Elsevier Ltd., Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 83DP 200 Wheeler Road, Burlington, MA 01803 Transferred to digital printing 2004 © 1960 M.M. Gow First published in Great Britain 1960 ‘Twenty third impression 1994 ISBN 0 340 05217 1 Al rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or licence permitting restricted copying. In the United Kingdom such licences are issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency: 90 Tottenham Court Road, London WIP 9HE.CONTENTS 1, Potynomrats; THE REMAINDER AND FAcToR THEOREMS; UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS; PartiAL FRACTIONS Polynomials. The remainder and factor theorems. Further properties of polynomials, The method of undetermined co- efficients. Factorisation of cyclic homogeneous polynomials. Rational functions. Partial fractions. 2. Tueory or Equations; INEQUALITIES . : . . Algebraic equations. Relations between the coefficients and the roots of an algebraic equation. Transformation of equations. Reciprocal equations. Condition for two quadratic equations to have a common root. Condition for an equation to have a multiple root, Note on inequalities, 3. DETERMINANTS =. . . 2 . . . ‘ Definitions. Properties of determinants. Note on determinants of the fourth and higher orders. Solution of linear simultaneous equations, Homogeneous equations. Consistency of equations, 4. Limits AnD InFinite SERIES . . . . . . Definitions. The idea of infinity. The idea of a limit, Con- vergent series. Series which do not converge. Behaviour of 2". The geometrical progression. Theorems on limits. General theorems on convergence. A necessary condition for convergence. The harmonic series. Series of positive terms. The comparison tests. Two standard series. The ratio test for series of positive terms. Series of positive and negative terms. Absolute con- vergence. Tests for absolute convergence. Properties of power series. Functions of a continuous variable. Limit of a function of a continuous variable. Continuous functions. A fundamental Property of a continuous function. 5. THe BivoMIAL, EXPONENTIAL AND LoGaRITHMIC SERIES ‘The binomial series, Vandermonde's theorem. The binomial theorem for any rational index. The number ¢. The exponential theorem. Properties of ¢*. Series for a*, a>0. Hyperbolic functions. Inverse hyperbolic functions. The logarithmic series. Series related to the logarithmic series. Limits. 6. ComPLEX NUMBERS . . . . . . Complex numbers. Operations with complex numbers, Geo- metrical representation of complex numbers. Modulus and argument of a complex number. Vectorial representation of a complex nu: + Geometrical representation of addition and subtraction of two complex numbers. Multiplication and division of complex numbers. Geometrical construction for the product of two complex numbers, Geometrical application 26 53 14 102CONTENTS 7. Comrrex Numurrs (continued) : : . . +» 9 Demoivre's theorem. Roots of a complex number, The nth roots of unity, Complex roots of an equation. Real quadratic factors, Expression of powers of sin@ and cos@ in terms of moltiple ang Expansions of circular functions of multiple angles. Sectes of cormplex terms. ‘The exponential series. Ex: nential values of circular functions. Generalised circular and. yperbolic functions. Connection between the circular and hyperbolic functions, Logarithms of a complex number. The logarithmic series. 8. SUMMATION OF SERIES. . . . . . . 149 Standard results. Methods of summing series. Series whose rth term is a polynomial in +. The method of induction. Series reducible to exponential, binomial or logarithmic series. wate method of differences. Summation of trigonometrical series using complex numbers. 9. DIFFERENTIATION AND APPLICATIONS . . . 170 Differentiation, General rales. Two important limits, Didfer- entiation of +", sina sini, 4 and log. Standard results ybraic, logarit exponential, trigonometrical, hyperbolic, ines trigonometrical and inverse hyperbolic functions), Exten- sions of standard resulta. Differential ithmie fanctions. ioe dfs and dest ws Zhe {heorem, of 1 iz. Formulae for dy/ when s andy are given in terms of a para- meter, The gradient of a curve. The ive tangent. The tangent and normal toa curve. The tee al value theorem. The significance of the sign of f'(e).