FOR INTERNAL USE ONLY Arahan Teknik(Jalan) 11/87

JABATAN KERJA RAYA

A GUIDE TO THE DESIGN OF AT-GRADE

INTERSECTIONS

CAWANGAN JALAN
IBU PEJABAT JKR MALAYSIA
JALAN SULTAN SALAHUDDIN
50582 KUALA LUMPUR

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PREFACE

This Arahan Teknik (Jalan) on "A Guide To The Design of At-Gracie Intersect ions" replaces
"Interim Guide To Junction Design - JKR/J(Rb)0019/82'" which was published in August 1982. It
is to be used for the geometric design of all at-grade intersections (whether new or improvements)
and is to be used in conjunction with Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 8/86 - "A Guide To Geometric Design
Of Roads", Arahan Teknik (Jalan) 13/87 - "A Guide To Traffic Signal Design" and other relevant
Arahan Tekniks.

While the geometric standards indicated in this Arahan Teknik is to be followed at all times, it is
recognised that in some instances, due to site constraints or otherwise, the required standards may
not be attainable except at a prohibitive cost. In such instances, the engineer/consultant should
refer to his superior/client for a final decision, although the concepts of safety and design
expresses in this Arahan Teknik (Jalan) should always be maintained.

The engineer is encouraged to study the various references as indicated in the Appendix to fully
understand some of the concepts and approaches adopted in this Arahan Teknik (Jalan).

This Arahan Teknik (Jalan) will be updated from time to time and in this respect any feedback
from users will be most welcome. Any comments should be sent to Cawangan Jalan, Ibu Pejabat
JKR.

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CONTENTS PAGE

CHAPTER 1 : PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN 7 - 13

1.1 General 7
1.2 Types of Conflicting Manoeuvers 7
1.3 Types of At -Grade Intersection Layouts 7
1.4 Factors Influencing Design 8
1.5 Safety 10
1.6 Points of Conflict 10
1.7 Area of Conflict 10
1.8 Major Movements 10
1.9 Control of Speed 11
1.10 Traffic Control and Geometric Design 11
1.11 Capacity 11
1.12 Location of Intersection 11
1.13 Spacing of Intersections 12
1.14 Channelisation 12
1.15 Excessive Channelisation 13

CHAPTER 2 : DESIGN CONTROLS 14 - 19

2.1 Priority Control 14

2.2 Traffic 14
2.3 Design Speed 15
2.4 Design Vehicles 15
2.5 Selection of Intersection Type 15
2.6 Combination and Coordination in Successive 19
Intersections

CHAPTER 3 : GEOMETRIC STANDARDS 20 - 62

3.1 General 20
3.2 Horizontal Alignment 20
3.3 Vertical Alignment 20
3.4 Sight Distance 22
3.5 Right Turn Lanes 29
3.6 Left Turn Lanes 34
3.7 Pavement Tapers 39
3.8 Auxiliary Lanes 43
3.9 Islands and Openings 45
3.10 Widening of Major Road 54
3.11 Minor Road Treatment 57
3.12 Shoulders 61
3.13 Crossfall and Surface Drainage 62

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CHAPTER 4: CAPACITY OF INTERSECTIONS 63 - 75

4.1 General 63
4.2 Level of Service 63
4.3 Capacity of Unsignalised Intersection 64
4.4 Capacity of Signalised Intersection 73
4.5 Capacity of Roundabouts 75

CHAPTER 5 : OTHER RELATED ELEMENTS 79 - 81

5.1 Pedestrian Facilities 79

5.2 Lighting 80
5.3 Public Utilities 80
5.4 Panting 80
5.5 Traffic Signs and Lane Markings 81
5.6 Drainage 81
5.7 Landscaping 81
5.8 Stop Line 81

APPENDIX

APPENDIX A - GENERAL WARRANTS FOR TRAFFIC

CONTROLLED SIGNALS Al - A6

APPENDIX B - WORKSHEETS FOR CAPACITY

CALCULATIONS OF UNSIGNALISED
INTERSECTIONS Bl - B5

APPENDIX C - USEFUL REFERENCE FIGURES Cl - C12

APPENDIX D - EXAMPLE CALCULATIONS FOR

CAPACITY OF UNSIGNALISED Dl - Dll
INTERSECTIONS

APPENDIX E - LIST OF REFERENCES El

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure page

3-1 Desirable separation of staggered T-Junctions 21

3-2 Intersection sight triangle 22
3-3 Sight distance at intersections (minimum sight triangle) 24
3-4 Sight distance at intersection data or acceleration from stop 30
3-5 Sight distance at intersections Effect of skew 30
3-6 Effect of grade on stopping sight distance, wet conditions 31
3-7 Correction factor for the effect of grade on acceleration time ta 31
3-8 Right-turn lanes 35
3-9 Seagull island 36
3-10 Right-turn clearance 36
3-11 Island areas 40
3-12 Turning radii 40
3-13 Design of separate left-turn lanes 42
3-14 Types of taper 44
3-15 Length of deceleration lanes 46
3-16 Correction for grade 46
3-17 Treatment in approach to left turns 46
3-18 Length of acceleration lanes 47
3-19 Correction for grade 47
3-20 Treatment for acceleration lane taper 47
3-21 Directional island 50
3-22 Offset to median island 51
3-23 End treatment for narrow medians 51
3-24 Median terminal treatments 52
3-25 Painted island 53
3-26 Median opening 53
3-27 One-way entrance -to a service road, etc. 55
3-28 Widening by S-curves 56
3-29A Standard design of guide island 59
3-29B Standard design of guide island 60
4-1 Definition and computation of conflicting traffic volumes 67
4-2 Potential capacity based on conflicting traffic volume and
critical gap size 69
4-3 Impedance factors as a result of congested movements 70
4-4 Illustration of impedance calculations 71
4-5 Notation for capacity calculation (roundabout) 78
5-1 Typical lane and pavement markings 83

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LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

1-1 Desirable minimum spacings of intersections 12

2-1 Desirable vehicles for Intersection design 16
2-2A Selection of Intersection type 17
2-2B Selection of Intersection type 18
3-1 Sight distance for Intersection approach 27
3-2 Minimum design speeds for left-turn channel 37
3-3 Lane widths for left-turn lane 41
3-4 Minor road treatment 58
4-1 Level of service 63
4-2 Conversion to P.C.U. for unsignalised intersection 65
4-3 Critical gap sizes selection 70
4-4 Level of service criteria for unsignalised intersection 73
4-5 Level of service criteria for signalised intersection 73

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CHAPTER 1

1.0 PRINCIPLES OF DESIGN

1.1 General

Intersections are an important part of the road system. Their capacity controls the volume of
traffic within the network system.

The term intersection in this guide refers to both intersections and junctions, that is, where
two or more roads cross or meet.

Each of these can be further classified as either elemental or multiple. An elemental

manoeuvre occurs when any two one-way, single lane movements interact. A multiple
manoeuvre occurs when more than two one-way single lane movements take place. Multiple
manoeuvres should be avoided as they confuse drivers; reduce safety and often reduce capacity.
Where possible intersection design should attempt to replace multiple manoeuvres with a series
of elemental ones.

1.2 Types of Conflicting Manoeuvres

There are four basic types of intersection manoeuvres; diverging, merging , crossing and
weaving.

The number of potential conflict points at an intersection depends on the :

(a) Number of approaches to the intersection
(b) Number of lanes on each approach
(c) Type of signal control
(d) Extent of channelization and
(e) Movements permitted

1.3 Wipes of At-Grade Intersection Layouts

An intersection at grade occurs where roads meet or intersect at the same level. The following
are the three basic types of intersection layouts at grade:-

(a) Unchannelised and unflared

(b) Flared

(c) Channelised

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1.3.1 Unchannelised and Unflared Intersections

They are normally adequate where minor roads meet. In urban areas, many local street
intersections remain unchannelised for economic reasons. In such cases, traffic can be
controlled by signals or regulatory signs, such as STOP or GIVE WAY signs, on the minor
roads. Regulatory signs are however not a substitute for channelisation.

1.3.2 Flared Intersections

A flared intersection is a simple unchannelised intersection with additional through lanes

or auxiliary lanes, such as speed-change or right turn lanes.

Speed change lanes allay left or right-turning vehicles to reduce or increase speed when
leaving or entering the through road without adversely affecting the speed of the through
traffic.

Right turn lanes permit through vehicles to pass on the left side of another vehicle waiting
to complete a right turn at an intersection.

1.3.3 Channelised Intersections

A channelised intersection is one where paths of travel for various movements are separated
and delineated. Raised traffic. islands, raised markers and painted markings can be used for
channelisation. A roundabout is a channelised intersection where traffic moves clockwise
around a central island.

The layout of the intersection should be adequately illuminated by street lighting or defined
by pavement reflectors, signing, etc.

1.4 Factors Influencing Design

At grade intersections present a driver with several points of conflict with other vehicles.
The aims of intersection design are to improve traffic flow and reduce the likelihood of
accidents.

The principal factors influencing the design of an intersection are:

(a) traffic volume and characteristics;

(b) topography and environment;

(c) economics; and

(d) human factors

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1.4.1 Traffic

An intersection should accomodate with comfort and safety a design peak traffic volume.
The needs of commercial vehicles should be considered. Consideration should also be given
to operating speeds and turning path requirements at the intersection, the type of traffic
control, the needs of pedestrians and buses and safety aspects.

1.4.2 Topographer and Environment

The location and design of an intersection will be affected by many factors including the
alignment and grade of the approach roads, the need to provide for drainage, the extent of
interference with public utilities, proper access and the presence of local features, both
man-made and natural.

1.4.3 Economics

Variation to existing intersections should be justified by commensurate benefits to traffic.

1.4.4 Human Factors

In an intersection design, driver characteristics should be considered, i.e.: that

Drivers :-

(a) tend to act according to habit;

(b) tend to follow "natural" paths of movement; and

(c) may become confused when surprised.

These factors make: it essential that a driver :

(a) is made aware of the presence of an intersection;

(b) is aware of the vehicles within and approaching the intersection;

(c) has confidence in the course required to negotiate the intersection correctly and safely;

(d) encounters uniformity in the application of traffic engineering devices and procedures;
and

(e) is allowed adequate reaction and decision time (three seconds between decisions is a
desirable minimum) .

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1.5 Safety

Safety is a prime consideration in any intersection design. Safe intersection design is based on
the following principles :

(a) Reduction of the number of points of conflict.

(b) Minimising the area of conflict.
(c) Separation of points of conflict.
(d) Giving preference to major movements.
(e) Control of speed.
(f) Provision of refuge areas, traffic control devices and adequate capacity.
(g) Definition of paths to be followed.

1.6 Points of Conflict

The number of conflict points can be reduced by prohibiting certain traffic movements and by
eliminating some roads from the intersection.

Conflict points can be separated by channelisation or by staggering four-way intersections,

especially in rural areas.

1.7 Area of Conflict

Where roads cross at an acute angle or the opposing legs of an intersection are offset, excessive
intersection area results.

