MATHEMATICAL MODELING

AERODYNAMIC DERIVATIVES AND TRANSFER FUNCTIONS

NOTATIONS AND CONVENTIONS

1. The reference axis system standardized in the guided weapons industry is centred
on the c.g. and fixed in the body, as follows:
(a) x axis, called the roll axis, forwards, along the axis of symmetry if one
exists, but in any case in the plane of symmetry.
(b) y axis called the pitch axis, outwards and to the right if viewing the missile
from behind
(c) z axis, called the yaw axis, downwards in the plane of symmetry to form a
right handed orthogonal system with the other two.

2. Table given below defines the forces and moments acting on the missile, the
linear and angular velocities, and the moments of inertia.

Roll axis Pitch axis Yaw axis

x y z
Angular rates ω p q r
Component of msl velocity along each axis(linear U* v w
velocity)ν
Component of force acting on msl along each X Y Z
axis,F
Moments acting on msl about each axis, M L M N
Moment of inertia about each axis A or Ix B or Iy C or Iz
Products of inertia D or Iyz E or Ixz F or Ixy
Control setting Aileron ξ Elevator η Rudder ζ
Angle of incidence λ α β

*Missile velocity along x-axis U is denoted by a capital letter to emphasise that it is a

large positive quantity changing at most only a few percent per second
(a) Linear velocity ν = ui + vj + zk
(b) Rotational velocity ω = pi + qj + rk
(c) Force F = Xi + Yj + Zk
(d) Moments M = Li + Mj + Nk
(e) Moments of inertia Ix = ∫ (y2 + z2)dm = ∑(yi2 +zi2)mi
(f) Products of inertia Iyz = ∫ yz dM (when body not symmetrical).

EQUATIONS OF MOTION

3. The equations of motion of a missile with controls fixed may be derived from
Newton’s second law of motion, which states that the rate of change of momentum of a
body is proportional to the summation of forces applied to the body and that the rate of
change of the moment of momentum is proportional to the summation of moments
applied to the body.

4. Mathematically, this law of motion may be written as: -

Summation of forces
(a) ∑Fx = (d(mU)/dt) Reference axis can be taken as the
(b) ∑Fy = (d(mV)/dt) inertial axis (fixed) x,y,z
(c) ∑Fz = (d(mW)/dt)
Summation of moments
(d) ∑Mx = dhx/dt
(e) ∑My = dhy/dt
(f) ∑Mz = dhz/dt
where hx,hy,hz are moments of momentum about x,y and z and may be written in
terms of moments of inertia and products of inertia and angular velocities p,q and
r of the missile as follows: -
(i) hx = pIx - qIxy – rIxz
(ii) hy = qIy – rIyz – pixy
(iii) hz = rIz – pIxz - qIyz

5. For designing an autopilot, we can consider a particular point in space instead of

considering the complete trajectory (system parameters will not be the same at different
points of the trajectory). In that case, mass can be assumed as constant. Hence the force
equations in para 4 can be rewritten as

∑F = m(d(V)/dt) where V = u i^ + v j^ + w k^ _______________(1)

6. The equations of motion as per Newton’s laws of motion for translational system
are written about an inertial or fixed axis. They are extremely cumbersome and must be
modified before the motion of the missile can be conveniently analysed. In eqn (1), if i^,
j^ and k^ are considered as not varying with time, then Newton’s law will no longer be
valid since i^, j^ and k^ with respect to missile body frame change with time. Hence a
moving-axis system called the Eulerian axes or Body axis (for rotational system) is
commonly used. This axis system is a right-handed system of orthogonal coordinate axes
whose origin is at the center of gravity of the missile and whose orientation is fixed with
respect to the missile. The two main reasons for the use of the Eulerian axes in the
dynamic analysis of the airframe are: -
(a) The velocities along these axes are identical to those measured by
instruments mounted in the missile and
(b) The moments and products of inertia are independent of time.

7. Since now we consider i^,j^ and k^ also as variables, eqn (1) can be written as: -

(dV/dt)I = (dV/dt)B + ω × V (or)

 (dV/dt)I = (i(du/dt) +u(di/dt))+ (j(dv/dt) +v(dj/dt)) + (k(dw/dt) + w(dk/dt)) ___(2)
8. The directional change in i^, j^ and k^ can be resolved in terms of angular
velocity components as: -
(di/dt) = ω^ x i^ = |i j k| = rj – qk ________ (3)
|p q r|
|1 0 0|
(dj/dt) = ω^ x j^ = |i j k| = pk-ri ________ (4)
|p q r|
|0 1 0|
(dk/dt) = ω^ x k^ = |i j k| = qi-pj ________ (5)
|p q r|
|0 0 1|
Hence substituting eqns (3), (4) and (5) in (2) gives: -