| Maximum and minimum points, Concavity and convexity. for maxima and minima. 10. INTEGRATION . . 200 Integration_as the inverse of differentiation. The indefinite integral. "The definite integral. Standard integrals. Integra: tion by substitution. Extensions of standard forms. Integration of rational functions. Irrational functions. T: integrals evaluated by substitution. Products of sines and cosines of multiple angles. Powers of sins and cos, Powers of tan sand cots, Hyperbolic functions, Integration by paris, Improper or infinite inte ‘Reduction Jsin* dx and {cos*s ds, Reduction formula for J sin” cos" x ds, where m and » are positive integers. Wallis’s formulae, Reduc- tion formulae for f tan" xde and f sec* sds. 11. EXPANSIONS IN SERIES . . . . » 244 Power series, Maclaurin’s series. Taylor's series. Series. for sina, cos x, (-+s)* and log (+4). Other its cociana a function f(s). Use of Leibniz’s theorem in the {G2}. Indeterminate forms De YHospital's rule. | Newto approximation to. root of an equation, Modification ‘of Newton's 12, CoorpinaTe GEOMETRY OF THE STRAIGHT Linz AND CIRCLE 269 Pseful formulae (revision), Parametric equations of straight Change of axes. Pairs of straight lines. The homogeneous viiiCONTENTS equation of the second degree in x and y. The angle between two lines, The bisectors of the angles between two lines. Condition that the general equation of the second degree in # and y should Tepresent two straight Hines. The circle. Useful formulae (revision). The equation of the tangent to a circle. Tangents of gradient m to the circle x*+y!=a!. The chord of contact of tangents to a circle. The power of a point. The radical axis of two circles. Coaxal circles, Intersecting and non-inter- secting systems of coaxal circles. Limiting points. 13. THE PARABOLA. . - . : . - - 300 Conic sections. The parabola (revision). Chord of contact. The chord {f,, fy]. Focal chords. The tangent and normal at {d). The point of intersection of tangents, The tangent of gradient m, The locus of the mid-points of parallel chords. Conormal points. Concyclic points. 14, Tue Exuirse AnD HYPERBOLA . . . . + 313 The ellipse (revision), ‘The auxiliary circle and eccentric angle, The chord (¢, ¢]. Tangent_and normal at {@). The point of intersection of tangents. Tangents which are parallel to the diameter y=ms. The director circle. The locus of the mid- points of parallel chords. Conjugate diameters. The hyperbola (revision). Parametric representation, Standard results. Con- jugate diameters. The conjugate hyperbola. The rectangular yperbola, The rectangular hyperbola referred to its asymptotes as axes, Parametric representation, The tangent and normal. Conormal points. Coneyelie points. 15. THE STRAIGHT Ling, CIRCLE AND CONIC IN POLAR COORDINATES. . . : : ' . + 337 Polar coordinates. Relations between cartesian and polar co- ordinates. The straight line, circle and conic in polar coordinates. The chord joining two points on the conic I/r=l4ecosé, The tangent to the conic, 16. COORDINATE GEOMETRY OF THREE DIMENSIONS: THE PLANE AND STRAIGHT LINE . . . . . + 346 Coordinates of a point in space. Section formula. Direction cosines of a straight line, Length, direction and equations of the line joining two points. Direction ratios. Note on projection. ‘The angle between two straight lines. The equation of a plane. The angle between two planes. The perpendicular distance of a point from a plane. The condition for coplanar lines. The perpendicular distance of a point from a line. The shortest distance between two skew lines. Simplest form of the equations of two skew lines. 17, THe SPHERE . . . ‘ ‘ . . . + 378 The equation of a sphere. The diametral form of the equation of a sphere, ‘Tangent plane toa sphere. Condition that a plane should touch a sphere. The intersection of a plane and a sphere. The power of point. The radical plane. Orthogonal spheres. Penclis of spheres, Polar plane. Polar lines. 