In general, large areas of uncontrolled pavement invite dangerous vehicle manoeuvres and
should be eliminated.

Channelisation and realignment can both reduce conflict area.

1.8 Major Movements

Preference should be given to the major traffic movements to allow then a direct free flowing
alignment. Drivers who have travelled for long, uninterrupted distances at high speed will be
slow to react to a sudden change in alignment or to the entry of a high speed vehicle from a
minor road.

Minor movements should be subordinated to major or high speed movements. Adequate

warning on minor approaches should be provided.

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1.9 Control of Speed

The operating speed of traffic through an intersection depends on the:

(a) alignment,
(b) environment,
(c) traffic volume and composition,
(d) extent and type of traffic control devices; and to a lesser extent:
(e) the number of points of conflict,
(f) the number of possible manoeuvres,
(g) the relative speed of the manoeuvres,

1.10 Traffic Control and Geometric Design

In intersection design, the possible use of control devices and. other road furniture should be
considered. Most of the criteria for geometric design are common to both signalised and
unsignalised intersections. The design of an intersection to be controlled by signals can differ
significantly from one requiring only channelisation and signs. For example double right turn
lanes which aim at shortening storage length are effective only at signalised intersections as at
unsignalised intersections, the number of vehicles which can depart from the queue is dependent
on the frequency of acceptable gaps in the major stream disregarding the number of storage
lanes. Left turn lanes at a signalised intersection requires additional consideration, as queueing
vehicles on the most left lane waiting for the green signal would block the entrance to the
left turning channel. This is much less significant in unsignalised intersections.

1.11 Capacity

The design must provide adequate traffic capacity throughout the expected life of the
intersection. This may involve the design of separate construction stages before the ultimate
development of the intersection is reached.

1.12 Location of Intersection

The efficiency of major roads, in terms of capacity, speed and safety depends greatly upon the
number, type and spacing of intersections and median openings. Intersections should not be
located at sharp horizontal curves, steep grades or at the top of crest vertical curves or at the
bottom of sag vertical curves.

Future co-ordination of traffic signals should also be carefully considered in determining

intersection spacing.

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1.13 Spacing of Intersections

The spacing of intersections depends on factors such as weaving distance and, storage length
required for queueing traffic at signalised intersections and the lengths of right turning lanes.
Table 1-1 gives the desirable minimum spacings of intersections for the various categories of
the major roads.

1.14 Channelisation.

It is not practicable or desirable to standardise the design of channelised layouts. The layout for
a particular site depends on the traffic pattern; traffic volume; the area which is economically
available for improvement; topography; pedestrian movement; parking arrangement; the
planned ultimate development of the neighbourhood and the layout of the existing roads.

As well as separating conflicting movements, channelisation is used to :

(a) reduce the general area of conflict by causing opposing traffic streams to intersect at (or
near) right angles,

(b) merge traffic stream at small angles to ensure low relative. speed between the conflicting
streams,

CATEGORY OF MAJOR
AREA SPACING(m)
ROAD

EXPRESSWAY 3.000

HIGHWAY V x 20

RURAL PRIMARY V x 10

SECONDARY Vx5

MINOR Vx3

EXPRESSWAY 1.500

ARTERIAL Vx3xn

URBAN COLLECTOR Vx2xn

LOCAL STREET V x 1.5 x n

V = DESIGN SPEED IN Km / h.
n = no. OF THROUGH LANE IN ONE DIRECTION

TABLE 1.1 : DESIRABLE MINIMUM SPACINGS OF INTERSECTIONS

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(c) control the speed of traffic crossing or entering an intersection,

(d) provide a refuge for turning or crossing vehicles,
(e) prohibit certain turning movements,
(f) improve the efficiency and layout of signalised intersections,
(g) provide protection for pedestrian,
(h) improve and define alignment of major movements and,
(i) provide locations for the installation of traffic signals and regulatory signs.

1.15 Excessive Channelisation

Care should be taken to install only the minimum number of island as excessive channelisation
can :

(a) result in unwarranted obstructions on the road pavement,

(b) unnecessarily restricting parking and private access adjacent to the intersection,

(c) cause problems of pavement maintenance and drainage and,

(d) create confusion,

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CHAPTER 2

2.0 DESIGN CONTROLS

2.1 Priority Control

All intersections shall be designed under the assumption that one of the intersecting roads has
priority except where the intersection is signalised.

The priority road will normally be that which is of the higher design standard. If the two roads
are of the same standard, then the priority road shall normally be that for which the highest
traffic volume is predicted.

In T-junctions and staggered junctions (which may be considered as two T-junctions) the
priority road shall be the through road. If the main traffic flow in a T-junction is on the stem of
the T, then a change of layout should be considered.

The two roads of the intersection are normally referred to as the major road (priority road) and
the minor road.

2.2 Traffic

The capacities of minor intersections are in general sufficient to meet the expected traffic
volumes and detailed traffic forecasts and capacity calculations are therefore normally not
required. Intersections where the major road carries a large volume of through traffic or where
the two roads carry nearly the same volume of traffic may on the other hand have insufficient
capacity for crossing or turning traffic flaws, for which particular types of capacity increasing
measure may have to be taken. Detailed traffic forecasts for such intersections must be carried
out in order to provide the necessary data for capacity calculations.

A detailed traffic forecast shall provide hourly traffic flows in all directions in the design year.
The design year shall be 10 years after construction for an isolated intersection or similar to the
design year of the through roadway if the intersection is part of an overall road improvement
project. A staged construction for a 5 year traffic requirement is acceptable for isolated
intersections in urban areas. However, the land requirements must be sufficient for the full
design year intersection layout.

For urban areas, the peak hour factor (PHF) should also be determined. In the absence of any
data, a value of 0.85 for the PHF can be used.

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2.3 Design Speed

The design speed on the major road through the intersection should be similar to that on the
open section. However, all at-grade intersection are not considered safe at design speeds
exceeding 90km/hr. Hence, for design speeds exceeding 90km/hr, preference should be made to
upgrade the at-grade intersection to an interchange or alternatively, speed limits at the
intersection should be introduced.

Vehicles on the minor road can be assumed to approach the intersection at the design speed of
the road and drivers should be able to perceive the intersection from a distance not less than the
stopping sight distance as given in Table 3 - 1.

2.4 Design Vehicles

The design of the various intersection layouts should be made for the design vehicles P, SU or
WB-50 as discussed in Section 3 of Arahan Teknik(Jalan) 8/86 - "A Guide To Design Of
Roads". Table 2-1 shows a general scheme to select the design. vehicle according to the
category of road.

2.4.1 P design

This design is used at intersections where absolute minimum turns are stipulated such as at
local street intersections, intersection of two minor roads carrying low volumes or on major
roads where turns are made only occasionally.

2.4.2 SU design

This design is the recommended minimum for all roads. For major highways with important
turning movements which involves at large percentage of trucks, larger radii and speed charge
lanes should be considered.

2.4.3 WB-50 design

This design should be used where truck combinations will make turning movements repeatedly.
Where designs for such vehicle are warranted, the simpler symmetrical arrangements of three-
centred compound curves are preferred if smaller vehicles make up a sizable percentage of the
turning volume. It is also desirable to provide for channelisation to reduce the paved area.

2.5 Selection of Intersection Type

The controlled priority of an at-grade intersection will normally provide adequate capacity for
the traffic flows expected in. most intersection. Where thepredicted traffic flaws exceed the
capacity, other types of intersection have to be introduced. These are:

(a) Roundabouts
(b) Signal Controlled Intersections
(c) Grade separated Intersections or Interchanges

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CATEGORY of ROAD
AREA DESIGN VEHICLES

EXPRESSWAY

HIGHWAY WB-50

RURAL PRIMARY

SECONDARY SU

MINOR SU / P

EXPRESSWAY
WB-50
ARTERIAL
URBAN
COLLECTOR SU

LOCAL STREET SU / P

1) for Intersections Formal By Roads Of Different Design Vehicles ,The Higher Design Should
Primarily be Chosen. however, If The Frequency Of Turns Made Is Small. The Lower Design
Vehicle May Be Used.

2) Design Vehicle P is Normally Applicable Only To Intersections Of Two Local Streets or minor
Roads Carrying low volumes.

TABLE 2-1 : DESIGN VEHICLES FOR INTERSECTION DESIGN

The fundamental factor which decides the type of intersection is traffic volume. Table 2-2A
shows the general scheme to select the intersection type according to the traffic volume. Other
factors such as class of road, lane configuration should also be taken into account, especially
when the traffic volume falls near the boundary of the applicable range of an intersection type.

Factors other than traffic volume, such as heavy pedestrian volume, frequent accident occurence
may demand signalisation. Coordinated traffic control along an arterial may also govern the
selection of the intersection type in accordance with the type of neighbouring intersections.

Table 2-2B shows the general scheme to select the intersection type according to the category of
roads crossing.

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2.5.1 Roundabouts

Roundabouts may be applicable for total traffic volume (sum of all directions) of up to 6000
vehicles/hour and may if the layout can be freely chosen, be designed to cater for any
distribution of turning traffic.

The major disadvantage of roundabouts is that the speed through the roundabout are reduced
because of the obstruction caused by the central island. Moreover, they require larger land space
and capacity according t o the demand of each approach cannot be realiably assigned. When the
capacity is exceeded they also tend to "lock up traffic". As such, roundabouts cater well only
for situation where the approaches have similar level of traffic flow.

Roundabouts are not encouraged and should only be provided where there is problem in power
supply to traffic signals, or where the number and layout of approach legs are not suitable for
signal control.

2.5.2 Signal Controlled Intersections

Signal controlled intersect ions are applicable to very high traffic volume of 8,000 veh/hour or
more provided that the necessary number of approach lanes are present and that there is no
interference from other nearby intersections.

1) ROUNDABOUTS ARE USUALLY RANGED IN SIZE AS FOLLOWS.

a) MINI -LESS THAN 20m IN DIAMETER OF INSCRIBED CIRCLE, LESS THAN 4m. IN DIAMETER OF
CENTER CIRCLE
b) SMALL - 20 TO 50 m , 4 TO 15 m

C) CONVENTIONAL -MORE THAN 50 m, MORE THAN 25m.

TABLE: 2-2A. SELECTION OF INTERSECTION TYPE

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ACCORDING TO CATEGORY OF ROADS CROSSING

RURAL AREA

EXPRESSWAY HIGHWAY PRIMARY SECONDARY LOCAL

1C. IC. 1C. - - EXPRESSWAY

IC. IC / S.I S.I./S.C. S.C. HIGHWAY

S.I./S.C. S. C. PRIMARY

S.C. S. C. SECONDARY

S. C. LOCAL

URBAN AREA

LOCAL
EXPRESSWAY ARTERIAL COLLECTOR
STREET

IC. IC. - - EXPRESSWAY

I.C / S.I S.I S.I / S.C ARTERIAL

S.I S.C. COLLECTOR

S. C. STREET

IC. : INTERCHANGE

S.I. : SIGNALIZED INTERSECTION

S.C : STOP CONTROL

TABLE: 2-2B SELECTION OF INTERSECTION TYPE

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Appendix A gives the general warrants that are to be met before traffic control signals are
installed.

