LEARNING

Define and contrast the FOUR types of behavioral learning theories (contiguity, classical conditioning, operant conditioning, and social learning), giving examples of how each can be used in the classroom.

Sachin Saini

Behavioral Learning Theory

According to the behaviorists, learning can be defined as the relatively permanent change in behavior brought about as a result of experience or practice. Behaviorists recognize that learning is an internal event. However, it is not recognized as learning until it is displayed by overt behavior.

Behavioral Learning Theory

The term "learning theory" is often associated with the behavioral view. The focus of the behavioral approach is on how the environment impacts overt behavior. Remember that biological maturation or genetics is an alternative explanation for relatively permanent change.

Behavioral Learning Theory

The behavioral learning theory is represented as an S-R paradigm. The organism is treated as a black box. We only know what is going on inside the box by the organisms overt behavior.
Stimulus (S)

Organism
(O)

Response (R)

Behavioral Learning Theory

The feedback loop that connects overt behavior to stimuli that activate the senses has been studied extensively from this perspective.

Behavioral Learning Theory

Notice that the behaviorists are only interested in that aspect of feedback that connects directly to overt behavior. Behaviorists are not interested in the conscious decision of the individual to disrupt, modify, or go against the conditioning process.

Behavioral Learning Theory

There are four types of behavioral learning theories:

Contiguity theory
Classical or respondent conditioning theory Operant or instrumental conditioning theory Social learning theory

Contiguity Theory

Contiguity theory is based on the work of E. R. Guthrie. It proposes that any stimulus and response connected in time and/or space will tend to be associated.

Contiguity Theory
Examples: A baseball player wearing a certain pair of socks on the day he hits three home runs associates wearing the socks and hitting home runs. A student making a good grade on a test after trying a new study technique makes an association between the stimulus of studying and the response of getting a good grade.

Contiguity Theory
Guthries contiguity theory is one foundation for the more cognitivelyoriented learning theory of neural networks.

Classical Conditioning Theory

Classical conditioning was the first type of learning to be discovered and studied within the behaviorist tradition (hence the name classical).
The major theorist in the development of classical conditioning is Ivan Pavlov, a Russian scientist trained in biology and medicine (as was his German contemporary, Sigmund Freud).

Classical Conditioning Theory

Pavlov was studying the digestive system of dogs and became intrigued with his observation that dogs deprived of food began to salivate when one of his assistants walked into the room.

He began to investigate this phenomena and established the laws of classical conditioning.
Skinner renamed this type of learning "respondent conditioning since in this type of learning, one is responding to an environmental antecedent.

Classical Conditioning Theory

General model: Stimulus (S) elicits >Response (R) Classical conditioning starts with a reflex (R): an innate, involuntary behavior.

This involuntary behavior is elicited or caused by an antecedent environmental event. For example, if air is blown into your eye, you blink. You have no voluntary or conscious control over whether the blink occurs or not.

Classical Conditioning Theory

The specific model for classical conditioning is: A stimulus will naturally (without learning) elicit or bring about a reflexive response Unconditioned Stimulus (US) elicits > Unconditioned Response (UR)

Classical Conditioning Theory

The specific model for classical conditioning is: Neutral Stimulus (NS) --- does not elicit the response of interest This stimulus (sometimes called an orienting stimulus as it elicits an orienting response) is a neutral stimulus since it does not elicit the Unconditioned (or reflexive) Response.

Classical Conditioning Theory

The Neutral/Orientiing Stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with the Unconditioned/Natural Stimulus (US).

Classical Conditioning Theory

The Neutral Stimulus (NS) is transformed into a Conditioned Stimulus (CS).

That is, when the CS is presented by itself, it elicits or causes the CR (which is the same involuntary response as the UR. The name changes because it is elicited by a different stimulus.
This is written CS elicits > CR.

Classical Conditioning Theory

In the area of classroom learning, classical conditioning is seen primarily in the conditioning of emotional behavior.
Things that make us happy, sad, angry, etc. become associated with neutral stimuli that gain our attention.

Classical Conditioning Theory

For example, the school, classroom, teacher, or subject matter are initially neutral stimuli that gain attention.
Activities at school or in the classroom automatically elicit emotional responses and these activities are associated with the neutral or orienting stimulus

After repeated presentations, the previously neutral stimulus will elicit the emotional response

Classical Conditioning Theory

Example:
Child is harassed at school Child feels bad when harassed

Child associates being harassed and school Child begins to feel bad when she thinks of school

Classical Conditioning Theory

In order to extinguish the associated of feeling bad and thinking of school, the connection between school and being harassed must be broken.

