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UC-NRLF

CENTS

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ADVANCED

SHOP ARITHMETIC
FOR THE MACHINIST
BY ERF" OBERG
THIRD EDITION

MACHINERY'S REFERENCE BOOK NO. 52 PUBLISHED BY MACHINERY, NEW YORK

MACHINERY'S REFERENCE SERIES

EACH NUMBER IS A UNIT IN, A SERIES ON ELECTRICAL AND STEAM ENGINEERING DRAWING AND MACHINE DESIGN AND SHOP PRACTICE

NUMBER

52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC FOR THE MACHINIST

By ERIK OBERG
THIRD EDITION

CONTENTS

Square Root Cube Root The Use of Formulas Time Required for Drilling, Milling and Planing Pulley and Gear Drives Horsepower of Belting Change Gears for Cutting Metric Threads Areas of Plane Figures

....

3 6

9 15 18

20
-

Volumes of Solids Specific Gravity and Weights of Bars and Castings Use of Tables of Sines, Cosines, Tangents, and Cotan>-, gents r -,vfs
'<

22 27 37 43 49

Copyright, 1912,

The

Industrial Press, Publishers of

MACHINERY,

49-55 Lafayette Street,

New York

City

Students whose knowledge of elementary arithmetic and its applicafor intelligent study of this treatise, are advised to first study MACHINERY'S Jig Sheets 5A to 15A, inclusive, Common Fractions and Decimals, and MACHINERY'S Reference Book No. 18, "Shop Arithmetic for the Machinist." Not until the principles of elementary arithmetic and their application to simple shop problems are well understood, can the student expect to derive the full
tion to simple problems is too limited
benefit

from the study

of the present book.

CHAPTER

SQUARE ROOT
by
10

The square of a number is the product of that number multiplied The square of 2 is 2 X 2 itself. 4, and the square of 10 is 10 X

100; similarly the square of 177 is 177 X 177 31,329. of writing 2 X 2 for the square of 2, it is often written 2 2
,

Instead

read two square, and means that 2 is multiplied by 2. way 128 2 means 128 X 128. The small figure ( 2 ) in these expressions is called exponent. The square root of a number is that number which, when multiplied by itself, will give a product equal to the given number. Thus, the square root of 4 is 2, because 2 multiplied by itself gives 4. The square root of 25 is 5; of 36, 6, etc. We may say that the square root is the reverse of the square, so that if the square of 24 is 576, then the square root of 576 is 24. The mathematical sign for the square root is j^Tbut 2 the is generally left out, making the square-root sign index^Jigure ( )

which is In the same

simply vTthus:
2 (the square root of four equals two), V4 10 (the square root of one hundred equals ten). V 100 The operation of finding the square root of a given number

= =

is

called

extracting the square root. Assume that the square root of 119,716 is to be found. Write the number as below, leaving space for the figures of the root as shown. Beginning at the unit figure (the last figure at the right of a whole

number), point off the number into periods of two figures each. Should there be an odd number of figures in the given number, the last period to the left will, of course, have only one figure.
11'97'16
|

Space for

root.

find the greatest whole number the square of which does not exceed the value of the figures in the left-hand period (11), and write this number as the first figure of the root. In the example this number
is 3,

Now

the square of which

is 9.

Subtract this square from the left-hand

period, and move down the next period of the remainder, thus:
3

two figures and annex

it

to

H'97'16
9

297

multiply the figure of the root obtained by the constant 20 which is always used when extracting the square root by this method (3 X 20 60), and find how many times this product is contained in the number 297. This gives us a trial figure for the second figure of the root; 60 is contained 4 whole times in 297, and 4 is, therefore, placed as the next figure of the root.

Now

347607

>\;

Sltffl:

se-^ADKANGE'D
3

SHOP ARITHMETIC
I

11'97'16
9

34

3X20 = 60

297

Now subtract from 297 the product of 60 plus the figure of the root just obtained (4), multiplied by the same figure (4); (60 + 4) X 4 256. If this product were larger than 297 it would indicate that the trial figure is too large, and a figure one unit smaller should be used. Then move down the next period of two figures and annex it to the
remainder.

3X3=9
(60

11'97'16

34

+ 4) X 4=

20

= 60

297 256

4116

multiply the figures of the root thus far obtained by 20: (34 X 20 680), and find how many times this product is contained in 4116. This gives us a trial figure for the third figure of the root; 680 is contained 6 times in 4116, and 6 is therefore placed as the third figure of the root. Then subtract from 4116 the product of 680 plus the figure of the root just obtained (6), multiplied by the same figure (6).