(dV/dt)I = (i(du/dt) +u(rj – qk))+ (j(dv/dt) +v(pk-ri)) + (k(dw/dt) + w(qi – pj)) ___(6)

9. Hence the Force equation (1) can be written/resolved in terms of X, Y and Z

components acting along x,y and z axes respectively as: -

∑F = m((du/dt)+qw-rv)) i^ + m((dv/dt)+ru- pw)) j^ + m((dw/dt)+ pv- qu)) k^

X = m((du/dt)+qw-rv) |
Y = m((dv/dt)+ru- pw) |______________ (7)
Z = m((dw/dt)+ pv- qu) |

10. Moment Equations. The moments acting on a body are equal to the rate of
change of angular momentum that is given by

M = (d/dt)H | I

(a) Angular momentum is equal to the moment of linear momentum whereas

the linear momentum is product of mass and velocity where velocity for a rotating
mass is the vector cross product of angular velocity (ω) and distance from c.g.(r).

dm
i.e. d H = r^ x (dm x v^)
= r^ x dm(ω^ x r^)
= [r^ x (ω^ x r^)] dm

Hence H^ = ∫[r^ x (ω^ x r^)] dm

(b) Considering r^ = xi + yj + zk and

ω^ = pi + qj + rk
(ω^ x r^) = | i j k |
| p q r |
| x y z |

= (qz –ry)i + (rx – pz)j + (py –qx)k

and [r^ x (ω^ x r^)] = | i j k |

| x y z |
| (qz –ry) (rx – pz) (py –qx) |

=[p(y2 +z2) – qxy –rxz] i^ + [q(x2 + z2) – ryz – pxy] j ^+ [r(x2 +

y2) – pxz – qyz] k^
(c) Hence the total angular momentum,

H = ∫ [p(y2 +z2) – qxy –rxz] dm i^ + [q(x2 + z2) – ryz – pxy] dm j ^+

[r(x2 + y2) – pxz – qyz] dm k^
(d) Defining the moments of inertia along the x, y and z axes respectively

Ix = ∫ (y2 + z2) dm
Iy = ∫ (x2 + z2) dm
Ix = ∫ (x2 + y2) dm

Similarly,
Ixy = ∫ xy dm
Ixz = ∫ xz dm
Iyz = ∫ yz dm

(e) Thus H can be rewritten as

H = [pIx – qIxy –rIxz] i^ + [qIy – rIyz – pIxy] j ^+ [rIz – pIxz – qIyz]

k^

(f) Hence the moments acting on the body M = (d/dt)H | I

can be given as
M = (d/dt)H | B + (ω x H)
 (d/dt)H | B = [(d/dt)pIx – [(d/dt)qIxy –[(d/dt)rIxz] i^
+ [[(d/dt)qIy –[(d/dt) rIyz – [(d/dt)pIxy] j ^
+ [[(d/dt)rIz – [(d/dt)pIxz – [(d/dt)qIyz] k^
and

(ω x H) = | i j k |
| p q r |
|pIx – qIxy –rIxz qIy – rIyz – pIxy rIz – pIxz – qIyz |

Expanding the determinant we get,

(ω x H) = i^ [qrIz – qpIxz – q2Iyz –rqIy + r2Iyz + rpIxy] +
j^ [ rpIx – rqIxy –r2Ixz - rpIz + p2Ixz + pqIyz] +
k^ [pqIy – prIyz – p2Ixy- pqIx + q2Ixy + qrIxz]

(f) If Mo = Li^ + Mj^ + Nk^, then

L = (pIx + pIx – qIxy – qIxy – rIxz – rIxz) + (qrIz – qpIxz – q2Iyz –rqIy
+ r2Iyz + rpIxy)

M = (qIy + qIy – rIyz – rIyz – pIxy– pIxy) + (rpIx – rqIxy –r2Ixz - rpIz +
p2Ixz + pqIyz)

N = (rIz + rIz – pIxz – pIxz – qIyz– qIyz) + (pqIy – prIyz – p2Ixy- pqIx +
q2Ixy + qrIxz)

11. It is found from the above equations for force and moments, that these are
simultaneous non-linear coupled first order equations that are difficult to solve. Since we
are concerned with the design of an autopilot i.e., math-modelling, we try to linearise
these equations by considering certain basic assumptions: -

(a) Mass is constant (This has already been considered).