Operant Conditioning Theory

Operant conditioning is the study of the impact of consequences on behavior. With operant conditioning we are dealing with voluntary behaviors.

Operant Conditioning

The major theorists for the development of operant conditioning are: Edward Thorndike
John Watson B.F. Skinner

Operant Conditioning

Operant conditioning investigates the influence of consequences on subsequent behavior. Operant conditioning investigates the learning of voluntary responses. It was the dominant school in American psychology from the 1930s through the 1950s.

 Where classical conditioning illustrates S-->R learning, operant conditioning is often viewed as R->S learning
It is the consequence that follows the response that influences whether the response is likely or unlikely to occur again. The three-term model of operant conditioning (S--> R ->S) incorporates the concept that responses cannot occur without an environmental event (e.g., an antecedent stimulus) preceding it.

Operant Conditioning- Reinforcement

Outcomes of Conditioning
Stimulus Positive/ pleasant Negative/ Aversive

Increase Behavior
Add Positive Reinforcement Subtract Negative Reinforcement

Decrease Behavior Subtract Response Cost Add Punishment

Schedules of consequences
Stimuli are presented in the environment according to a schedule of which there are two basic categories:

Continuous
Intermittent

Schedules of consequences
Continuous reinforcement simply means that the behavior is followed by a consequence each time it occurs.

Excellent for getting a new behavior started.

Behavior stops quickly when reinforcement stops. Is the schedule of choice for punishment and response cost.

Schedules of consequences
Intermittent schedules are based either on the passage of time OR number of correct responses

Schedules of consequences
The consequence can be delivered based on

a fixed amount of time or number of correct responses OR

a slightly different amount of time or number of responses that vary around a particular number

Schedules of consequences
This results in an four classes of intermittent schedules. Fixed Interval The first correct response after a set amount of time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a consequence is delivered). The time period required is always the same. Example: Spelling test every Friday.

Schedules of consequences

Variable Interval The first correct response after a set amount of time has passed is reinforced (i.e., a consequence is delivered). After the reinforcement, a new time period (shorter or longer) is set with the average equaling a specific number over a sum total of trials. Example: Pop quiz

Schedules of consequences
Fixed Ratio A reinforcer is given after a specified number of correct responses. This schedule is best for learning a new behavior.

The number of correct responses required for reinforcement remains the same. Example: Ten math problems for homework

Schedules of consequences

Variable Ratio A reinforcer is given after a set number of correct responses. After reinforcement the number of correct responses necessary for reinforcement changes. This schedule is best for maintaining behavior.
Example: A student raises his hand to be called on.

Social Learning Theory

One difficulty with many learning theories is their almost exclusive emphasis on the processes of acquisition of behavior and performance, and their almost total neglect of the content of personality ~Julian Rotter, 1972

Banduras Triadic Model of Reciprocal Determinism

Overt Behavior Environmental Influences

Personal Factors (beliefs, expectations, self-perceptions)

Beyond Reinforcement 1
External reinforcement isnt the only way in which behavior is acquired, maintained, or altered We can also learn by observing, reading, or hearing about others behavior
We develop anticipated consequences for our behaviors
Even for behaviors were never engaged in

Our cognitive abilities give us the capability for insight and foresight

Beyond Reinforcement 2
Banduras biggest contribution to learning theory:
New patterns of behavior can be acquired in the absence of external reinforcement We can pay attention to what others do, and repeat their actions
i.e., We learn through observation, rather than through direct reinforcement

Basic Processes of Observational Learning 1

1. Attentional Processes
(attend to and accurately perceive models behavior)

2. Retention Processes
(remember the models behavior)

3. Motor Reproduction Processes

(translate symbolically coded memories of the models behavior into new response patterns)

4. Motivational Processes
(if positive reinforcement is potentially available, enact the modeled behavior)

Summary of social learning

We acquire, maintain, and modify behaviors that we see others perform We decide which behaviors to keep, and when to use them, by using:
symbolic thought (what are my long term goals?) emotion (damn that Bobo doll!!!) self-regulation (I really want to stab my prof, but I need an A, so)

Bandura and other Social Learning Theorists put the person back into personality by stressing the interplay of personal factors, environmental factors, and behavior

www.letsknowsomething.blogspot.com SACHIN SAINI