Now

3X3=9
3X20 = 60
(60

11'97'16

346

+ 4) X 4=

297 256

(680
If,

34X20 = 680 + 6) X 6=

4116 4116

as in the present case, this last subtraction leaves no remainder, there are no more periods of figures to move down from the given number, the obtained root 346 is the exact square root of 119,716. If there is a remainder when the last period of figures has been moved down, place a decimal point after the figures already obtained in the root, annex two ciphers (00) to the remainder, multiply the number so far obtained in the root by 20, and proceed as before until a sufficient number of decimals have been obtained to give the root with sufficient accuracy.

and

if

Example:
1'25
1

X 1=1
25 21

11.18

1X20 = 20
(20
11 (220

+ 1) X 1=
X
20
1)

= 220
X

+
X

1=

400 221

111 (2220

+ 8)-X 8=

20

= 2220

17900 17824

SQUARE ROOT
It will

be seen from the calculation that when multiplying by the constant 20, the decimal point is disregarded, and the figures obtained The decimal point must, in the root considered as a whole number. however, be placed in the root as'already explained before annexing the two first ciphers (not in the given number) to the remainder, in order to give a correct value to the root. When extracting the square root of a decimal fraction, or when the square root of a whole number and a decimal is required, always point off both the whole number and the decimal in periods of two figures each, beginning at the decimal point, thus:
2'17'63.56'78'5

the number of decimal places is not an even number, the period to the right will have only one figure instead of two. By placing a cipher after the decimal in such cases, the last period is made complete without changing the value of the number, thus:
If

2'17'63.56'78'50

should be borne in mind that the pointing off of periods of two always be begun at the decimal point, both for the whole numbers and for the decimals. Thus, for instance, the pointing off in the first line below is correct, while the pointing off in the second
It

figures each should

line is incorrect:

Correctly pointed

off:

0.76'34'5

3'26.75'4

0.7'63'45 32'6.7'54 Incorrectly pointed off: When extracting the square root of a decimal fraction, the decimal point is placed in the root when the first period of decimals is moved

down.

Example:
5.71'21
2 2

2.39
j

2=4
3

(40

= 40 171 = 129 23 X 20 = 460 4221

+ 3) X
X
20

(460

+ 9) X 9=

4221

it is found that the next figure in the root is a cipher, place as usual in the root, and move down the next period of two figures, in all other respects following the procedure already explained.

When

it

Example:
3 3 X 20 30 X 20 (600 2)

9'12'04
|

302

= 60 = 600
X

2=

1204

The square

root of a

common

fraction

may

be obtained by extracting

the square root of both

numerator and denominator, thus:

NO. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

125"

|/25

5 7

^49
When

/49

the terms of the fraction are not perfect squares (squares ot whole numbers), it is preferable to change the common fraction to a decimal fraction, and extract the square root of this. When there is no remainder after all the periods of figures in the

given number have been moved down, and the last figure of the root; found, the calculation may be proved by multiplying the root by itself, in which case the product must equal the number given, of which the square root has been extracted. If there is a remainder, the figures obtained do not represent the exact root, but a close approximation; if this approximate root is multiplied by itself, the product should very nearly equal the given number; if not, an error has been made.

CHAPTER

II

CUBE ROOT
of a number is the product obtained if the number itself 8, repeated as a factor three times. The cube of 2 is 2 X 2 X 2 Instead of writing 2 X and the cube of 12 is 12 X 12 X 12 1,728. which is read "two cube." 2 X 2 for the cube of 2, it is often written 2 3 In the same way 128 s means 128 X 128 X 128. The small figure ( ) 3 form 18 An expression of the in these expressions is called exponent.

The cube

is

:t

may

power of 18." same way as square root means the reverse of square, so cube root means the reverse of cube; that is, the cube root of a given number is the number which, if repeated as factor three times, would give the number given. Thus the cube root of 27 is 3, because
In the
27.

also be read the "third

3x3x3 =

cube of 15 is 3,375, then the cube root of 3,375 is, of course. The mathematical sign for the cube root is ^ thus: 15. ^64 4 (the cube root of sixty-four equals four), 16 (the cube root of four thousand ninety-six equals sixteen). f/4096
If the

= =

In the case of all roots, except the square root, the index, or the small figure in the radical sign ( V ) must be given. Assume that the cube root of 80,621,568 is to be found. Write the number as below, leaving space for the figures of the root as shown. Beginning at the unit figure (the last figure at the right of a whole number), point off the number into periods of three figures each. According to the total number of figures in the given number, the last period to the left will, of course, have one, two or three figures.
,

Space for root. whole number, the cube of which does not exceed the value of the figures in the left-hand period (80), and write
80'621'568
|

Now

find the greatest

CUBE ROOT
this
4

number
4

= 64), and the cube of

as the

first figure

in the root.

