iron particles) and abrasive (say, Al2O3, SiC, etc.) particles is used. The magnetic abrasive particles (MAPs) are filled in the gap between the magnetic pole and workpiece, known as machining gap or working gap (Figure 9.11(b)). Figure 9.11(c) shows a ferromagnetic abrasive particle in action in which forces, depth of penetration, etc. are shown. The iron particles are connected to each other magnetically between the two poles (S and N) along the lines of magnetic force forming a flexible magnetic abrasive brush (FMAB). This process can be used for finishing cylindrical workpieces on the external (Figure 9.12(a)) as well as internal surfaces (Figure 9.12(b)). When a cylindrical workpiece with rotary, vibratory, and axial movement is inserted in the magnetic field, the magnetic abrasive brush abrades the work surface [Shinmura et. al., 1990]. The finishing efficiency and quality are greatly influenced by the rigidity of magnetic abrasive brush, which depends on the magnetic flux density. If the workpiece is made of non-magnetic material, the lines of magnetic force go around the workpiece, and if it is of magnetic material then they pass through the workpiece. 49

Surface Finishing Processes

(a) Sintered Ferromagnetic Abrasive Particle

(b) Schematic Diagram of Magnetic Abrasive Finishing of a Flat Workpiece; and (c) Ferromagnetic Abrasive Particle in Action Figure 9.11 : Fmn is Normal Magnetic Force and Ft is Component in Tangential Discretion. A is Sectional Ferromagnetic Abrasive Particle, a1 is Abrasive Particle

Figure 9.12(a) : Schematic Diagram of External Finishing of a Cylindrical Workpiece by Magnetic Abrasives Finishing Process [Kim and Choi, 1995]

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Micro-machining

Figure 9.12(b) : Schematic View of Magnetic Abrasive Finishing [Kim and Choi, 1995]

The mechanism of material removal in MAF can be explained as follows : In Figure 9.11(c), the magnetic abrasive particle (A) is in contact with the workpiece (Figure 9.11(b)) between north pole and south pole of the electromagnet. Due to magnetic force (Fmn), the abrasive particle a1 of the MAP penetrates into the workpiece upto a depth equal to h. The FMAB and the north pole are rotated together by an electric motor. The rotation of FMAB provides sufficient force (Ft) to shear off the material from the workpiece in the form of mini chips. In MAF, the indentation depth is very small, and can be controlled by controlling the magnetic field or the current being supplied to the electromagnet. Magnitude of magnetic force prevailing between the two poles is also affected by the work material and shape, and size of the workpiece. In addition, the shape and size of the magnetic poles also affect the system performance. These factors, therefore, should be considered during the design of the system. It is experimentally observed that the pressure exerted by the MAPs is decreased as the clearance (i.e. gap between the magnetic pole and the workpiece) is increased provided the filling density, (g/cm3), of the abrasive grains in the gap remains constant. Figure 9.13 indicates that the magnetic abrasive pressure P acting on the work surface increases as the flux density in the machining gap increases for a given value of the clearance.

Figure 9.13 : Relationship between Magnetic Abrasive Pressure and Magnetic Flux Density for various Values of Clearance [Shinmura et. al., 1985]

As can be seen from Figure 9.11(a), the ferromagnetic particle is of much larger size (= D) as compared to the abrasive particle size (= d). The effective way of changing the force (or finishing pressure) and rigidity of the magnetic abrasive brush is through the change in diameter D of magnetic abrasive particle. Because magnetisation of the ferromagnetic particles is proportional to its volume ( D3), this configuration (larger D) results [Shinmura et. al., 1984] into higher rigidity of the brush and permits the use of only small diameter (d) diamond abrasive particles (which are responsible for actual finishing/material removal) with different sized ferromagnetic particles. A trade-off between d and D is required because these two variables have opposite effects on surface finish and material removal rate. Figure 9.14 shows the effect of finishing time on a change in surface roughness value. Other variables of the MAF process are the type and size of magnetic abrasives, mixing ratio of abrasive with ferromagnetic particles, working clearance, rotational speed, amplitude and frequency of vibration, properties of workpiece material, magnetic flux density and the relative speed of magnetic abrasives with respect to the workpiece

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surface. The effects of these variables on the process response (viz. material removal, machined depth, surface finish, out-of-roundness, and surface integrity) have been studied by several researchers.