1xCONTENTS 18. Tue QuapRic . . . . : . + . The equation of a surface. Quadric surfaces. Central quadrics. The intersections of a line and a quadric. Tangent plane and normal to a quadric. The condition for a plane to touch a auadsic, 7 The plane containing all chords bisected at a given and polar fines, Note on ruled surfaces. 19, PARTIAL DIFFERENTIATION. “ . . . . Continuous functions of several variables. Partial derivatives. Geometrical interpretation. Partial derivatives of higher orders. Total variation, Dificrentials. Total dificrential of a function of two variables. Total derivative. Applications of differentials. Euler's theorems on homogeneous functions. | Note on envelopes. ‘The tangent to a space curve. Tangent lines to a surface. tangent plane and normal to a surface, 20. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION—CARTESIAN COORDINATES . ‘The definite integral as the limit of a sum. Areas. Mean value. Volumes. Curve sketching from cartesian equations. Length of arc and surface area, Differential relations. Curves given in tric form. Centres of mass. Centroid of a uniform plane and solid of revolution. Theorems of Pappus. Moments of inertia, Moments of inertia about perpendicular axes, ‘The principle of parallel axes. Calculation of moments of inertia. 21. APPLICATIONS OF INTEGRATION—POLAR COORDINATES . Length of arc of a polar curve. Tangents. The dicular from the pole toa tangent, Curve sketching: from polar Squations, Some well-known curves. Areas in polar coordinates. Areas of closed curves given in polar and in parametric forms. Surface area in polar coordinates. Centroid of a plane area, Koulettes : the eyeloid, epieyeloid and hypocycloid. 22. CURVATURE . . . . . Curvature, Curvature of a cirele. Radius of curvature. Formulae for p applicable to curves given in cartesian, parametric or polar forms. Formula for p in terms of p and 7. The circle of curvature. The evolute. Contact of two curves. 23. DIFFERENTIAL Equations OF THE First ORDER . . Definitions. Formation and solution of differential equations. Equations of the first order and first degree. Variables separable, The homogenous equation, Equations reducible to homogeneous form. Exact equations, Integrating factors. The linear equa- tion. Bernoulli's equation. Change of variable, Clairau equation. Geometrical applications. Tangents and normals in cartesian and polar coordinates. Orthogonal trajectories. 24. LinzaR DIFFERENTIAL Eguations with ConsTANT Co- EFFICIENTS . + . . TheoperatorD. Applications of the operator D. Linear equation wth constant cotRicleats, “Solution ofthe reduced sauna (Dy =0. Solution of the equation #(D)y=f(s) when f(s) 0. Inverse operators, Use of operators in the evaluation of integrals. Simple harmonic motion; damped harmoniemotion ; fered tions. The homogeneous linear equation. Simultaneous linear equations with constant coefficients. Change of variable. x 388 403 441 497 499 512 537CONTENTS 562 25. SPHERICAL TRIGONOMETRY . . . . . . Spherical triangle. Area of a lune, Area of a spherical triangle, Spb cosine formula. The sine formula. The cotangent formula. The polar triangle. Sides and angles of polar triangles. Supple menial formulae, | Rightangled triangles. | Napiei’s rules Quadrantal triangles. Measurements on the earth's surface. HINTS AND ANSWERS). . . . . . . INDEX . . : . - : - . . - 613CHAPTER 1 POLYNOMIALS; THE REMAINDER AND FACTOR THEOREMS ; UNDETERMINED COEFFICIENTS; PARTIAL FRACTIONS 1.1. Polynomials in one variable If x is a variable, 1 is a positive integer and fo, fy pa »++s Pn are given constants of which #, is not zero, then Port py *+ ... +Pnakt hn is a polynomial of degree » in x. We shall denote this polynomial by Pia). 