Solved Problems about Power Series

Summary of Power Series Overview of Problems Radius of Convergence Problems Convergence of the Differentiated and the Integrated Power Series Finding Power Series Fibonacci Power Series Indefinite integrals of Power Series Definite Integrals of Power Series

Summary of Power Series

a x
k

, assume ak 0 for all k.

1 = 1 + x + x2 + x3 + " = 1 x
By the Ratio Test

k =0

Radius of Convergence

R = lim
k

ak ak +1

= lim

1 ak

k k

By the Root Test

The Power Series S(x) converges if |x| < R and diverges if |x| > R. Differentiation Integration
S ( x ) =
k =1

ka x
k

k 1

The swapping of summation and integration is valid in the interval of convergence.

a x S ( x ) dx =
k =0 k

ak k k +1 dx = ak x dx = C + k + 1 x k =0 k =0 b b a S ( x ) dx = ak x k dx = ak x k dx = k x k +1 k =0 a a a a k =0 k =0 k +1

Mika Seppl: Solved Power Series Problems

Overview of Problems
1 2
Show that the series

n =1

Find the radius of convergence of

(2 x )n 1 converges for x < . n 2 n

(2n)! x . (n !)2

In Problems 3 and 4, the radius of convergence of the power series

a x
k =0 k k 1

is R.

What is the radius of convergence of the power series

ka x
k =1 k

a What is the radius of convergence of the power series k x k +1 ? k =0 k + 1

Find a power series representation for the function f ( x ) =

x2 1 2x

and determine the radius of convergence of the power series.

Mika Seppl: Solved Power Series Problems

Overview of Problems
6

Find the radius of convergence of the power series x n n = F0 + F1x + F2 x 2 + " where Fn = 1 x x 2 are the Fibonacci numbers, = 1+ 5 1 5 and = . 2 2

Find power series representations for the functions f ( x ) = 1 x2 and g ( x ) = . 1 x 2 x +1

8 Find power series representations for the integrals

1 x and 1 + t

dx

dt

dx with error <0.001. 9 Using a power series expansion, approximate 1+ x5 0

Mika Seppl: Solved Power Series Problems

Radius of Convergence
1

Show that the series

(2 x )n 1 converges for x < . n 2 1 1 What happens at the points x = and x = ? 2 2

n =1

Solution

Radius of convergence is R = lim an an +1 2n n +11 1 = lim n = lim = . n 2n +1 n n 2 2 n +1

( 1)n which converges. n 1 1 If x = the power series in question is the harmonic series which diverges. 2 n =1 n

1 Hence the power series converges for x < . 2 1 If x = , the power series is the alternating series 2

By the Alternating Series Test

n =1

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Radius of Convergence
2 Solution
R = lim
n

Find the radius of convergence of

n =1

(2n)! x n . (n !)2

Radius of convergence is an an +1 = lim

(2n)! (n !)2 (2(n + 1))! ((n + 1)!)2

= lim
n

((n + 1)!)2 (2n)! (n !)2 (2n + 2)!

( n + 1) ! (2n)! = lim n n ! (2n + 2)!

Mika Seppl: Solved Power Series Problems

Converges of the Differentiated Series

The radius of convergence of the power series

a x
k =0 k

is R.

What is the radius of convergence of the power series

ka x
k =1 k

k 1

The Radius of Convergence of ak and that of

k =0

a x
k

is

ak +1

k =1

ka x
k

k 1

is

This limit is 1.

lim
k

( k + 1) ak

kak

= lim
k

ak a k k = lim k lim k a k k + 1 ak +1 k + 1 k +1

= R.

Next use the fact that the limit of a product is the product of the limits.

This limit is R by the definition.

Mika Seppl: Solved Power Series Problems

Convergence of the Integrated Series

The radius of convergence of the power series

a x
k =0 k

is R.

What is the radius of convergence of the power series

k + 1x
k =0

ak

k +1

The Radius of Convergence of ak and that of

k =0

a x
k

is

ak +1

k =0

k +1x

ak

k +1

is

This limit is 1.

ak k +1 lim k a k +1 k +2

= lim
k

ak k + 2 a k +2 = lim k lim k a k k + 1 ak +1 k + 1 k +1

= R.

Next use the fact that the limit of a product is the product of the limits.

This limit is R by the definition.

Mika Seppl: Solved Power Series Problems

Finding Power Series for Functions

Find a power series representation for the function f ( x ) =

x2 1 2x

and determine the radius of convergence of the power series.

1 = 1 + t + t 2 + " = t k to get 1t k =0 1 2 = 1 + 2 x + ( 2 x ) + " = 2k x k . 1 2x k =0 2 x = x 2 + 2x 3 + 22 x 4 + " = 2k x k + 2. 1 2x k =0 2k 1 1 R = lim k +1 = lim = k 2 k 2 2

Multiply by x2 to get The Radius of Convergence is

Observe that the function is undefined for x = . Hence it is to be expected that a power series for the function will not converge for x= .
Mika Seppl: Solved Power Series Problems

Fibonacci Power Series

Find the radius of convergence of the power series x n n = F0 + F1x + F2 x 2 + " where Fn = 1 x x 2 are the Fibonacci numbers, = 1+ 5 1 5 and = . 2 2

Solution
lim
n

The radius of convergence is Fn Fn +1 = lim 1

Use the fact that < . Hence lim = 0. n

These terms have the limit 0.

Finding Power Series

Find power series representations for the functions f ( x ) = 1 x2 and g ( x ) = . 1 x 2 x +1

Solution

Substitute t = x 2 to the power series

1 = 1 + t + t 2 + " = t k to get 1t k =0 2 1 f (x) = = 1 + x2 + x2 + " = 1 x2

( )

k =0

2k

Substitute t = -x to the above power series in t to get

k =0 k

( x ) .
k

Multiply by x2 to get

k =0

( 1)

x k + 2.

Mika Seppl: Solved Power Series Problems

Power Series for Indefinite Integrals

Find power series representations for the integrals

1 x and 1 + t

dx

dt

Solution

1 = 1 + x + x2 + " = 1 x

term by term to get

1 x

dx

=C+x+

x x + +" = C + 2 3

k =0

k + 1.

x k +1

Here C is the constant of integration.

Substitute x = -t5 to the above power series for 1/(1-x) to get

k =0

( 1)

t 5k . Integrate the power series term by term to get

1+ t

dt

=C +t

t 6 t 11 + " = C + 6 11

k =0

( 1)

t 5 k +1 . 5k + 1

Mika Seppl: Solved Power Series Problems

Power Series for Definite Integrals

Using a power series expansion, approximate with error <0.001.

1+ x
0

dx

Solution
1 = 1 + x5
k =0

In the previous problem we found out that

( 1)
12

x 5k .

Integrate this series. These operations can be swapped.

12

1+ x
0

dx dt

= =

( 1)
0 k =0 k

x 5k dx

k =0

1 ( )
0

1 2

x 5k dx =

k =0

( 1)

12 x 5 k +1 5k + 1 0

12

1+ x
0

k =0

( 1)

1 25k +1 (5k + 1)

1 1 0.4973 2 384

This approximation is already accurate enough since the series is alternating and the first term left out is 1/22528 < 0.001.
Mika Seppl: Solved Power Series Problems