9.5.2 Material Removal (or Stock Removal) and Surface Finish

Type and Size of Grains Ferromagnetic particles size governs the normal magnetic force transferred to the workpiece surface and the rigidity of the FMAB. Higher ferromagnetic particle size increases the force acting on it hence increases the grain penetration depth. In the beginning of a finishing operation on a workpiece, the peaks are sharp hence the finishing rate is high but once the peaks loose their sharpness, the finishing rate decreases. Figure 9.14 shows how the surface profile changes with time during a finishing operation. As the ferromagnetic particle size increases, the material removal increases but the surface finish may deteriorate depending upon the time for which finishing operation is performed.

Initial Stage

Intermediate Stage

Final Stage

Figure 9.14 : Surface Profiles at Different Stages during MAF

Work finishing efficiency can remarkably be improved by mixing a small proportion of fine diamond powder with irregular shaped large sized ferromagnetic particles (iron particles) [Shinmura et. al., 1984]. Both the size and mixing proportion of ferromagnetic particles influence characteristics of the finished surface. In some cases, there is an optimum value of mixing weight percentage of ferromagnetic particles for obtaining the best finish and the largest machined depth (Figure 9.15). While finishing Si3N4 fine ceramics, initial surface roughness of 450 nm was efficiently reduced to 40 nm in a small interval of time [Shinmura et. al., 1990].

Figure 9.15 : Change in Machined Depth and Surface Roughness with Mixing Weight Percentage of Iron Particles

9.5.3 Magnetic Flux Density

In MAF process, the machined depth has been found to increase with increase in magnetic flux density (T) and iron particle size (Figure 9.16(a)), and decreases with increase in working clearance (Figure 9.16(b)). It has been reported [Shinmura et. al., 1985] in plane finishing operations, that surface finish improves with the increased magnetic flux density, and the finishing time (Figure 9.17). Further, the grinding burrs are more efficiently removed than turning burrs [Shinmura et. al., 1985].

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This is attributed to the fact that magnetic flux concentrates on the edges of ferromagnetic substance.

Micro-machining

Figure 9.16 : Change in Machined Depth with (a) Magnetic Flux Density; (b) Working Clearance (Magnetic Flux Density : 0.6 T) [Shinmura et. al., 1984]

Figure 9.17 : Variation of the Surface Finish with Finishing Time for Different Magnetic Fields [Shinmura, et. al. 1985]

SAQ 2
(i) Write true (T) or false (F). (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (ii) MAF is not suitable for finishing fine holes. Brass powder and Al2 O3 abrasive particles will form a strong magnetic abrasive brush during MAF. Brass rod can be finished by MAF even though it is non-magnetic in nature. Diamond particles are smaller in size but material removal is done by them, and not by ferromagnetic particles. During MAF, major improvement in surface finish takes place during first few minutes only.

Can you use MAF process to finish a ceramic thin plate (3 mm thick, 20 mm length, 5 mm wide)? If yes, sketch a schematic diagram for the same, else justify your answer. Write the type (material type) and size of the abrasive and magnetic particles used in MAF.

(iii)

9.6 CHEMICAL MACHINING (ChM)

Chemical machining (ChM) is a process used to remove material by chemical dissolution, in a controlled manner, from the workpiece surface by the application of acidic or alkaline solution (i.e. etchant). Maskants (chemically resistant materials) are used to cover the surfaces which are not to be machined. Maskants are the materials

