CHAPTER -1

T 5C PROPAGATION PRINCIPLES
When electric power is applied to a circuit, a system of voltages and currents is set up in it, with certain relations governed by the propagation of the circuit itself. This, for instance, the voltage may be high (compared to the current) if the impedance of the circuit is high, or perhaps the voltage and current are 900 out of phase, because the circuit is purely reactive. In a similar manner, any power escaping into space is governed by the characteristics of free space. If such power "escapes on purpose"' it is said to have been radiated, and if then propagates in space in the shape of what is known as an electro-magnetic wave. Free space is space that does not interfere with the normal radiation and propagation of radio waves. Thus, it has no magnetic or gravitational fields, no solid bodies, and no ionized particles. Apart from the fact that free space is unlikely to exist anywhere, it certainly does not exist near the Earth. However, the concept of free space is used because it simplifies the approach to wave propagation (since it is possible to calculate the results as if the space were free, and then to modify them taking into account its actual properties) and because propagating conditions quite often do approximate those of free space, particularly, at frequencies in the upper UHF region. FUNDAMENTALS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES: Electromagnetic waves are oscillations that propagate through free space with the velocity of light (for most purposes approximated to 3 x 10 m/sec. or 186.000 miles/sec). In some ways, propagation is similar to the outward travel of waves on a pond after a stone has been thrown in it; the biggest difference is in the type of propagation. Whereas the water waves are longitudinal (oscillations in the direction of propagation), electromagnetic waves are transverse (Oscillation perpendicular to the direction of propagation). Also, the direction of the electric field, the magnetic field, and propagation are mutually perpendicular in electromagnetic waves, as Fig.1.1 shows. To be precise, we should say that such an assumption cannot be "checked", since the waves are invisible, but it presents no contradictions, and may be used to predict the behavior of electromagnetic waves in all circumstances, such as reflection, refraction and diffraction. Fig. 1.1

WAVES IN FREE SPACE: Since no interference or obstacles are present in free space, electromagnetic waves will spread uniformly in all directions from a point source; the wave front is thus spherical, as shown in cross section in Fig.1.2. To simplify the description even further, "rays" are imagined which radiate from the point source in all directions, and which at all points are perpendicular to a tangential plane of the wave front, just like the spokes of a wheel. At a distance corresponding to the length of ray P, the wave has a certain phase; it may have left the source at an instant when its voltage and current were maximum in the circuit feeding the source, i.e., at an instant of maximum electric and magnetic field sectors, and if the distance traveled corresponds to exactly 1000.000.25 wavelengths, the instantaneous electric and magnetic intensities are at that moment zero at all such points. This is virtually the definition of wave front; it is the plane joining all the points of identical phase. Here, of course, it is spherical. If the length of ray Q is exactly twice that of ray P, then the arc of the new sphere will be exactly four times the area of the sphere with radius P (Fig.1.2) the total power output of the source has spread itself over four times the area when its distance from the source has doubled. Now, if power density is defined as the ratio of radiated power per unit arc, it follows that power density is reduced to one-fourth of its value when distance from the source has doubled. It is seen that power density is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the source; this is the inverse square law, which applies universally to all forms of radiation in free space.

Fig.1.2 Spherical Wave fronts. Stating this mathematically, we have = Pt / 4r2

Where = power density at a distance r from an isotropic source. Pt = transmitted power. An isotropic source is one that radiates uniformly in all directions in space. Although no practical source has this property, the concept of an isotropic radiator is very useful and is commonly used as a reference standard. It may be shown quite simply that the inverse square law applies also when the source is not isotropic. However, for wave-fronts to be spherical in all cases the velocity of the radiation must be constant at all points (as it is, of course, in free space), or the wave-fronts will not be spherical; a propagation medium in which this is true is also called isotropic.

Another important quantity in connection with electromagnetic waves is their field intensity; the electric field intensity of a wave is measured in volts per meter, and is proportional to the square root of the power density at that point. It may be shown that the electric field strength at a distance r from an isotropic source radiating P watt may be given by (from Maxwell's equations). = 30 Pt / r (2)

Where is the rms value of the field strength, or intensity, in volts per meter. The actual relationship between field intensity and power density is analogous to the relation between power and voltage in a circuit, and is given by = 2 / z (3)

Where z = characteristic impedance of free space. Substituting Eqs. (6-1 and (6-2) into (6-3) gives Z = 2 / - 30 Pt Pt r2 4r2 = 120 Pt r2 Pt r2 = 120 = 377 It may also be shown that Z = [ / ]

Where = permeability of medium = 1.25 x 10 H/m for vacuum. = electric permittivity of medium = 8,85 x 10 F/m.