1.2. The remainder and factor theorems Let P(x), a polynomial of degree # in x, be divided by x—a, where ais aconstant. Then the quoticnt Q(x) isa polynomial of degree »—1, the remainder R is a constant and Plixje(x-a)Q(X)t+R~. «© 2. Oo) The identity sign = indicates that the equality is true for ali values of x, An equation such as (i) which is true for all values of x is called an identity. Putting s=a in (i), we get P(a)=R. Hence when P(x) is divided by x—2, the remainder is P(a). This result is known as the remainder theorem. The factor theorem follows immediately : if P(x) is a polynomial, x—a is a factor of P(x) if, and only if, P(a)=0. 1.3. Further properties of polynomials 1, If the polynomial P(x)=pox"+P4" +... +Paatta (fo) is equal to zero when x has any one of the distincd values ay, dg,-++, Om then Poe EP A+ oo + Pere t+ PnspolA— e)(¥— a9)... (¥— Gy). By the factor theorem, since P(a,)=0, x—, is a factor of P() and A2 A COURSE IN PURE MATHEMATICS gl the quotient when we divide P(x) by x—a, is a polynomial of degree n—1 whose first term is yx". Hence we write P(x) =(— 21)Qn-a(2), ee ee where On-i(*) = Pox! + v0 Since P(a,)=0, we have from (i) 0=P(a,)=(0.—01)0n-2(04) ine. Qn-s(22) =0, since a7 a). Hence x—a, is a factor of Q,-,(x), and we write Qn-a(2) = (¥— 04) 04-22) and, by (i), Plz) =(#—a)(4—09)Pn-2(2), where Qn-a(%) =Por™ 2+ .... Proceeding in this way, we see that. P(a)=(#—4y)(+—a2).. (2-29) Qol), where Qo(*) =Po- a. P(x) =po(x—a,)(s—a4)...(x a). IL. Uf the polynomial P(x) = pox" +pia"" +... + Pert tpn is equal to zero for more than n distinct values of x, P(x) is equal to zero for all values of 2 and each of the coefficients Py, Py. +» by is zero. In this case P(x) is identically zero, that is Po +P OF APR e+ Pn B0. We suppose that P(x)=0 when x=a), ag, Then, by I, P(x)=fo(x— a;)(7— 0)... .(x—a,). Now suppose that P(a)=0, where a is different from any of a, yy yy Then Pola—a,){a—a,)...(a—a,)=0, and since none of the factors (2—.,), (a—a,), must be zero. Hence Plz) Spy 1+ pr" 8+ . Dye This polynomial of degree n—1 vanishes for more than (n—1) values of x and so, applying the same argument, we see that #,=0. Con- tinuing in this way, we prove that PimPri=ees =Pa=0. As a corollary to II, we have the important property that if, for all values of x, Pox Py .. Ppa pa FoF OF 2.6. +9naeton, (i) then pp = Jor P= Jy -- +» Pa=qn. + (a—ay) is zer0, pyy POLYNOMIALS 3 To see this we consider the polynomial (Po—Go)™™-+ (Py 9a)x9 OF «~~ + (Daa —Gn—1)* + (Pn In) which, by hypothesis, is zero for all values of x. It follows that all its coefficients are zero, and so Po=fu Pi=Iu---Pa=%e - - + ii) The process of deducing from the identity (i) the results (ii) is called equating coefficients, 1.4, Polynomials in several variables A polynomial in several variables x, y, z, ... is a sum of terms of the form AxPyazt ..., where the indices p, g, 7... are positive integers or zero and & is a constant. The degree of any term is the sum of its degrees with respect to the variables, so that a term 7xy*2* is of the sixth degree. The degree of a polynomial is that of the term of the highest degree in the polynomial. For example x*y'+ %+2z—5 is a polynomial of the fourth degree in x and y; xyz—2x'432+4 is a polynomial of the third degree in x, y and z. 1.5. The method of undetermined coefficients The method of undetermined coefficients is based on the principle that if two polynomials in x are identically equal, coefficients of like powers of x must be equal. The principle is valid for polynomials in several variables x,y, z, . . . and the method of undetermined coefficients may be applied to such polynomials. Example 1 Find the values of the constants a, b, c and d such that Ps ar(r—1)(r— 2) +br(r—1) tort . . i) Multiplying out, we have v= a(r3— 3794 2r) + 0(r9—9) 4 ord, Pzartrb—3a)tr(c+2a—d) td... i) ‘We shall use the symbol ((r")) to denote the coefficient(s) of 7. Equating ((r5)) on each side of (ii), we have 1=a; equating ((r*)), O=6—3a, J. b=3; equating ((r)), O=c4+2a—b, .', c=1; equating ((r)}, O=d. a. RErlr—1)(r—9)+ 3r(r— Dre Alternatively, we may use the fact that identity (i) is true for all values of r, Substituting in turn the values r=0, 1, 2 and 3, we obtain as before d=0, c= 1, b=3, a=1.