Traffic signals require reliable electricity supply for their operation, hence limiting their use only
to developed areas. The most economic solution may often be the selecttion of a priority
controlled intersection initially, which is prepared for traffic control and to add in the traffic
signals at a later stage.

Signalised intersections can handle heavy traffic with adequate number of approach lanes. This,
however, requires longer clearance time for vehicles to cross the wide road, leading to less
effectiveness in the handling of traffic.

2.5.3 Grade Separated Intersections (Intercharges)

Grade separated intersections serve very high traffic volumes with very little interference to the
through traffic. They must:. be provided for all full access controlled roads and should be
considered for road with design speeds exceeding 90 km/hr. Grade separation is also
recommended if each of the road crossing has four through lanes or more. The design of
interchanges is covered in a separate Arahan Teknik.

2.6 Combination and Coordination In Successive Intersections

Minor roads at close proximity creates successive intersections on the major road. They should
be treated as follows:

a) Local service roads should not be linked directly to the major road, but should be connected
to collector roads or combined together into one and then linked to the major road at a
proper location.

b) Local streets should not be linked to the major road near major intersections. If this is
unavoidable, only left-turning movements should be allowed. Flight-turns from the major
road and from the crossroad should be physically prevented with continuous kerbed median
and remodeling the entrance to the minor road.

c) When a new major road is being planned over an existing road network, coordination and
adjustment on the layout and spacing of intersections which would be created along the
road must be done. Relocation of existing roads and systematic traffic control may be
required.

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CHAPTER 3

3.0 GEOMETRIC STANDARDS

3.1 General

The following geometric standards relate to the elements of intersection design which are
required to provide for an acceptable level of traffic operations. These standards should be
applied to new junctions and where possible, to junctions being improved upon. It is recognised
however, that site limitations may sometimes make it impossible to improve existing junctions
to the standards recommended. In such cases the best possible sight distances and proper traffic
control devices should be provided.

3.2 Horizontal. Alignment

The desirable intersection angle between two roads is between 700 and 900. Where roads
intersect at angles less than 700 the alignment of the minor road should be modified.

3.2.1 Staggered T-Junctions

A four-way intersection has considerably more traffic conflict points than two three-way
junctions and allows higher operating speeds on the minor road. Signalised four-way
intersections especially in rural areas should generally be avoided or eliminated. Two staggered
T-junctions can take the place of one four-way intersection. However, where large volumes or
crossing traffic occur, a four-way signalised intersection may be better thana pair, of staggered
T-junctions. Staggered T-junctions may either have a left-right or right-left configuration.

STOP or GIVE WAY signs should be provided on the minor road of unsignalised T-junctions.
The minimum desirable distances between staggered T-junctions are given in Figure 3-1. Give
way sign must be provided even to left-right stagger.

3.3 Vertical Alignment

It is desirable to avoid substantial grade charges at intersections. It all intersections where

there are GIVE WAY signs, STOP signs or traffic signals, the gradients of the intersecting
highways should be as flat as practicable so that these sections can be used as storage space
for vehicles stopping at the intersection. Grades in excess of 3% should be avoided on
intersecting highways. Where conditions make such design unduly expensive, grades should not
exceed 6% with a corresponding adjustment in design factors as detailed in Section 3.4.6. These
should be treated as special cases.

A general principle is that the horizontal and vertical alignment of the major road as well as its
superelevation or crossfall is unchanged through the intersection and that the carriageway of the
minor road and of the additional lanes are designed to fit that of the major road.

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SEPARATION(S) FOR
SEPARATION (S) FOR
DESIGN SPEED OF RIGHT/ LEFT
LEFT/RIGHT STAGGER
MAJOR ROAD (km/h) STAGGER
(m)
(m)
20 60 60

30 60 60

40 80 80

50 100 110

60 120 160

BO 160 240

100 100 340

FIGURE 3-1: DESIRABLE SEPARATION OF STAGGERED T-JUNCTIONS

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The vertical profile of the minor road shall not have a gradient steeper than 2% over a section of
25m from the nearer edge of the major road. The grade shall also in general be connected
targentially (with or without a vertical curve) to the cross-section of the major road. If adverse
topographic conditions make this unfeasible then the grade may be connected to the edge of the
carriageway of the major road at art angle, provided that the difference in grade does not exceed
5%.

3.4 Sight Distance

3.4.1 General

The operator of a vehicle approaching an intersection at grade should have an unobstructed

view of the whole intersection and a length of the intersecting road sufficient to permit control
of the vehicle to avoid collision. When traffic at the intersection is controlled by signals or signs,
the unobstructed view may be confined to the area of control. It is advantageous on capacity
grounds to increase where practicable the sight distances along the major road by up to 50%. as
this will allow several vehicles to emerge when large gaps in traffic on the main road occur.

As for the sight distance of the driver of a vehicle passing through an intersection, two aspects
must be considered. There must be a sufficient unobstructed visa to recognize the traffic signs
or traffic signals at the intersection. And there must also be a sufficient sight distance to make a
safe departure after the vehicle has stopped at the stop line. All intersections also must be either
stop or signal controlled.

3.4.2 Sight Triangle

In order that drivers will see the appropriate traffic, there should be an area of sight unobstructed
by buildings or other. objects across the corners of an intersection. This is known as the sight
triangle and is shown on Figure 3-2

FIGURE 3-2: INTERSECTION SIGHT TRIANGLE

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Any object within the sight triangle high enough above the elevation of they adjacent
roadways to consitute a sight obstruction should be removed or lowered. Such objects include
cut slopes, trees, bushes and other erected objects. This also requires the elimination of parking
within the sight triangle. Dangerous conditions may arise: if, despite the provision of sight
triangle vehicles are allowed to park within the sight triangle thereby obstructing visibility.

3.4.3 Sight Distance For Approach

(a) No Stop or Signal Control at Intersection

For this set of conditions it is assumed that the operator of a vehicle on either road must be
able to see the intersection in sufficient time to stop his vehicle if necessary before reaching
the intersection. The safe stopping distances for intersection design are the same as those
used for the design of any other section of the highway. These are as shown in Arahan
Teknik (Jalan) 8/86 "A Guide To Geometric Design Of Roads".

Where an obstruction which cannot be removed, except at prohibitive cost fixes the vertices
of the sight triangle at points that are less than the safe stopping distances from the
intersection signs showing the safe speed should be so located that the driver can slow
down to a speed appropriate to the available sight distance. Referring to Figure 3-3,for a
typical case, speed Vb is known and a and b are the known distances bto the sight
obstruction from the respective paths of vehicles A and B. The critical speed V1 of Vehicle
B can then be evaluated in terms of these known factors. Distance da is the minimum
stopping distance for Vehicle A. When vehicle A is at a distance da from the intersection
and the drivers of Vehicles A and B first sight each other, Vehicle B is at a distance db from
the intersection.

By similar triangle

db = a x da
--------
da - b

and the critical speed Vb is that for which the stopping distance is d b. The signs on road B
showing the safe speed to approach the intersection should be so located that a driver can
reduce his speed to Vb, by the time he reaches the point that is distance db from the intersection.
Similar calculations may be used to determine' how far back an obstruction need to be moved to
provide sufficient sight distance for safe driving at desires vehicle speed on the respective roads.

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FIGURE 3-3 : SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTIONS

(MINIMUM SIGHT TRIANGLE)

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For this case if the major -road is one way a single sight. triangle in the direction of
approaching traffic will suffice. Similarly, if the major road has dual carriageways with no gap
in the central reserve then a single sight triangle to the right will be needed. If the minor road
serves as a one-way exit from the major. road, no sight triargle will be required provided
forward visibility for turning vehicles is adequate.

(b) Signalised Intersection

The sight distance is the sum of a distance travelled during the total reaction time which is
the interval between the instant that the driver recognizes the traffic signals of the
intersection ahead and the instant that the driver actually applies the brakes, and a distance
to stop the vehicle at the stop line with applying brake. The total reaction time can further
be divided into the time required to make decision whether the brake should be applied or
not, and the time for reaction after getting the decision. Sufficient data is not available on
the total reaction time. 10 seconds is adopted here. For urban areas, however, shorter total
reaction time is used. This is because, with a lot of intersections in urban areas, drivers are
always operating their vehicles with an anticipation of possible encounters of intersections.
6 seconds for urban areas is adopted here. An acceleration of 0.2g is taken as the allowable
maximum without excessive discomfort. This is much lower than those used to obtain the
stopping sight distance. This is because stops at intersections are quite routine, while stops
to avoid possible collision on open road are much less frequent and more acute
deceleration may be ac cep t ab le.From the discussion above, the sight distance for a
signalized intersection is given as follows:

S = Vx 1 V 2
------ + ------ ------
3.6 2α 3.6

Where, t = 10 sec. (rural), t = 6 sec (urban)

α = 0.2 x g = 0.2 x 9.8 = 1.96 m/sec2

(c) Stop controlled Intersection

In this case, time for decision making as in signalised intersection is not necessary because
every driver must stop. The reaction time of 2 seconds is taken. Accordingly, t = 2 seconds,
α = 1.96m/sec2 are submitted into the above formula.

On the major, road, dr vers can operate their vehicles without worrying about intersections.
Stopping sight distance defined for open road is sufficient. From the discussion above, the
criteria shown in Table 3-1 is obtained.

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3.4.4 Sight Distance For Departure

At an intersection where traffic is controlled by STOP signs on the minor road it is necessary for
the driver of a stopped vehicle. to see enough of the major road to be able to cross before a
vehicle on the major road reaches the intersection. (See Figure 3-3). The required sight distance
along the major highway can be expressed as :-

d = 0.28V (J + ta)

where d = minimum sight distance along the major road from the intersection, metres.

V = design speed of major road, km/hr.

J = sum of perception time and the time required to shift to firs gear or actuate an
automatic shift, seconds.

ta = time required to accelerate and traverse the distance S to clear the major road,
seconds.

The term J represents the time necessary for the vehicle operator to look in both directions and
to shift gear, if necessary, preparatory to starting. A value of 2 seconds is assumed. In urban or
suburban areas where drivers generally use many intersections with STOP sign control a lower
value of 1 1/2 or even 1 second may apply. The time t required to cover a given distance during
acceleration depends upon the vehicle acceleration. The acceleration of buses and trucks is
substantially lower than that of passenger vehicles. On flat grades, the acceleration time for SU
(single unit) and semi-trailer is about 135 % and 160% respectively of that for passenger
vehicles. The value of t can be read directly from Figure 3-4 for neargy level. conditions for a
given distance S in feet. Referring to figure 3-3 the distance S which the crossing vehicle must
travel to cross the major road is given by S = D + W + L

where D = distance from near edge of pavement of front of stopped vehicle

W = width of pavement along path of crossing vehicle.