It is seen from Eq. (6.2) that field intensity is inversely proportional to the distance from the source; this actually follows from the power density considerations, since field intensity is proportional to the square root of power density, just as voltage is proportional to the square root of power. Finally, the wave front must be considered once again. As discussed it is spherical in an isotropic medium but any small area of it at a sufficient distance from the source may be considered to be a plane wave front. This is obvious from the geometry of the situation and also from everyday experience; we know that the earth is spherical as a very close approximation, but equally we consider a football field to be flat. It represents a sizable arc of the Earth's surface but is at a considerable distance from its center. The concept of plane waves is very useful because it greatly simplifies the treatment of the optical properties of electromagnetic waves, such as reflection and refraction. POLARIZATION: An electromagnetic wave is linearly polarized when the electric field line wholly in one plane containing the direction of propagation. Horizontal Polarization: The case where the electric field lies in a plane parallel to the earth's surface.

The wave of Fig.1.1 is, of course, linearly polarized and is also said to be vertically polarized, since all the electric intensity vectors are vertical. The decision to label polarization direction after the electric intensity is not as arbitrary as it seems; this makes the direction of polarization the same as the direction of the antenna. Thus, vertical antennas radiate vertically polarized waves, and similarly horizontal antennas produce waves whose polarization is horizontal. There has been a tendency over the years, to transfer the label to the antenna itself thus we often hear of antennas being referred to as vertically or horizontally polarized, whereas it is only their radiations that are so polarized. It is also possible for antenna radiations to be circularly or even elliptically polarized, which means that the polarization of the wave rotates continuously in corkscrew fashion. There are a number of mechanisms by which radio waves may travel from a transmitting to a receiving antenna. The more important of these are the ground wave, the sky wave and the space (or troposphere) waves. The ground wave (also surface) wave can exist when the transmitting and receiving antennas are close to the surface of the earth and are vertically polarized. This wave, supported at its lower edge by the presence of the ground, is of practical importance at broadcast (i.e., medium wave) and lower frequencies. The ground wave is vertically polarized, because any horizontal component of the electric field in contact with earth is short-circuited by the earth. As the ground wave passes over the surface of the earth, it is weakened as a result of energy absorbed by the earth in the earth's resistance. The field strength of the ground wave is inversely proportional to the square of the distance and the frequency. As a result the range for ground wave is very limited at frequencies above 3 MHz. The sky wave represent energy reaching the receiving antenna as a result of the reflection due to bending of the wave path by the ionized region, termed as the ions here, which begins at about 50 Kms above earth's surface. It accounts for practically all-very long distance HP radio communication. Frequencies above 30 MHz are not capable of being reflected back by the ionosphere even at low angles of take off and as such this method of communication is of importance for frequencies below 30 MHz. The space wave represents energy that travels from the transmitting to the receiving antenna in the earth's troposphere i.e., the portion of the earth's atmosphere in the first 16 Kms adjacent to the earth's surface. The space wave commonly consists of at least two components. One of them is the wave that travels directly from the transmitter to the receiver and the other is the ray that reaches the receiver as a result of reflection from the surface of the earth. Space wave may also reach the receiver as a result of reflection or refraction produced by variation in electrical characteristics of the troposphere or by diffraction around the hills, curvature of the earth etc. The radio transmission above 30 MHz is normally through space wave propagation. For HF communication the mode of propagation of importance is, therefore, the sky wave. The ultra violet rays of the sun as also the cosmic rays and form different layers heavily ionize the gases constituting the atmosphere. The amount of ionization depends upon the rate of

formation of the ions and the rate of re-combination. At lower altitudes since the atmospheric pressure is large, the rate of combination is large so that the ionization is small. At higher altitudes since the atmospheric pressure is low, the rate of recombination is small and, therefore, the ionization will be large. However, though the ionization increases with altitude, it does not very linearly but manifests information of layers as shown in Fig 1.3 Fig. 1.3 The density of these layers as well as their heights vary from day to night, from dusk to dawn, from season to season and from year to year, depending upon the altitude, as also the sun-spot activity. It will be observed that during daytime, the first maximum occurs at about 50 to 90 Kms. above the earth's surface and is referred to as the 'D' layer. The second maximum occurs at 110 Kms. And is referred to as 'E' layer. There are two other layers known as F1 and F2 layers at 220 Kms. and 250 to 350 Kms. It will be noticed that at night, as there is no agency for ionization; the ionization will be reduced due to re-combination. As a result, the 'D' layer vanishes at night, 'E' layer density is reduced and F1 and F2 layers merge into a common 'F' layer at about 250 Km. Important natural phenomena that affect the ionospheric or sky wave proportion are as follows:1) Sun-spot 2) Magnetic storms 3) Sudden ionospheric disturbances 4) Sporadic E layer. Sunspot activity greatly influences sky wave HF propagation. It can cause the loss of a long haul HF communication for extended periods or permit phenomenon worldwide communication with relatively low power and home made installation for weeks at a time. Sunspot activity vastly increases ultra-violet radiation. The number of and the intensity of the sunspots are indicative of the higher density in the ionosphere. Thus, in turn, sunspot activity is a measure of the probability of the sky wave communication. The sunspot activity is cyclic with a full cycle being of the order of 11.1 yrs. Magnetic storms are associated with solar activity and are most likely to occur during periods of higher sunspot numbers. Magnetic storms are so named because the solar radiation is deflected by the earth's magnetic field. During such a period, sky wave communication may be unreliable. A sudden ionospheric disturbance is occasional and is a daytime phenomenon rendering HF sky wave communication impossible. This is caused by chormospheric eruption on the sun resulting in marked increase in ionization density in the D region, which results in increased absorption. Sporadic E propagation occurs in the E region and cannot be accounted for by normal propagation theory. One possible reason is that such a layer is caused by periodical ionization. ENERGY LOSSES IN THE IONSPHERE: Even though, the gas pressure in the ionosphere is very low, the electrons set in vibration by a passing wave will, from time to time, collide with gas molecule. When such a collision occurs, the kinetic energy that the electrons have acquired from the radio wave is lost in so far as the radio wave is concerned. The amount of energy absorbed from a passing radio wave, in this manner, depends upon the gas pressure (i.e. upon the likelihood of a vibrating electron colliding with a gas molecule) and upon the velocity that the electron acquires in its vibration (i.e., on the energy