(b) Missile and control surfaces are rigid bodies (non-elastic which is not
always true for control surfaces/wings).(This has been already
considered).
(c) C.G. and center of body frame are coincident (c.g. keeps changing as
propellant burns and msl moves in angles)(This is already considered).
(d) Rate of change of moment inertia is approximately zero
i.e.,dIx,dIy,dIz,dIxy,dIxz,dIyz are zero. Hence moment equations will
simplify as

L = (pIx– qIxy– rIxz) + (qrIz – qpIxz – q2Iyz –rqIy + r2Iyz + rpIxy)

 M = (qIy– rIyz– pIxy) + (rpIx – rqIxy –r2Ixz - rpIz + p2Ixz + pqIyz)

N = (rIz– pIxz– qIyz) + (pqIy – prIyz – p2Ixy- pqIx + q2Ixy + qrIxz)

(e) Missile is symmetrical about xz plane. This is true for aircraft and missiles
with monowing configuration (cruise or polar coordinate missiles).In this case,
Ixy = Iyz = 0. Thus moment equations will further simplify as:

L = (pIx– rIxz) + (qrIz – qpIxz–rqIy)

M = (qIy) + (rpIx–r2Ixz - rpIz + p2Ixz)

N = (rIz– pIxz) + (pqIy - pqIx + qrIxz)

Which can be rewritten as

L = pIx–qr(Iy – Iz) – Ixz(pq + r)

M = qIy – pr(Iz – Ix) + Izx(p2–r2)

N = rIz– pq(Ix-Iy) + Ixz (qr – p)

(e) Missile is symmetrical on xy plane; then Ixz = 0 ( in case of cruciform

configuration).Hence this will not be true for aircraft and cruise missiles.
Thus the moment equations will further simplify as : -

L = pIx–qr(Iy – Iz)
M = qIy – pr(Iz – Ix)
N = rIz– pq(Ix-Iy)

(f) Consider missile to be a solid cylinder. Then the moment of inertia about y
and z axes will be the same i.e., Iz = Iy. Hence equations will further
reduce to
L = pIx
M = qIy – pr(Iz – Ix)
N = rIz– pq(Ix-Iy)

(g) Missiles are roll-stabilised i.e., roll rate is made zero (p=angular velocity
about x axis = 0). Hence equation (f) is reduced to
L = pIx
(p can be zero does not necessarily mean that dp/dt is zero since p can be
zero at a certain point of time only and have values varying with time at
all other times)

t
 M = qIy
N = rIz

(h) Also,
X = m((du/dt)+qw-rv) |
Y = m((dv/dt)+ru- pw) |______________ (7)
Z = m((dw/dt)+ pv- qu)

(i) The term mpw in Y is saying that there is a force in the y direction
due to incidence in pitch (α = w/U) and roll motion i.e., there is an
acceleration along y axis due to to roll rate and incidence in pitch. In other
words the pitching motion of the missile is coupled to the yawing motion
on account of roll rate.

(ii) The term mpv in Z is also saying that yawing motion induces
forces in the pitch plane if rolling motion is present i.e., acceleration along
z axis due to roll rate and incidence in yaw.

(iii) This is most undesirable since we require the pitch and yaw
channels to be completely uncoupled. Cross-coupling between the planes
must contribute to system inaccuracy. To reduce these undesirable effects
the designer tries to keep roll rates as low as possible and in simplified
analysis p is considered zero.

X = m((du/dt)+qw-rv) |
Y = m((dv/dt)+ru) |______________ (8)
Z = m((dw/dt - qu)

(iv) The component of velocity in x direction (u) also has thrust along
its direction that is of a larger magnitude. Also, this component of thrust
will only add to the thrust in a small way. Hence u is normally written in
capital letters to denote as a constant quantity. Thus eqn (8) can be written
as
X = m((du/dt)+qw-rv) |
Y = m((dv/dt)+rU) |______________ (9)
Z = m((dw/dt) - qU)

(j) Thus it is found that the equation for X is of not much use in control
system since the force (thrust) in the x direction does not affect any maneuver; we
are interested in the acceleration perpendicular to the velocity vector as this will
result in a change in the velocity direction. In any case in order to determine the
change in the forward speed we need to know the magnitude of the propulsive and
drag forces.
(k) The forces in y and z direction are responsible for yaw and pitch
maneuvers. From the final equations the Y and Z equations are linear. The final
simplified equations are: -

Y = m((dv/dt)+rU) __________________(10)
Z = m((dw/dt) - qU) __________________(11)
L = pIx __________________(12)
M = qIy __________________(13)
N = rIz __________________(14)

(k) Equations (10) and (14) are coupled and produce moments about z axis or
torque about z axis or the yaw movement and are used for design of yaw
autopilot. Similarly eqns (11) and (13) are for pitching dynamics and are used for
design of pitch autopilot.

(l) Thus pitch, yaw and roll have been decoupled. In other words, a
multivariable system has been decomposed into single variable three sets of
equations. This is possible only in missiles. Hence design of autopilot for aircraft
is much more difficult since this kind of decoupling is not possible.