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which do not allow etchants to penetrate through it to reach the work surface to dissolve it. In other words, use of maskants permits machining in the selected area only. The machining or penetration rates that can be achieved in ChM are usually very low (0.013 mm/min to 0.075 mm/min). ChM is employed for producing complex shapes in delicate parts that otherwise would not be possible, viz. making aircraft wing panels, printed circuit boards (PCB), jewellery, thin laminations without burrs, large turbine engine containment rings [Benedict, 1987], aluminium pressure vessel bulkheads, etc. It is used to machine parts as long as 10 m or so. It is also an useful process for finishing of parts to close tolerances and to achieve precision fits. Chemical machining can also be applied to milling and blanking operations. In chemical milling, the material is removed to produce blind details (pockets, channels, etc.), or to reduce the bulk weight. During chemical blanking, the details that usually penetrate the material entirely (holes, slots, etc.) are produced. Chemical machining involves the steps as described below. Preparation Prepare the workpiece by cleaning with alkaline solution or otherwise to have good adhesion of masking material. Masking Apply a thin coating of maskant by cut and peel method, screen method, or photo resist method. Etching Dip the workpiece in the etchant bath for a fixed duration of time. Maskant Removal Take the workpiece out from the etchant bath and remove the maskant. Cleaning Wash the workpiece thoroughly under fresh water. Finishing and Inspection Perform any other post etching operation required and inspect the part. A ChM setup and various stages followed during ChM are shown in Figure 9.18 and Figure 9.19, respectively.

Figure 9.18 : Schematic of Chemical Milling/Machining Setup

To ensure proper adhesion of masking material to the workpiece, proper chemical cleaning of the workpiece is essential. Debonding of maskant during etching operation should not take place else stray etching would occur. The type of the cleaning operation (vapour degreasing, alkaline etching, etc.) to be used depends upon the kind of maskant, kind of work material, and the required machined depth. However, cleaning of porous workpiece material needs precautions. 54

To ensure uniform removal of material from the workpiece, fresh etchant is either continuously sprayed or the component is submerged in the etchant tank. To enhance the material removal rate during ChM, the etchant is agitated and, if necessary, heated as well. For this purpose, an agitator is used, and to heat the etchant, the heating coils are provided as shown in Figure 9.18. The strength of the etchant contaminated with the reaction products should be maintained constant by proper filtration, addition of fresh etchant as well as by periodic discard of a certain percentage of the used etchant. Material removal during ChM takes place both downward (known as machined depth) as well as laterally (under cut) from the exposed surface (Figure 9.20). The factors like depth of cut, the type and strength of the etchant, and the workpiece material govern the extent of undercut. The ratio of undercut and machined depth is known as etch factor (= under cut/machined depth) (Figure 9.20).

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Figure 9.19 : Various Stages of Chemical Machining

In ChM, the machined depth and undercut are governed by immersion time in the etchant. To avoid non-uniform machining, gas bubbles being evolved during the process should not be allowed to get trapped. When the etching is over the parts must be cleaned.

Figure 9.20 : Undercut and Machined Depth during Chemical Machining

Performance of ChM process is influenced by a number of process parameters, viz. the type of etchant, temperature of etchant, type of maskant, method of applying the maskant, and method of circulating the etchant. The surface finish produced during ChM ranges between 0.75-3.75 m.

9.6.1 Maskants
Maskant is the substance which is applied on the workpiece surface so that the workpiece surface is not exposed to the etchant. Hence, no etching will take place in the area which is covered by the maskant. Maskant can be applied either by: cut and peel, or screen print method. The photoresist is a different type of maskant and its working is different from the other two types. The first two categories are classified based on how the maskant is applied on the work surface. Cut and Peel The commonly used maskants are neoprene, butyl, or vinyl based materials. The maskant is applied by either dipping the component in a tank, containing the maskant in liquid form, spraying the maskant on the part, or flow coating. This maskant is first applied to the entire surface and after its solidification it is cut and peeled off from the areas that are to be exposed to the etchant (Figure 9.21). Scribing and peeling off of the maskant is easily done by hand using a template as

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a guide. The thickness of the coating usually ranges from 0.025-0.13 mm. The accuracy obtainable in this process is not high (usually 0.13 to 0.75 mm). Time of etching controls the depth to which material removal takes place. This characteristic can be used to produce a tapered workpiece. In case of cut and peel method, re-scribing is possible. This characteristic can, therefore, be used to produce a stepped component. The general applications of this technique are: ChM of large sized workpieces used in chemical industries, aircraft industries, missile industries, etc. The technique is good for batch production or job shop production.