L = overall length of vehicle

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DESIGN SPEED OF SIGNAL CONTROL

STOP CONTROL
MAJOR ROAD
(On Minor Road)*
( Km/h) RURAL URBAN

100 480 370 260

80 350 260 170

60 240 170 105

50 190 130 80

40 140 100 55

30 100 70 35

20 60 40 20

* ON THE MAJOR ROADS OF STOP CONTROLLED INTERSECTIONS, THE STOPPING SIGHT

DISTANCES GIVEN IN ARAHAN TEKNIK (JALAN ) 81/86, - A GUIDE TO GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF
ROADS MUST BE SATISFIED.

TABLE 3-1 : SIGHT DISTANCE FOR INTERSECTION APPROACH

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For general design purposes a value of D = 3m is assumed. The value of L, the. overall length
of design vehicles can be assumed to be 5m, 10m and 15m for passenger cars, single unit trucks
and semi-trailers respectively.

In testing whether the sight distance along a major road is adequate at an intersection the
distance should be measured from an eye level of 1.15m to the top of an object of height 1.4m
placed on the pavement.

In the case of divided roads, widths of median equal to or greater than the length of vehicle
enable the crossing to be. made in two steps. For divided highways with medians less than L the
median width should be included as part of W.

Along a major road, the longer distance of the two: the sight distance described here and the
stopping sight distance must be satisfied. The former will exceed the latter at higher ranges of
the design speeds.

Where the sight distance along a major road is less than that for departure at an intersection it is
unsafe for vehicles on the major highway to proceed at the assumed design speed of the
highway and signs indicating the safe approach speed should be provided.

The safe speed may be computed for a known sight distance and the width of pavement on the
path of the crossing vehicle.. On turning roadways and ramps, at least the minimum stopping
sight distance should be provided continuously along such roadways. Where the major road has
dual carriageways with a central median width enough to shelter turning vehicles (4.5m or
more) the normal sight triangle to the left of the side road will not be needed but the central
median should be clear of obstructions to driver visibility for at least d m.

3.4.5 Effect of Skew

When two roads ir.,tersect at an angle considerably less than a right angle and realignment to
increase the angle of intersection is not justified, some of the factors for corner sight distance
determination may need adjustment. The difficulty in looking for approaching traffic. makes it
undesirable to treat the intersection based on the assumptions of no control intersections even
where traffic on both roads is light. Treatment by controlled intersection or safe departure
whichever is the larger should be used at skew intersections. In case of departure the distance S
is larger for oblique than for right angle intersections. The width of pavement on the path of the
crossing vehicle, W, (See figure 3-5) is the pavement width divided by the sine of the
intersection angle. The distance alone; the road can be computed by the formula

d = 0.28V (2 + ta) reading ta directly from Figure 3-4.

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3.4.6 Effect of Grades

The differences in stopping distances on various grades at intersections are as given in Figure
3-6. Grades on an intersection leg should be limited to 3 percent. In case of departure
derivation of the time required to cross on. the major road highway is affected by the grade of
crossing on the minor road. Normally the grade across an. intersection is so small that it need
not be considered but when curvature on the major road requires the use of superelevation, the
grade across it may be significant. The effect of grade on acceleration can be expressed as a
multiplic and to be used with the time t as determined for level conditions for a given distance
as shown in Figure 3.7. The value of ta from Figure 3-4 adjusted by the appropriate factors
can be used in the formula d = 0.28V (2 + ta) .

3.5 Right Turn Lanes

3.5.1 General

Right turn lanes improve capacity and safety and should be considered in the following cases:

(a) When the major road flow exceeds 600 vehicles/hr.

(b) At all intersections on divided urban roads with a sufficiently wide median.

(c) At all intersections on undivided urban roads where. right turning traffic is likely to
cause unacceptable congestion and/or hazard.

(d) At all rural intersections in the interest of safety.

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FIGURE 3-4 : SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTION DATA ON ACCELERATION

FROM STOP.

FIGURE 3-5 : SIGHT DISTANCE AT INTERSECTIONS EFFECT OF SKEW

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DESIGN CORRECTION IN STOPPING DISTANCE - METRE

SPEED.
(Km/hr) DECREASE FORUPGRADES INCREASE FOR DOWNGRADES
3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9%

- 3 - - 3
30 -
40 - - 3 3 6

3 6 3 6 9
50 -
6 9 3 9 15
60 3

80 - 9 - 6 15 -

15 - 9 24 -
100 -

FIGURE 3-6 - EFFECT OF GRADE ON STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE WET

CONDITIONS

MINOR ROAD GRADE ( % )

DESIGN VEHICLE
-4 -2 0 +2 +4

PASSENGER CARS (P) 0.7 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.3

SINGLE UNIT TRUCKS (SU) 0.8 0. 9 1.0 1.1 1.3

SEMI TRAILERS (WB-50) 0.8 0.9 1.0 1.1 1. 7

FIGURE 3-7: CORRECTION FACTOR FOR THE EFFECT OF GRADE ON

ACCELERATION TIME ta

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3.5.2 Design Considerations

The turning; path of a semi-trailer should be used for the design of rig ht turns. The vehicle
executing the right-turn manoeuvre must not encroach on the shoulder with its front wheels or
opposite side of the road centre liners with its rear wheels. It is essential that STOP lines,
median noses and "seagull" islands be located to suit vehicle turning paths. Figure 3-8 illustrates
the essential design features of right-turn lanes.

3.5.3 Length Of Right Turn Lanes

The minimum length of a right turn lane shall be equal to the deceleration length for the
particular approach speed. Where storage is required, the length should be increased according
to the expected queue length. Storage length can be estimated as follows:

(a) Signalised intersection

Storage length is calculated as

L = 1.5 x N x: S

where N : Average number of right turning vehicles in a cycle of signal phase (veh.).

S : Average headway in distance (m)

S = 6m for a passenger car
S = 12m for other large commercial vehicles
If the commercial vehicle ratio is not known,
S = 7m may be used.

(b) Unsignalised intersection

Effect of traffic fluctuation to the storage length is more significant in unsignalised intersections.
The following formula can be applied:

L=2xMxS

where, M : Average: number of right turning vehicles in a minute.

At both signalised and unsignalised intersections, a storage length of at least 20m should be
provided if the right turning volume for the above calculation is not available. A right-turn lane
shorter than required would cause the turning vehicles to follow up on the parallel lane and to
obstruct through traffic. in urban areas, hawever, various constraints sometimes impose the
reduction. in the length of right-turn lanes. As traffic will not maintain its highest volume at all
times, even the shorter lane is effective to some degree. As long a right turn lane as the
constraints allowed should be provided. In this case, shortage in the length should be adjusted in
the taper length with the storage :Length maintained as long as possible. However, less than half
the recommended lengths should not be used.

The taper is normally formed by a S-curve composed of two circle ,arcs.

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Where the! right. turn lane is obscured by a crest, it will be necessary to extend the length of the
lane in order to give the driver adequate time to perceive the lane in time to start his
deceleration.

For new intersections, right turning traffic must be estimated by utilizing the information on
land development projects and location of traffic generating facilities along the roads crossing.
Accuracy of the estimation cannot be satisfactory in most cases. New intersections therefore,
should be examined after opening and the design should be refined for actual operating
Conditions, as the storage length is most difficult to predict, at the time of original construction,
it should be prepared for future refinament.

If two or more lanes are provided to cope with heavy right turning traffic, storage length will be
shortened to an ordinary distance divided by the number of the lanes.

3.5.4 Width of Right Turn Lanes

Right turn lanes shall desirably be 3.50m wide and shall not be less than 3.0m wide.

3.5.5 Seagull Island

A seagull island is a triangular island used to separate right turning traffic from through traffic n
the same carriageway as shown in Figure 3-9.

Adequate storage length is required in approach to the island and a merging taper appropriate to
the speed of the through carriageway must be provided on the departure side.

3.5.6 Opposed Right-Turns

When two opposf.ng single-lane right turns are expected to run simultaneously the turning radii
and the tangent points should be such that there is a clear width in accordance with the table in
Figure 3-10.

3.5.7 Central Island. and Median Design

The minimum centra.1 island widths shall follow that as listed in. Figure 3-8. (C)..

Central islands may be made in one of the following ways:

(a) painted as crass hatched areas on the pavement (ghost islands).

(b) raised island surrounded by kerbs.

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Ghost island should be used where the island is of the width of orb less than the turn lane. It
should also be used in rural intersections where there is no street lighting.

Kerbed islands shall be used where the islands are wide. Medians should also be kerbed on both
sides from the start of the taper of the right turning lane, or if no turning is present, then from
the start of the larger of the two rounding curves at the central area of the intersection.

The design considerations for kerbs should follow that laid down in the Arahan Teknik (Jalan)
8/86 - A Guide To Geometric Design Of Roads.

3.6 Left Turn Lanes

3.6.1 General

The type of left turn lane and its treatment depends on:

(a) type and volume of traffic making the turn.

(b) restrictions caused by the surrounding deve1opment.

(c) speed at which the left-turn is to operate.

These factors determine the radius of the kerb and the width of the left-turn lane. There are two
types of treatment fox, left-turns, Simple Left-Turns and Separate Left-Turn Lanes.

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MINIMUM DESIGN
DESIGN SPEED
SPEED OF LEFT
OF APPROACH ROAD
TURN LANES
(km/h)
(km/h)

100 50
80 40
60 30
50 30
40 20
30 20
20 20

TABLE-3-2 MINIMUM DESIGN SPEEDS FOR LEFT-TURN CHANNEL

3.6.2 Simple Left-Turns

These are usually provided where traffic volumes are low and where land acquisition costs
prevent more extensive treatment or the angle of turn prohibits the installation of an island.

At urban intersections the radius of the kerb for the left-turn should be a minimum of 6m. This
allows most commercial vehicles to negotiate the turn at low speeds without encroaching either
on the footway with the rear wheels or on the opposite side of the road's centre line with the
front wheels.

While radii larger than 10m increase the speed of turning movements they reduce the safety of
pedestrian crossings and create problems in locating signal pedestals and. STOP lines. For
simple left turns in urban areas, such radii should only be used after careful consideration of the
above. At rural intersections where provision for pedestrian is not a consideration, larger. radius
curves may be used. Radii larger than 15m should not be used without left-turn island as they
create large areas of uncontrolled pavement.

3.6.3 Separate Left-Turn Lanes

Where the volume of left-turning traffic is high or the skew favours such a layout, a corner
island can be introduced. to create a separate left-turn lane.

(a) Design Speed of Left-Turn Lane

Design speed of left-turn lane higher than that shown in Table 3-2. should be chosen,
considering the turning volume, availability of land and the design speed of the approach
road.

Principally, reduction of design speed less than 20 km/h is not desirable.

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(b) Radius for Separate Left-Turn Lanes

Where environmental and other constraints do not directl.y determine it, the radius (R1 of a
separate left-turn lane depends on :

i. the speed, V, at which vehicles operate,

ii. the superelevation,

iii the acceptable coefficient of friction, f between vehicle tyres and. the pavement. Figure
3-12 gives the relationship between these factors.