lost per collision) as well as upon the number of electrons. As a consequence, most of the absorptions, suffered by a wave passing through the ionosphere, usually take place at the lower edge of the ionized region where the atmospheric pressure is the greatest i.e., in the D region and the lower part of the E layer; very little loss normally occurs remaining in the ionosphere because of the very low atmospheric pressure at the greater heights. Other things being equal, the absorption will also be less, the higher the frequency. This is because the average velocity of the vibrating electrons, and, hence, the energies lost per collision are inversely proportional to frequency. The absorption is also influenced by the earth's magnetic field. The bending of the radio wave path by the ionosphere can be expressed in terms of refractive index which is the ratio of sine of the angle of incidence to the sine of the angle of refraction and is equal to the square root of the dielectric constant. It can be shown that the refractive index is equal to the = Sin i /Sin r = [ 1 - (81 N/F2 ) ] where 'N' is the number of electrons per cubic cm. and F is the frequency in KHz. If a layer of electrons density 'N' is to reflect back to a signal, then at the point of reflection, the angle of refraction has to be 900 as shown in Fig. 1.4.

Fig No.1.4 The refractive index at this point will therefore, be equal to the sine of the angle of incidence as the angle of refraction is 900. Sin i = [ 1 - (81 N/F2 ) ] or Cos i = [ (81 N/F2 ) ] OR F = [ (81 N] cos i = (81 N) sec i

If the signal were vertically incident the angle of incidence is 0 0 and the frequency of the signal that can be reflected back is the minimum. The frequency which is reflected back at vertical incidence is referred to as the critical frequency" for that layer. If Fc is the critical frequency, then Fc = (81 N)

At any of the angle of incidence the frequency, which is capable of being reflected back, will therefore be F = Fc x Sec i

This relationship gives the 'maximum' usable frequency at various angles of incidence is referred to as the 'secant rule'. From this, it is clear that a layer that is capable of reflecting a signal at a particular frequency at vertical incidence can reflect signal at a higher frequency provided the angle of incidence is sufficiently large. Let us consider the effect of a layer, which has critical frequency of 5 MHz on a signal of 10 MHz. If this signal is vertically incident, since the frequency is above the critical frequency of 5 MHz, it will pass through and is not reflected . If the angle of incidence is 30 0since Fc Sec i will be about 5.77 MHz the 10 MHz signal will penetrate the layer. At 45 0 angle of incidence the maximum frequency that can be reflected back is about 7.07 MHz, the 10 MHz signal cannot be reflected .At angle of incidence of 60 0 and above, since the maximum signal which can be reflected back is 10 MHz or more, we will get 10 MHz reflected. Thus the radiation at 10 MHz from point 'A' can reach point 'B' or beyond but it is not available between the points 'A' and 'B' (refer Fig. 1.5.). The distance between the points (A-B) as shown in Fig. 1.5 is known as the skip distance. Alternatively, we can also say that for a given path (i.e.) the distance (A-B) there is a maximum frequency, called skip frequency, above which it will not be possible for the signal from A to reach B via the ionosphere.

Fig. 1.5. Effect of ionosphere on rays of varying incidence angles. For satisfactory communication between two given points there is always an optimum frequency of operation. If the frequency is too high, it may be above the skip frequency is too low, communication will not be satisfactory. If the frequency is too low, communication again will not be satisfactory, due to absorption in the ionosphere. From this point of view, it is necessary to operate at as high a frequency as possible but not too near the skip frequency the (skip frequency also is referred to as the maximum usable frequency) (MUF) otherwise, any slight variation in the ionospheric condition may cause loss of a signal as the frequency of operation may be above the skip frequency. Hence, the optimum working frequency (OWF) is normally taken as 80 to 86% of the MUF. Prediction charts are available which give the relationship between the local time and the lower limit of the frequency to be used for a given distance to be covered by an HF link. Such charts are used for specified latitudes and longitudes. A typical prediction chart is given in Fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6