Maskant Coated Area Marked

Maskant Peeled Off from Marked Area for Etchant Reaction

Figure 9.21 : Cut and Peel Off Method of Chemical Machining

Screen Printing Press the screen against the surface of the part and roll up the maskant which is in liquid state initially. Next, remove the screen and dry the part by baking. The exposed (unmasked) area is the one from which material is to be etched. This technique is good for comparatively high volume production with low accuracy, low etching depth (< 1.5 mm), and for parts sized normally not more than 1.2 m 1.2 m. In this method, a screen usually made of stainless steel, is used to block off the areas that are to be selectively etched. Photoresist Maskant This technique has become very common and is called photochemical machining (PCM). This method is used to produce complicated but accurate shapes and size components. This method consists of the following steps : (a) (b) Prepare an enlarged drawing of the part accounting for the effects of undercut. Photograph the artwork and produce a reduced, highly accurate, photographic master transparency. An alternative to this procedure is to use a laser pattern generator, which receives design data from a CAD system and images (or produces) the features directly onto the photo master film. The magnification (or enlargement) of the artwork can be as high as 50 times of the required size on the workpiece. This will permit an accuracy of 0.1 mm on the original drawing to yield an accuracy of 0.002 mm on the workpiece. The original drawing (enlarged one) is reduced using photographic means, to obtain a negative that will be a master pattern of exactly the same size as the desired finished part. This reduction usually involves many steps, and it is done with the help of industrial photographic equipment. The part to be chemically machined is thoroughly cleaned to remove dirt and oxides (Figure 9.22(a)). Now, apply a thin coating of photoresist (light activated etchant resistant material) and dry by baking (Figure 9.22(b)). Hold the photo master (master pattern) and workpiece together in intimate contact using a vacuum frame (Figure 9.22(c)). Next expose the photo master on the workpiece to strong ultra violet light. This hardens the selected areas of the resist such that it cannot be washed away during the development stage. Remove the negative (master pattern) and develop the

(c)

(d) (e) (f)

56

workpiece. It will dissolve away the areas of resist, which were not exposed to the light (Figure 9.22(d)). (g) Now chemically etch the part, strip off residual photoresist, and inspect (Figures 9.22(e) and (f)).

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The choice of photoresist maskant depends upon a number of factors, viz. it should be resistant to the etchant, it should be easily removable after machining is over, it should not have any chemical effect on the workpiece, and it should be stable at high temperature of the etchant bath. Various steps discussed above are shown in Figure 9.22.
Coating Master Pattern

Cleaned Workpiece

Photoresist Coating Applied

Master Pattern Applied by Vacuum Technique

Developed Photoresist. Soft (Unexposed) Maskant is Washed Away

(a)

(b)

(c)

(d)

Maskant Etch Part Maskant Removed and then Cleaned Part (x-Section)

(e)

(f)

Figure 9.22 : Various Stages of Photochemical Machining

9.6.2 Etchant
Etchant dissolves the work material by changing them into a metallic salt. Commonly used etchants are FeCl3 (for Al, Cu, Ni and their alloys), FeNO3 (for Ag), HF (for Ti), and HNO3 (for tool steel). Some of the factors that should be considered while selecting a etchant are : surface finish, material removal rate, depth of penetration, type of workpiece, type of maskant, damage to the workpiece by etchant, availability, and cost.

9.6.3 Merits and Demerits

ChM can remove material uniformly. With ChM, it is also possible to produce tapered sheets and structural members with close tolerances and good surface finish. Also, this process does not require high degree of skill. The process, however, has certain limitations. Only a few metals can be machined by this process because it is not possible to find an appropriate etchant and maskant for all types of materials. Evolved gases may collect under the maskant and lead to uneven etching of the work. Evolved gases from the system may attack the surrounding equipment. Material removal rate obtained in this process is very low. Chemicals used are corrosive in nature and may be toxic as well. As a result, they may be harmful. In case of chemical machining of alloys, differential machining rates result in poor surface finish. Further, material removal rate goes down with time because the etchant gets contaminated with the reaction products.