The values of R1 in the table are calculated from the formula

V2
R1 = ------------
127(e + f)

The superelevation of curves on separate turning lanes at intersections usually has a low value
mainly because of the difficulty of developing the superelevation on relatively short length of a
separate turning lane. A desirable maximum value in rural areas is 0.08. In urban areas this
should not exceed 0.04 to 0.06. The values of f given in. Figure 3-12 are greater than those used
for open highway design as drivers turnirig or1 curves of small radius at intersections accept a
lower level of comfort. For R1 within the range of 12-30m the turn should be designed to
provide for tracking of the design vehicle. A compound curve with successive radii 1.5R , R1
and 3R1 satifies this requirement. For radii R1 between 30-45m the vehicle tracking can be
accomodated by using a compound curve with successive radii 2R1, R1 and 2R1 . Figure 3-13
illustrates the combination of: radii and widths required for the tracking of: the design vehicle.
For R1 more than 45m the off-tracking is negligible and a single radius R1 is acceptable.

Method of attainment of superelevation runoff for open road should basically be followed in the
design of intersection.

Compound curves are also unnecessary where there is a painted island or an island is either not
required, or cannot be provided. In these cases the front wheels of the occasional semi-trailer
can be steered wide enough to prevent the back wheels running over the kerb or running onto
the shoulder.

When a corner island is to be introduced to create a separate left-turn lane and a three-centred
curve is justified, the combination of radius and angle of turn should provide minimum island
area as follows:

i. In urban areas, 8m2 for adequate definition of the island, shelter for pedestrians as well the
posssible installation of traffic signals.

ii. In rural areas, 50 m2 for adequate definition of the island. Figure 3-11 indicates the
combination of radius and angle of turn which provides these minimum island ,areas .

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(c) Width of Left-Turn Lanes

The width of a left-turn lane depends on:

i. radius
ii. volume and type of turning traffic
iii. whether kerb side parking is permitted or prohibited.
iv. the length of the lane
v. whether both edges are kerbed.

There are three design conditions:

(1) Single lane flow (width W1). This is the normal application and is used in rural or semi-
urban locations where there is a shoulder on the inner edge of pavement. It may also be
applied in urban areas where the inner edge of the lane is kerbed but the corner is small.

(2) Single lane flow with provision for passing a stalled vehicle (Width W2). This width is
diserable for urban locations where parking is prohibited and the corner island has an inner
edge longer than approximately 20m.

(3) Two lane fIow (Width W3) This width is to be adoptad where traffic volumes require two
lanes and parking is prohibited. Width W3 is carried for the whole length of the left-turn
lane.

Design conditions which define the lane width of left-turn lane should be found in Table 3-3
according to the class of road.

The table in figure 3-13 gives the required widths for various radii and design conditions.

3.7 Pavement Taner.

3.7.1 General

Pavement tapers are used at the following places:

(a) the ends of acceleration and deceleration lanes pinvided for left and right turn manoeuvres.

(b) the ends of widened carriageway or dual carriagewayr to assist the merging and diverging of
through traffic manoeuvres.

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FIGURE 3-11 : ISLAND AREAS

e (m/m)

V f 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08

(km/h)
R1 (m)

20 0.34 10 9 9 8 8

30 0.28 25 23 22 20 19

40 0.28 55 50 45 43 40

50 0.19 104 93 85 78 72

60 0.17 167 149 135 123 112

80 0.16 315 280 252 229 210

FIGURE 3-12- TURNING RADII

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3.7.2 Design Principles

The are the general design principles on pavement tapers:

(a) Pavement tapers for diverging movements should provide for a rate of lateral movement of
0.9m. per second.

(b) For merging movements they should provide for a rate of lateral movement of 0.6m. per
second. However where traffic volumes are high greater lenghts may be provided.

AREA CATEGORY OF ROAD LANE WIDTH

HIGHWAY W3 /W1

PRIMARY W2
RURAL
SECONDARY W1

MINOR Wl

ARTERIAL W3/W2

URBAN COLLECTOR W2/W1

LOCAL STREET W1

THE WIDTHS SHOWN ARE OETEMINEO FOUR THE DESIGN VEHICLE SU INCLUDING SOME
CONSIDERATION FOR WB-50. SEPERATE STUDY IS REQUIRED IF P VEHICLE IS EMPLOYED FOR
DESIGN

IF TWO ALTENATIVES ARE GIVEN. ONE SHOULD BE SELECTED ACCORDING TO TURNING

VOLUME OF TRAFFIC

TABLE 3-3 : LANE WIDTHS FOR LEFT-TURN LANE

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(c) Care must be, exercised in designing diverging tapers to ensure that through traffic is not
led into an auxil l..i axy lane in error.

(d) Care must be exercised with the location design of all merging, tapers to ensure that there is
sufficient sight distance for the approaching driver to realise the existence and geometry of
the merge.

(e) Sufficient lengths of straight, horizontal and vertical alignment to allow three seconds of
travel at the prevailing speed should precede diverging tapers.

(f) Diverging and merging tapers should be designed to encourage low relative speed
manoeuvres.

3.7.3 Taper Length

The minimum lengths of pavement taper for diverging and merging movements can be
computed by the formula

V x Yd
Td = ------- ------
3.6 0.9

V x Ym
Tm = ------ ------
3.6 0.6

Where Td = Min. length of pavement taper for diverging movements (m)

Tm = Min. length of pavement taper for merging movements (m)

Yd = Lateral deflection of diverging traffic (m)

Ym = Lateral deflection of merging traffic (m)

Various types of tapers which may be used are shown in Figure 3-14.

3.8 Auxiliary Lanes

3.8.1 Deceleration Lanes

Left-turn deceleration movements should be separated from the through traffic stream. This
may be done by providing in the left-turn approach a length of parallel by a diverge taper (Td).
The combined length should be. equal to the distance required to decelerate from the approach
speed of the through road to the design speed of the left-turn. Lengths of deceleration lanes are
as shown in Figure 3-15.

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FIGURE 3-14: TYPES OF TAPER

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The ratio from Figure 3-16 multiplied by the length from Figure 3-15 gives the length of
deceleration lane on grade.

In urban, areas, it is desirable that traffic using the left-turn should flow continuously. If
calculation indicate that a queue would form at the STOP line, a length of parallel lane long;
enough for the left-turn vehicles to by-pass the end of the queue should be provided.
Figure 3-17 illustrates these principles.

3.8.2 Acceleration Lanes

In urban areas where the through and left-turn movements are expected to flow concurrently,
there should be art area which enables the two streams of traffic to merge at a small angle.
When the volume of merging traffic it, low, or where traffic signals are installed, this may be
provided by a merging taper of lengt h Tm at the exit of the left-turn.

Where the volume of merging traffic is high and signals are not provided, a driver reaching the
exit to the left-turn lane may not find any gap immediately available in the through traffic
stream to permit merging. He should therefore be able to continue on a route parallel to the
through traffic until a merging opportunity occurs or until he adjusts his speed to create an
opportunity to merge. In such cases, a length of parallel acceleration lane together with the
merging taper Tin should be considered. The combined length should be equal to the distance
required for a vehicle to accelerate from the design speed of the left-turn to the design speed of
the through road.

Lengths of acceleration lane are as shown in Figure 3-18. If necessary a correction for grade as
shown in Figure 3-1.9 should be applied.

3.8.3 Width of Auxiliary Lanes

Widths of auxiliary lanes shall desirably be 3.5m but shall not be less -than 3.0m.

3.9 Island and Opening

3.9.1 General

There are two types of islands - pedestrian and traffic.

Pedestrian island provide refuge for people waiting for public transport or crossing wide streets.
Traffic islands art: di visic.nal or channelisation islands.

Visibility to approaching traffic, both day and night, is an esseritial factor in any island location.
Only traffic islands will be considered here.

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Design. Length of Deceleration Lane – (m)

Speed of ( including length of tapered approach)
Approach. Where design speed of exit curve ( km/h) is.
Road
( km/h 1 0** 10 30 40 50 60 80

40 45 40 32 - - - -

50 50 54 46 32 - - -

60 90 74 64 50 28 - -

80 120 112 104 94 82 64

100 170 162 154 144 132 118 80

*Length for Level grade *Length required when a vehicle

(See Figure 3 -16 for Grade Correction) decelerates to zero speed.

NOTE: Where the length of deceleration lane shown is less than the standard taper Td , Td should not
he reduced .

FIGURE 3-15: LENGTH OF DECELERATION LANES

Ratio of Length on Grade to

Grade Length on Level

Upgrade Downgrade
0 - 2% 1.0 1.0
3-4% 0.9 1.2
5 - 6% 0.5 1.35

FIGURE 3-16 : CORRECTION FOR GRADE

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DESIGN SPEED LENGTH* OF ACCELERATION LANE - ( m )

OF ROAD BEING ( INCLUDING LENGTH OF PAVEMENT TAPER )
ENTERED WHERE DESIGN SPEED OF EXIT CURVE (km/h) IS :
(km/h)
0** 20 30 40 50 60 80
40 65 45 35 - - - -
50 95 15 60 40 - - -

60 135 120 100 75 40 - -

80 2 30 215 200 180 145 100 -

100 330 315 295 275 250 205 100

*Length for level grade * Length required when a vehicle accelerates

(For grade correction see (Figure 3 - 19) from zero speed .

NOTE: Where a length of acceleration lane shown is less than the standard taper Tm, Tm should not be reduced.

FIGURE 3-18 : LENGTH OF ACCELERATION LANES

DESIGN RATIO OF LENGTH OF GRADE TO LENGTH OF LEVEL* FOR :

SPEED OF
HIGHWAY DESIGN SPEED OF TURNING ROADWAY CURVE (km/ h )
(km/ h) STOP 20 40 60 80 ALL SPEEDS
3 TO 4 %
3 OR 4 % UPGRADE DOWNGRADE
40 1.3 1.3 - - - 0 .7
50 1.3 1.3 1.3 - - 0-7
60 1.3 1.3 1.3 - -
80 1.3 1.3 1.4 1.4 0.65
100 1.3 1.4 1.4 1.5 1.6 0.6
5 TO 6 %
5 OR 6 % UPGRADE DOWNGRADE
40 1.4 1.4 - - - 0.6
50 1.4 1.5 1.5 - - 0.6
60 1.5 1.5 1.5 - 0.6
80 1.5 1.5 1.6 1.9 0.55
100 1.6 1.7 1.8 2.2 2.5 0.5

*Ratio from this table multiplied by length in Figure 3.18 gives length of speed-change lane on grade.
Figure 3.20 illustrates the application of an acceleration lane and/or merging taper to a left-turn lane.

FIGURE 3-19 : CORRECTION FOR GRADE

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3.9.2 Traffic Islands

Traffic islands are used to : -

(a) separate opposing streams of traffic;

(b) guide traffic away from and past fixed obstructions and other hazardous points;
(c) reduce the Area of conflicts and control the angles at which conflicts occur;
(d) provide shelter for turning or crossing vehicles;
(e) prohibit undesirable or unnecessary traffic movements;
(f) control speed;
(g) separate through and turning movements as well as define their respective alignments; and
(h) provide for and protect traffic control devices.