SAQ 3
(a) (b) (c) What do you understand by sputtering yield? What is cascade type effect? Explain with the help of a figure. How the work-table is protected from getting damaged by the electron beam which has completely penetrated the workpiece? 57

Surface Finishing Processes

(d) (e) (f)

Can you make a complex shape workpiece using electron beam machining process? Explain. Write four specific applications of EBM process in which application other processes (ECM, EDM, PAM) cannot work. Draw a neat sketch clearly showing lines of magnetic force, magnetic equipotential lines, direction of pressure acting on the w/p, direction of rotatory motion, and a semi-magnetic abrasive particle. During experimentation, it is found that material removal decreases with the increase in working gap. Explain the reason(s).

(g)

9.7 SUMMARY
To achieve a work surface finish of nanometer level, we need a machining process which will remove material from the workpiece surface atom by atom without causing any damage to the surface. Ion beam machining is one such process which gives surface finish value approaching the theoretical limit of surface finish. This unit discusses the IBM material removal mechanism, equipment, machined surface characteristics and surface finish related aspects. It also gives a brief overview of the wide range of applications of the IBM process in the field of ultraprecision finishing. EBM section presents the working principle of electron beam machining. Here, the mechanism of material removal is mainly by vaporization of workpiece material. The EBM equipment usually employs a computer numerical control facility for the movement of workpiece, and for the selection of machining parameters. It is found that the drilling rate in EBM decreases with the increase in depth of hole and increase in diameter of hole. This process can be easily used for very fine holes, complex shapes and off-axis-holes in various kind of materials irrespective of their physical, mechanical, electrical and metallurgical properties. MAF is a magnetic field assisted nano finishing technique. It can be used for finishing magnetic as well as non-magnetic materials having flat or cylindrical (internal as well as external) surfaces. It uses a flexible magnetic abrasive brush which rotates along with north pole as a single body and finishes the parts by removing material in the form of miniature chips. The important parameters that affect the process performance are magnetic field (controlled by working gap, and current to the electromagnet), abrasive grain size and type, work material and its configuration, RPM of the electromagnet and table speed. ChM is a process used to remove material to reduce the component weight, or to give different shape and size to the component. It uses a maskant to protect the areas which are not to be machined while etchant is used to chemically react with the workpiece to give it the desired shape and size. Different types of etchants and maskants are used depending upon the type of workpiece material and the requirements of the component. The parameters that affect the process performance are etchant concentration, etchant temperature, type of etchant and contamination of the etchant. Although expensive but photochemical machining can give much better accuracy than the two other types of photochemical machining processes.

9.8 ANSWERS TO SAQs

58 SAQ 1

(i)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k)

(i) (ii) (ii) (ii) (iii) (ii) (i) (iv) (i) (ii) (i) and (iii)

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SAQ 2 (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) T F T T T

BIBLIOGRAPHY
Allen D. M. (1986), The Principles and Practice of Photo Chemical Machining and Photo Etching, Adam Hilger, Bristol. Bellows G. and Kohls J. B. (March 1985), Drilling without Drills, Special Report 743, American Machinist. Benedict G. F. (1987), Nontraditional Manufacturing Processes, Marcel Dekker Inc., New York. 59

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Bhattacharyya A. (1973), New Technology, The Institution of Engineers (I), Calcutta, India. DeBarr A. E. and Oliver D. A. (1975), Electrochemical Machining, Macdonald and Co. Ltd. Fox M, Agrawal K., Shinmura T., and Komanduri R. (1994), Magnetic Abrasive Finishing of Rollers, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 43, pp. 181-184. Gunter D. (1984), Photochemical Machining, Engineering (London), 224(2), IIV. Jain R. K. and Jain V. K. (1999), Abrasive Fine Finishing Processes A Review, The Int. J. Mfg. Sc. and Production, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp. 55-68. Kaczmarek J. (1976), Principles of Machining by Cutting, Abrasion and Erosion, Peter Pergrinus Ltd., Stevenge, pp. 514-528. Kim Jeong-Du and Choi Min-Seog (1995), Simulation for the Prediction of Surface Accuracy in Magnetic Abrasive Machining, J. Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 53, pp. 630-642. Kremen G. Z., Elsyed E. A., Rafalovich V. I. (1995), Mechanism of Material Removal in the Magnetic Abrasive Process and the Accuracy of Machining, J. Materials Processing Technology, Vol. 53, pp. 630-640. McGeough J. A. (1988), Advanced Methods of Machining, Chapman and Hall. Pandey P. C. and Shan H. S. (1980), Modern Machining Processes, Tata McGraw-Hill, New Delhi. Ready J. F. and Farion D. F. (2001), LIA Handbook of LMP, LIA, MPI, pp. 481-482. Shinmura T. (1986), Study on Magnetic Abrasive Finishing, Bull. Japan Soc. of Prec. Engg. , Vol. 20, No.1; pp. 52-54. Shinmura T, Takazawa K. and Hutano E. (1985), Study on Magnetic Abrasive Process, Bull Japan Soc. of Prec. Engg., Vol. 19, No.4, pp. 289-291. Shinmura T, Takazawa K, Hatano E. (1990), Study on Magnetic Abrasive Finishing, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 39, pp. 325-328. Shinmura T., Takazawa K., Hatano E. and Aizawa T. (1985), Study on Magnetic Abrasive Process Process Principle and Finishing Possibility, Bull. Japan Soc. of Prec. Engg., Vol. 19, No.1, pp. 54-55. Shinmura T., Wang F. H., Aizawa T. (1984), Study on a New Finishing Process of Fine Ceramics by Magnetic Abrasive Machining, Int. Journal, Japan Soc. Prec. Engg., Vol. 28, pp. 99-104. Shinmura T., Wang F. H. (1994), A New Process for Precision Finishing of Silicon Nitride Fine Ceramics by the Application of Magnetic Abrasive Machining using Chromium Oxide Abrasives Mixed with Iron Particles, Int. Journal, Japan Soc. Prec. Engg., Vol. 28, pp. 229-230. Somekh S. (1976), Introduction to Ion and Plasma Etching, Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology, Volume 5, No. 13, pp. 1003-1007. Spencer E. G. and Schmidit P. H. (1972), Ion Beam Techniques for Device Fabrication, The Journal of Vacuum Science and Technology, Volume 8, No. 5, pp. S 52 S 70. Stuart R. V. (1983), Vacuum Technology Thin Films and Sputtering : An Introduction, Academic Press, London, pp. 92-97. Subramanian K. (1994), Finishing Methods Using Multipoint or Random Cutting Edges, Surface Engineering ASM, Vol. 5, pp. 91-109. Snoeys R., Staelens F., Dekeyser W. (1986), Current Trends in Non-conventional Material Removal Processes, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 35(2), p. 467.

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Taniguchi N. (1983), Current Trends and Future Trends of Ultra-precision Machining and Ultra-fine Materials Processing, Annals of the CIRP, Vol. 32(2), p. 18.

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SURFACE FINISHING PROCESSES

This block deals with the various aspects related to the surface finishing. It consists of three units. Unit 7 deals with surface characteristics and product performance. In this unit, various factors affecting the performance of the product are described along with the concepts of friction, wear and lubrication. Unit 8 details various conventional finishing processes which is the last operation in conventional machining processes. In this unit, all the important features of the finished surface other than designed dimensions and tolerances required to meet the function of the part are discussed. 62

In the last unit, i.e. Unit 9, concepts of micro-machining have been discussed. Micro-machining deals with the removal of material in very small quantities. Different methods like ion beam machining, electron beam machining, magnetic abrasive finishing, etc. have been described.

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63