Traffic islands may be defined by pavement markings, kerbs or a combination of these.

Large islands in rural areas may be constructed without kerbs or with kerbs only at the points
where separate roadways converge or diverge.

The following design aspects should be considered for shape, location and size of islands:

(a) They should be located and designed so that the proper line: of travel is obvious and any
changes in direction are gradual and smooth.

(b) The approach end of any island should be offset from the edge of the adjacent traffic lanes
and preceded by appropriate pavement markings such as chevron markings. This approach
offset should be a minimum of: 1.0m. The sides of islands should also be offset from
adjacent traffic lanes by 0.3m 0.6m where semi-mountable or mountable kerbs are used.
For roads with design speeds exceeds ng 80km/hr. ,the offset should be increased to 0.6m
and 1.2m.

(c) Except for very large rural islands, islands should be delineated with semi-mountable type
kerb. Where pedestrian refuge is being provided, barrier kerb should be used.

(d) In urban areas, raised islands should be of an area of not less than approximately 8m2 . A
smaller area may be adopted where traffic signals need protection. Islands in rural areas
should desirably have a minimum area of 50m2. In rural. areas without any street lighting,
raised islacvds should not be used. Instead pavement markings should be used.

(e) Where an. islard has to provide for stop lines, traffic signals and pedestrian crossings, the
side of the island should be a minimum of 6m long with a minimum width of 1.2m at the
point where the signal pedestal is erected.

(f) Figure 3-21 shows desirable layouts for directional islands.

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3.9.3 Median Islands

Medians are used to separate opposing traffic streams, provide refuge for .Pedestrians and
reduce the number of points of crossing conflict along a road.

The following design aspects of medians should be considered :

(a) The approach end of each median island should be set. 'back from the right hand edge of
the adjacent traffic lane by at least 0.3m and preferably 0.5m to:

i. reduce the probability of collision with the island and ;

ii. relieve the optical illusion of a construction in the lane at the start of the island.

(b) Unless stopping sight distance is available at its approach end, a median should not
commence on or beyond a crest . Medians should not also begin on the arc or a horizontal
curve but at or before the first tangent point or 30m or more beyond the second tangent..
point.

(c) A length of painted median should precede the approach era of the median so that the
approaching driver will notice the obstruction ahead. On high speed roads, any short length
of kerbed median should be offset from the delineated through traffic lane by approximately
0.5m (See Figure 3-22).

If median is narrower than 2m, a length of barrier line may be used in the approach (See
Figure 3-23) instead of the painted median.

(d) The first median end encountered by approaching drivers should display a reflectorised
KEEP LEFT (Sign RM4) sign. Where the island is less than 1.2m wide at the approach
end, this sign should be placed up to 6m away from the. end to protect it from approaching
traffic.

(e) Where a median island is placed in a side road, the end adjacent to the through road should
be as narrow as practicable and set back 0.6m behind the prolongation of the kerb line of
the through road when :

i. no pedestrian crossing is provided or

ii. a minimum length of 2m of median can be provided between the pedestrian crossing and
the through road.

If (ii) is not possible, the end of the median should be terminated at the pedestrian crossings.

(f) Where a median would alter the number of lanes, the treatment: to be adopted should
follow that as shown in Figure 3-24.

(g) Semi-mountable kerbs should be used.

(h) Where kerbs cannot be used, painted medians should be used as shown in Figure 3-25.

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3.9.4 Median Opening

Where openings are provided in medians, the treatment of the median and ends should be in
accordance with those shown in Figure 3-26 depending on the width of the median.

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3.9.5 Outer Separators

Outer Separators ax-e used to separate the through traffic lanes from is;ervice roads. They
should be as wide as possible with a desirable width of 5.0m. Treatment for outer separator
openings are as shown in Figure 3-27

3.10 Widening of Major Road

Widening of the riajor road to provide space for the central island should on a straight portion
be made symmetrically around the centreline of the road and on a curve portion be made to the
inside of the centreline. The same applies where widening of a median is required.

The length of the widening shall be determined by the formula :

_________
Lw = V√ W max

where Lw = length of the widening in m

V = design. speed of major road in km/hr.

W max = larger of the two parts of the widening (m) on either side of the centreline
i.e. (W max = 1/2 of total widening W in the symmetrical case and Wmax = Ww in the case of
one sided widening).

The outer edges of the. carriageway shall be widened over the same length as the central.
Widening even if the required widening is different from the central widening due to changes in
lane width.

The widening of both inner and outer edges shall be carried out to a smooth continuous
alignment composed of the usual. alignment elements. S or Reverse curves composing of two
circle arcs will in most cases provide a curvature which has acceptable dynamic and optical
properties and is recommended. S-curve may when the road is on a curve produce adverse
curvatures, in which case the length of widening should be increased or an alternative curvature
selected. Figure 3-28 shows aspects of widening of the major road by S-curves.

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3.11 Minor Road Treatment

3.11.1 Types of Treatments

Treatments on minor road for better traffic control benefits not only the minor road but also the
major road. Quick, departure of traffic from the major road and smooth merging into it helps to
maintain a smooth and safe traffic flow on the major road. There are basically 3 degrees of
treatments ; description of which is given irk Section 1.3.

The type of the minor road treatments should be selected according to the class of the road and
that of the major road to which it is connected, as shown in Table 3-4.

Guide islands in the centre should be provided for flared or higher treatments.

3.11.2 Guide Islands

Guide islands are placed at the centre of the minor road at intersections to define the movements
of turning traffic and to control the speed of turning and crossing vehicles. They also provide
space for traffic control devices and refuge for pedestrians.

Guide island. shall, be designed to the following:

i. the shape and location of the island shall be such that it can be passed by the design vehicle
both entering and leaving the major road.

ii. the front end of the island is shaped by the inner rear wheel paths of the design vehicle
while the rear end is shaped to guide the approaching traffic.

iii. the largest width of the island shall be between 3.0 to 5.0m while the length shall be
between 20 to 35m.

iv. the island shall be curved, preferably semi --mountable and offsetted 0.3m.

v. mandatory keep left signs shall be placed at both ends of the island. Warning or information
signs can be placed if they do not affect the visibility of the vehicles.

Figures :3-29A and 3-29B gives the standard design of guide islands which are to be used.

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C : CHANNELIZED
F : FLARED
N : NO.TREATMENT

a) RURAL AREA

MINOR ROAD

PRIMARY SECONDARY
HIGHWAY MINOR ROAD
ROAD ROAD
C* C F F/N HIGHWAY

F
C/F N PRIMARY
MAJOR
ROAD
N SECONDARY

N MINOR ROAD

*NORMALLY AT- GRADE INTERSECTION SHOULD NOT DE ADOPTED

a) URBAN AREA

MINOR ROAD

LOCAL
ARTERIAL COLLECTOR
STREET
C C/F F/N ARTERIAL

F MAJOR
N COLLECTOR
ROAD

N LOCAL STREET

WHERE TWO ALTENATIVES ARE GIVEN TRAFFIC VOLUME SHOULD BE TAKEN INTO ACCOUNT
FOR THE SELECTION

TABLE 3-4 MINOR ROAD TREATMENT

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3.11.3 Widening of the Minor Road

The width of the carriageway shall remain unchanged up to the corner; of the intersection if no
guide islands are present.

Where guide islands are present, the entry lane shall have a minimum width of 3.5m and the
exit lane a minimum width of 4.5m past the island.

Provision of right-turn lanes and examinati'on of the number needed are usually emphasized on
the major road. However, increasing the number of right turning lane on minor crossroad
especially at signalised intersections also profits the major road. Right turning vehicles departing
from two lanes can clear the intersection in a shorter time. The green time alloted to the
crossroad can also be cut down.A more favourable split of green time to the major road
increases its capacity.This effect is more significant if the widening of the major road is costly
and the crossroad is two lane. Because, intersections are usually bottlenecks of any stretch of
road, the benefit of any increased capacity extends to the whole stretch. This is more cost
effective than widening of the major road. In this case, however, green time assigned to the
crossroad should not be shorter than 15 seconds and be sufficient for pedestrians who cross the
major road in the same phase.

3.11.4 Left Turn Lane on Minor Roads

An auxiliary lane reserved for left turning traffic may be added to the approach of the minor
road if the left turning traffic exceeds 50% of the capacity for that movement, or where there are
no space constraints.

The design of the left. turn lanes shall follow the guidelines set out in Section 3.6.3.

3.12 Shoulders

Shoulder widths shall in general remain unchanged in the intersection area but may be reduced
to 2.0m along the deceleration and turning lanes.

In the vicinity of the intersection where kerbed islands are. present, the shoulder structure should
be of a stable gravel, hard or sealed shoulder type. In general kerbs should not be used along the
outer carriageway edges.

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3.13 Crossfall and Surface Drainage

Crossfalls in the intersection area should be designed with regard to drainage,driving comfort
and visibility.

In general., the c,rossfall of the through lanes of the major road shall remain unchanged through
the intersection.

Crossfalls on auxci_liary lanes may follow the crossfall of the adjoining through lane or fall to
the opposite side as is required by drainage or side friction criteria. The algebraic difference of
crossfalls of two adjoining lanes should not exceed 5 percent.

The crossfrall of -the: minor road shall, towards the edge of the through lane. be the same as the
gradient of the through lane. Where the major road is on a steep grade, this may create an
adverse camber for turning vehicles. In such i situation, diverging lanes should be considered.

Superelevation of corner lanes in connection with triangular islands on the minor road shall in
general not exceed 6 percent

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CHAPTER 4

4.0 CAPACITY OF INTERSECTIONS

4.1 GENERAL

Interrupted traffic flow conditions predominate on most urban roads. Generally, it is the major
intersections, signalised or not, which determine the overall capacity and performance of the
road network.

Significant volunies of crossing or t-urning traffic at minor roads cause. interruptions and
capacity reductions, which can be lessened by channelisation and intersection control.

The capacity of intersections are very important and to achieve balance, the intersection design
should take into accouiat the capacity of the approach roads.

4.2 LEVEL OF SERVICE

Level of Service is a qualitative measure of the effect of a number of factors, which include
speed and travel time, traffic interruptions, freedom to manoeuver, safety, driving comfort and
convenience and operating costs. T1-se level of service concept is used in the capacity analysis
of intersections. The required level of service to be used for intersections along the various
categories. of roads are as shown in Table 4-1.

AREA Category of Road Level of Service

Expressway C
Highway C
RURAL Primary D
Secondary D
Minor E

Expressway C
URBAN Arterial D
Collector. D
Local Street E

TABLE 4-1.: LEVEL OF SERVICE

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4.3 CAPACITY OF UNSIGNALISED INTERSECTIONS

4.3.1 General

Capacity analysis are seldom required for rural intersections since their volumes are rarely
sufficient to make capacity a design consideration. Safety is normally the major consideration in
rural situations, which ma:; necessitate the provision of separate lanes for left or right turning
vehicles.

The method of capac=ity analysis as detailed below is therefore more pertinent for urban
intersections. It is based on. the Highway Capacity Mannual, Special Report. 209.
Transportation Research Board Washington D.C. 1985. The designer is advised to refer to the
above publication for a better understanding of the subject.

4.3.2 Procedure

i. Basic Structure

The basic structure of the procedure is as follows:

a) Define existing geometric and volume conditions for the intersection under study.

b) Determine the "conflicting traffic" through which each minor road movement, and the
major road right turn, must cross.

c) Determine the size of the gap in the conflicting traffic stream needed by vehicles in each
movement crossing a conflicting traffic stream.

d) Determine the capacity of the gaps in the major traffic stream to accomodate each of the
subject movements that will utilize these gaps.

e) Adjust the capacities so found to account for impedance and the use of shared lanes.

f) Determine the reserve capacity and from Table 4-4 the level of service for the
unsignalised intersection.

Each of these basic analysis steps is discussed in detail in the sections that follow. Appendix B
gives the worksheets for the analysis of unsignalised 1.ntersections.

When the Level of Service as determined is lower than the required level as in Table 4-1;
improvements such as channelisation, lane use controls, sight distance improvements etc. should
be considered and the level of service recalculated. If the level of service is still lower than that
as required , then signalisation should be considered.

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ii. Input Data requirements

The basic input data requirements are as indicated below:

a) numbeir and use of lanes

b) channeli sation

c) approach gradient

d) kerb radius and approach angle

e) sight distances

Each of these factors have a substantial impact on how gaps are utilised, and on the size of the
gap that is required by the various movements. Volumes must be specified by movement. In
general, full hour volumes are used in the analysis of unsignalised intersections because
short-term fluctuations will generally not present maJor difficulties at such locations. The
engineer may, however, choose to consider flow rates for the peak 15-min interval by dividing
all volumes by the peak hour factor (PHF) before beginning computations. The volume for
movement is designated as Vi.

By convention, subscripts 1 to 6 are used to define movements on the major road and
subscripts 7 to 12 define movements on the minor road. Conversion of vehicles per hour to
passenger cars per hour is accomplished using the passenger-car equivalent values given in
Table 4-2.

TABLE 4-2: CONVERSION TO P.C.U. FOR UNSIGNALISED INTERSECTION

GRADE(%)
TYPE OF
VEHICLE
-4%. -2% 0% +2% +4%

Motorcycles 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

Passenger Cars 0. 8 0.9 1.0 1.2 1.4

SU 1.0 1.2 1.5 2.0 3.0

WB - 50 1.2 1.5 2.0 3.0 6.0

All Vehicles* 0.9 1.0 1.1 1.4 1.7

* If vehicle composition is unknown, these values may be used as an approximation.

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iii. Conflicting Traffic

The nature of conflicting movements at an unsignalised intersection is relatively complex.

Each subject movement faces a different set of conflicts that are directly related to the nature
of the movement. These conflicts are depicted in Figure 4-1 which illustrates the computation
of the parameter:

Vci = the "conflict irg volume" for movement i, that is, the total volume which conflicts
with movement i., expressed in vehicles per hour.

When using Figure 4-1 to complete the conflicting volumes, then engineer should carefully
consult the footnotes which allow modifications to the equations shown in special cases. In
the equations of Figure 4-1, the conflicting traffic volume for movement i, which is denoted
Vci is computed in terms of an hourly volume incimixed vph. Subscript r denotes right
turns, 1 for left turns, t for through movements and o, for opposing minor road flows.

iv. Critical Gap Size

The "critical gap" is defined as the median time headway between two successive vehicles in
the major road traffic stream that is accepted by drivers in a. subject movement that must cross
and/or merge with the major road flow. It is denoted as Tc. and is expressed in seconds. The
critical gad) depends on a number of factors viz :

a) the type of maneouver being executed

b) the type of minor road control (STOP or GIVE WAY)
c) the average running speed on the major road
d) the nrnimber of lanes on the major street
e) the geometrics and environmental conditions at the intersection.

The values of critical gap are selected from Table 4-3 in a two part process i.e. :

a) the basic critical gap size is selected from the first half of the table for the type of
movement, control and major road speed.

b) adjustments and modifications to the basic critical gap size are selected from the second
half of the tables for a variety of conditions.

v. Potential Capacity For A Movement

The potential capacity of a movement is denoted as cpi (for movement i), and is defined as the
"ideal'" capacity for a specific subject movement, assuming the following conditions :

a) Traffic on the major roadway does not block the minor road.
b) Traffic from nearby intersections does not back up into the intersection under consideration.
c) A separate lane is provided for the exclusive use of each minor road movement under
consideration.
d) No other movements impede the subject movement.
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Note :

* Vt includes only the volume in the left hand lane

** Where a left turn lane is provided on the major road, Vl or Via should be deleted
*** Where the left turn radius into the minor road is large and or where these movements are
STOP/ OIVEWAY controlled , Vt ( case 2 ) and Vta and/or Vtb (case 4 ) should be deleted.
Vtb can also be deleted for multilane major roads.

FIGURE 4-1 : DEFINITION AND COMPUTATION OF CONFLICTING TRAFFIC VOLUMES

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The potentiad. capacity in passenger cars per hour is selected from Figure 4-2, and is based
on the conflicting traffic volume, Vc in vehicles per hour, and the critical gap, Tc, in seconds.
The figure is entered on the horizontal axis with the value of Vc . A vertical line is drawn to
the approximate "critical gap" curve., A horizontal line is drawn from than intersection with
the "critical gap" curve to the vertical axis, where the result is read, in passenger cars per hour.

Vi. Impedance Effects

Vehicles utilise gaps in a prioritised manner at unsignalised intersections. The potential

capacity of a lower priority movement can be impeded when traffic becomes congested. The
impact of impedance is taken into consideration by multiplying the potential capacity of a
movement cpi by a series of impedance factors Pj for each impeding movement j.

Impendance factors Pj are found from Figure 4-3 and are based solely on the percent of
potential capacity of the impeding movement used by the existing demand. For example, a
right turn movement from a minor road at a T-intersection is impeded by the rightturn from
the major road. The latter movement has a potential capacity of 500 pcph and a demand of
200 pcph. Therefore the major road right turn uses up 200/500 = 0.40 or 40 percent of its
available capacity. From Figure 4-3, an impedance factor of 0.68 is read.

Figure 4-4 illustrates the computations for the calculation of the movement capacity, cmi
which is the adjusted capacity of the movement. This however still assumes that the
movement has exclusive use of a separate lane.

vi i. Shared Lane Capacity

Frequently, two or three movements share a single lane on the minor road approach. When
this occurs, vehicles from different movements do not have simultaneous access to gaps.
Where several movements share the same lane, and cannot stop side by side at the stop line,
the following equation is used to compute the capacity of the shared lane :

V1 + Vt + Vr
CSH = ------------------------------------------
(Vl/Cml) + (Vt/Cmt ) + (Vr/Cmr)

where

CSH - capacity of the shared lane, in pcph;

V1 = volume or flow rate of left-turn movement in shared lane, in pcph;

Vt = volume or flow rate of through movement -movement in shared lane,in pch;

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FIGURE 4-2 : POTENTIAL CAPACITY BASED ON CONFLICTING TRAFFIC

VOLUME AND CRITICAL GAP SIZE

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BASIC CRITICAL GAP FOR PASSENGER CARS (SEC)

AVERAGE RUNNING SPEED, MAJOR ROAD

VEHICLE 50 km/hr 90 km/hr
MANEOUVER AND
TYPE OF CONTROL NUMBER OF LANES ON MAJOR ROAD
2 4 2 4
LT from Minor Road
5.5 5.5 6.5 6.5
STOP
5.0 5.0 5.5 5.5
GIVE WAY
RT from Major Road 5.0 5.5 5.5 6.0
Crass Major Road
6.0 6.5 7.5 8.0
STOP
5.5 5.0 6.5 1.0
GIVE WAY
RT from Minor Road
6.5 7.0 8.0 8.5
STOP
6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5
GIVE WAY

ADJUSTMENTS AND MODIFICATIONS TO CRITICAL GAP, SEC

CONDITION ADJUSTMENT
Kerb radius > 15m
LT from Minor Road - 0.5
or turn angle < 60°
LT from Minor Road: Acceleration lane
- 1.0
provided
Restricted sight Distance (a) UP to - 1.0

All movements: Population ≥ 250.000 - 6.5

Note: Maximum total decrease in critical gap = 1.0 m

Maximum critical gap = 8.5 sec
For values of average running speed between 50 and 90 km/hr; interpolate

(a) This adjustment is for the specific movement-affected by restricted sight

distance.

TABLE 4-3: CRITICAL GAP SIZE SELECTION

CAPACITY USED BY EXISTING DEMAND, Percentage

FIGURE 4-3 : IMPEDANCE FACTORS AS A RESULT OF CONGESTED MOVEMENTS

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Vr = volume or flow rate of right-turn movement in shared lane, in pch;

Cml= movement capacity of the left-turn movement in shared lane, pch;

Cmt = movement capacityof the through movement in shared lane, pch; and

Cmr = movement capacity of the right-turn movement in shared lane, in pcph.

If the shared lane includes only left-turn and through movements, both numerator and
denominator terms for right-turners are deleted in the equation.

viii. Reserve Capacity

The reserve capacity of the minor road approach lane. in question can be computed thus :

CR = CSH - V

where

CR = reserve capacity of the lane in pcph.

CSH= shared lane capacity of the lane in pcph

V = total volume or flow rate using the lane

ix. Level of Service

The level of service criteria is related to the reserve capacity and is shown in Table 4-4 below.

Direct comparisons of an unsignalised intersection. Level of Service with a signalised

intersection Level of Service should not be made as the level of service for unsignalised
intersection that is based on reserve capacity are not associated with the delay values cited for
signalised intersections.

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TABLE 4-4: LEVEL OF SERVICE CRITERIA FOR UNSIGNALISED INTERSECTIO

RESERVE CAPACITY LEVEL OF EXPECTED DELAY

(PCPH) SERVICE TO MINOR ROAD TRAFFIC
400 A Little or no delay
300 - 399 B Short traffic delays
200 - 299 C Average traffic delays
100 - 199 D Long traffic delays
0 - 99 E Very long traffic delays
* F *

* When demand volume exceeds the capacity of the lane, extreme delays will be encountered with
queuing which may cause severe congestion affecting other traffic movements in the intersection. This
condition usually warrants improvement to the intersection.

4.3.3 Potential Improvements

It should be noted that the above methodology is not a formal warrant for the consideration of
signalisation. Where unacceptable levels of service are found, improvements such as
channelisation, lane use controls, sight distance improvements, multiway STOP control etc.
should be considered. Only when such improvements does not improve the level of service
should signalisation be considered.

4.4 CAPACITY OF SIGNALISED INTERSECTIONS

4.4.1 The capacity of signalised intersections is also based on the concept of level of service.
In this instance, the stopped delay per vehicle is used as a measure of the level of service
and this is a measure of driver discomfort, frustration, fuel consumption and lost travel
time. Table 4-5 gives the level of service criteria for signalised intersections. The
designer should refer to Arahan Teknik (Jalan ) 13/87 - "A Guide To Traffic Signal
Design" for a fuller explaination.

TABLE 4-5: LEVEL OF SERVICE CRITERIA FOR SIGNALISED INTERSECTION

Level of Service Stopped Delay For Vehicle (Sec.)

A < 5.0
B 5.1 to 15.0
C 15.1 to 25.0
D 25.1 to 40.0
E 40.1 to 60.0
F > 60.0

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When the level of service calculated is unacceptable, the signal timing phasing or layout
should be adjusted and reanalysed. If the level of service is still unacceptable, grade separation
should then be considered.

4.4.2 Warrants

Warrants for the installation of traffic controlled sigals are as those laid down in Appendix A.

4.4.3 Intersection Capacity Characteristics

The intersection capacity analysis as detailed below follows that of the Transport and Road
Research Laboratory. Capacity analysis can also be done using the Transportation Research
Board's "Highway Capacity Manual"- Special Report 209 - Chapter 9". The analysis is similar
in that a basic lane saturation flow is obained and modified in accordance with certain
operational characteristics.

Some of the operational characteristics are :

a) effect of approach lane widths

b) effect of composition of traffic
c) capacity reduction due to opposing traffic
d) effect of pa:cked vehicles
e) effect of gradient

A full detailed description of the operational characteristics area given in Arahan Teknik
(Jalan) 13/87 - "A Guide To Traffic Signal Design".

4.4.4 Computation Analysis

The following procedures are used, i.e. calculate the :

a) corrected saturation flow for each approach using the factors listed above.
b) capacity ratio for each approach and thus for each signal phase.
c) reserve capacity for the intersection.
d) calculate the vehicular delay
e) calculate the queue length

When the reserve capacity of the intersection or the level of service is unacceptable, the signal
timing phasing or layout may have to be adjusted. If the reserve capacity or level of service is
still unacceptable, grade separation should then be considered.

A full detailed description of the computational analysis and. procedures are given in Arahan
Teknik (Jalan) 13/87 - "A Guide To Traffic Signal Design".

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4.4.5 Signal Timings

The optimum cycle time, Co , is usually calculated fron Webster's Formula : -

Co = 1.5L, + 5 where L = total lost time (sec)

------- = n1 + R where
1-Y n = no. of phases/cycles
1 = lost time /phase
R= all Red time

Y = capacity ratio of intersect ion

The of fect ive green t ime fo r each phase gi , i s given by the following :

gi, = Yi.(Co-L)
------
Y

In general, the minimum cycle time should not be less than 45 sec and the maximum cycle
time should not exceed 120 sec.

4.5 CAPACITY OF ROUNDABOUTS

4.5.1 Size Of Roundabout

With the large variation in sizes, movements of traffic in a roundabout cannot be analysed by
one universal method. In large (conventional ) roundabouts, weaving motion in the turning
road sections between legs may be assumed, but. this is not so in smaller roundabouts.
Separate formulae are proposed to determine the capacity of roundabouts of different sizes.

Distinction of the sizes is defined as follows :

Diameter of Diamater of
Inscribed Circle (m) Centre Circle (m)

Conventional D I > 50 D c > 25

Small 50 > D I > 20 25 > D c > 4

Mini 20 > D I 4 > Dc

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4.5.2 Capacity Calculations

a) Conventional Roundabout

Qp = 160W ( 1 + e/W )
----------------------
1 + ( W/L )

where

Qp = capacity of weaving section (veh/h )

W = width of weaving section (m)
e = 1/2 (el + e2): average entry width (m)
L = lenght of weaving section (m)

Refer to figure 4-5 for notation of variables.

b) Small Roundabout
___
Qp = K (W+ √ A)

where

Qp : capacity of whole junction (veh/h )

W: the stun of basic full widths on all approaches (m)

A : area added to basic junction by flared approaches (m2 )

K : a specific factor :

70 for 3 legs

50 for 4 legs

45 for 5 legs

c) Mini Roundabout

The same formula a s i n (b) applies. The value K should be changed as follows:

60 for 3 legs

45 for 4 legs

40 for 5 legs

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4.5.3 Reserve Capacity

For roundabouts, the concept of level of service is not applicable. The reserve capacity should
be calculated i.e.

Qr = Qp - Q X 100 %
--------------------
Q

when Qr = reserve capacity (veh./hr. )

Qp = calculated capacity (veh. /hr. )
Q = volume of traffic (weavirg/total ) (veh. /hr. ).

In general, the reserve capacity available should not be less than 15%. If this is so, a signalised
intersection or grade separation may be considered.

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CHAPTER 5

5.0 OTHER RELATED ELEMENTS

5.1 PEDESTRIAN FACILITIES

5.1.1 General

Pedestrian facilities such as crossings, refuge islands and pedestrian actuated traffic signals are
an integral part of intersection design and should be provided where required.

5.1.2 Pedestrian Crossig,

a) Pedestrian crossings should be placed to match the flow line of pedestrian traffic. Pedestrian
crossing located against the natural flow of traffic demand would invite jaywalkers outside
of it.

b) Pedestrian crossings shouldbe placed perpendicular to the road. This makes the distance to
cross and green time to be alloted to pedestrians the shortest. This is desirable to maintain
high capacity.

c) Pedestrian crossings should be placed closer to the centre. of the intersection. Pedestrian
crossings placed closer to the centre make the intersection smaller and require less time to
pass through it. Smaller intersection has a larger capacity with shorter clearance time in
signal phasing.

d) Pedestrian crossings should be placed where drivers approaching have a fine view of it.

e) Pedestrian crossings shorter than 15m is recommended. If the road to be crossed is longer
than 15m, refuge islands should be provided to enable pedestrians to cross it in two green
sign,als.

f) The width of pedestrian crossing should be determined for the number of pedestrians and
the length of green time alloted to the pedestrian phase. However, every pedestrian crossing
having various width is not desirable. The minimum width should be fixed at 4m and 2m
for major roads and minor roads respectively. The width should be increased by whole
meters.

g) Where the pedestrian crossing is used by blind people, a warning sound system should be
considered.

Although it may theoretically be desirable to place pedestrian crossing at the extension of

the side walk, it is usually located several meters (3 to 4 m, or at least lm) behind the
extension of boundary line between carriageway and sidewalk. Barriers should be provided
along the rounded corner between the two thresholds to pedestrian crossing. This is
practiced for the following reasons :

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a) Pedestrian crossings placed on the elongation of intersecting sidewalks may cross in the
intersection. In the cases like this, pedestrians tend to wait in the intersection or move to the
next intersect ingpedestriancrossing without making a complete crossing of the first One.

b) Left-turning vehicles must often wait for the pedestrians who are crossing the street in the
same phase. The pedestrian crossings should be set back to make some space for these
vehicles so that they will not be an obstacle to the straight through vehicles.

c) Rounded corners of sidewalk created by setting back two pedestrian crossings gives space
for traffic signs and lighting.

d) Rounded corners protect ed by barriers provide pedestrians with a psychological effect

of relaxed and safe feeling and invites composed behaviour. When space permits, flower
pots placed along the corner are further preferable to enhance adthetics.

e) Pedestrian crossing should be placed 1 to 2m back from the top of the central median.

5.2 LIGHTING

Lighting affects the safety of intersections and the ease and comfort of traffic operations.
Intersections which are channelised should include lighting even though it, is not warranted. If
lighting is not available, the islands should be equipped with pavement reflectors.

5.3 PUBLIC UTILITIES

The location and size of underground and overhead public utility services which are close
enough to the intersection to be affected together with-any planned extension or amplification
should be determined in the preliminary stages of the design.

Service tunnels/culverts or ducts should also be provided for future services to avoid the
digging of the carriageway pavement.

5.4 PARKING

Vehicles-parked near intersections can obstruct the flow of turning traffic. Parking should be
prohibited within the minimum distance specified in the Road Traffic Ordinance.

Apart from any statutory requirements, on the approach side of a signalised intersection,
parking should be prohibited.: for a distance large enough to store as many vehicles as can
cross the STOP line in one phase from the kerb lane. Parking should also be prohibitd
between vehicle detectors and the intersection.

There should also be adequate parking restrictions on the exit side of the intersection to enable
the kerb lane vehicles to disperse.

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5.5 TRAFFIC SIGNS AND LANE MARKINGS

The need and layout of traffic signs and lane markings should be considered as part of the
intersection design.

Although signs within a channelised layout are important, the efficiency of a layout should not
depend entirely on them. Once a driver reaches the intersection proper, the lane markings and
layout of the islands should clearly indicate the paths to be followed.

Thus the most effective sign posting and lane marking are those in advance of the intersection
which directs the driver into the appropriate traffic lane before he enters the intersection.

Effective signposting ensures that the driver has sufficient time to understand and decide on a
manoeuvre before reaching the point where that manoeuvre must take place.

All traffic signs and traffic control devices must follow that as laid down in Arahan Teknik
(Jalan) 2A/85, 2B/85 arid 2D/85. Figure 5-1 indicates the typical lane and pavement markings
for a cross urban intersection.

5.6 DRAINAGE

The provision of proper drainage facilities is important for any road and more so at
intersections. Careful attention to the requirements for an adequate drainage system and
protection of the intersection from flooding should be considered as an integral part of the
design of the intersection.

5.7 LANDSCAPING

Landscaping has been a neglected feature in the design of roads and in particular at
intersections. In the consideration of landscaping for intersections, the element of road safety
must not be neglected, nor compromised. Within the intersection area, only low shrubs/trees
should. be considered to ensure that sight distances are not affected. The advice of the
Horticultural Officer in Cawangan Jalan can be sought in this respect.

5.8 STOP LINE

5.8.1 General

Stop lines show the boundary within which no vehicle is allowed to stop. They should be
located at the entrance to signa.li sed intersections, at nearside of pedestrian crossings, and on
the minor road at the entrance to stop controlled intersections.

Stop line should generally be located ;

a) perpendicular to the centre line of road.

b) at 1 to 2m before any pedestrian crossing.

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c) the place from where drivers can have a sufficient sight distance along the intersecting road.

d) where the vehicle stopping will not be an obstacle to the movement of vehicles turning in
from the intersecting road.

5.8.2 Stop Line on Minor Road

The vehicle stopping at the stop line on the narrow minor road would often obstruct the
movement of vehicles turning in from the major road. The stop line is usually set back by
several metres from the normal position to solve this problem. This however, invites another
problem in sight distance. One of the following measures should be taken.

a) To provide a corner rounding large enough for necessary sight distance.

b) To signalise the intersection.

c) To provide it with a traffic mirror if traffic from the minor road is light.

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