The cube
5

5 is 125 (5

= 125).

of 4 is 64 (4 x Hence 4 is

the greatest whole number, the cube of which does not exceed 80, and therefore, is the first figure of the root. Subtract the cube of 4 from the left-hand period and move down the next period of three figures, and annex it to the remainder, thus:
4,

= 64

SO'621'568
|

16621

Now multiply the square of the figure in the root by the constant 300, which is always used when extracting the cube root by this method 2 4 X 4 X 300 =: 4,800), and find how many times this (4 X 300 product is contained in the number 16,621. This gives us a trial figure

for the second figure of the root; 4,800 is contained three whole times in 16,621, and 3 is therefore placed as the next figure of the root:

80'621'568
|

43

4 42

X 4=r64
16621

300

= 4,800

subtract from 16,621 the sum of the following products: 1. The square of the figure or figures already obtained in the root, excepting the last one, multiplied by 300, and this product multiplied by
the figure just obtained in the root, thus:
42
2.

Now

300

= 16

300

= 14,400.

The

last one, multiplied

figure or figures already obtained in the root, excepting the by 30, and this product multiplied by the square of

the last figure obtained, thus:

4
3.

30

=
3

X
3

30

1,080.

The

cube of the last figure obtained, thus:

33

27.

The method followed will be understood by studying the example and comparing the different quantities with the worded explanations just
If the sum of these various products is larger than 16,621, it given. indicates that the trial figure is too large, and a figure one unit smaller should be used.

Now move down

the remainder.

the next period of three figures, and annex

80'621'568
4
42 4

it

to

43

=: 64

42

300

X 300 = X 30 X 3
2

4,800

33

= 15507

16621

1114568

Multiply the square of the figures of the root thus far obtained by 43 X 43 X 300 300 (43 2 X 300 554,700), and find how many times this product is contained in 1,114,568. This gives a trial figure

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

figure of the root; 554,700 is contained two times in and 2 is therefore placed as the third figure of the root. Now subtract from 1,114,568 a sum made up of the three products previously given, and shown in the example below:

for the third

1,114,568,

80'621'568
4
42 4

432
|

X 4=64
4,800

300

X 300 X 30 X

=
32

+ +

= 15507

16621

43 2

300

43 2 X 300 2 -f 43 X 30

= 554,700
X
22 23

1114568 1114568

and

as in the present case, this last subtraction leaves no remainder, there are no more periods of figures to move down from the given number, the obtained root 432 is the exact cube root of 80,621,568. If there is a remainder when the last period of three figures has
If,

if

been moved down, place a decimal point after the figures already obtained in the root, annex three ciphers (000) to the remainder, multiply the square of the number thus far obtained in the root by 300, and proceed as before until a sufficient number of decimals have been obtained to give the root with sufficient accuracy.

Example:

300

X
2

12 2

300

12 2 12

1X1X1=1 816 x 300 = 300 X 30 X + = 728 88000 X 300 = 43,200 X 30 X + = 87848

|

1'816

12.2

I2

22

23

22

23

It should be noted in these calculations that when squaring the figures thus far obtained in the root, and multiplying by the constant 300, the decimal point is disregarded and the figures obtained in the root considered as a whole number. The decimal point, must, however, be placed in the root as already explained, before annexing the first three ciphers (not in the given number) to the remainder, in order to give a correct value of the root.

When the cube root of a number containing a whole number and a decimal is required, always point off both the whole number and the decimal in periods of three figures each, beginning at the decimal point,
thus:
83'675'731.563'75

decimal places is not evenly divisible by three, the period to the right will have only one or two figures instead of three. By placing one or two ciphers after the decimal in such cases, the last period is made complete without changing the value of the number,
If

the

number

of

thus:
83'675'731.563'750

USE OF FORMULAS
It

9
off of

should be borne in mind that the pointing

periods of three

figures each should always be begun at the decimal point, both for the whole number and for the decimals. Thus, for instance, the pointing
off

in the first line below is correct while the pointing off in the second

line is incorrect:

Correctly pointed

off:

0.765'354'3

2'765.354'2

Incorrectly pointed

off:

0.7'653'543

27'65.3'542

When
point
is

extracting the cube root of a decimal fraction, the decimal placed in the root when the first period of decimals is moved
it is

down.

When
it

as usual in the root

found that the next figure in the root is a cipher, place and move down the next period of three figures,

procedure already explained. may be obtained by extracting the cube root of both the numerator and denominator, thus:

in all other respects following the

The cube

root of a

common

fraction

1000

flOOO

10

the terms of the fraction are not perfect cubes (cubes of whole numbers), it is preferable to change the common fraction to a decimal fraction and then extract the cube root. When there is no remainder after all the periods of figures in the

When

given number have been moved down, and the last figure of the root found, the calculation may be proved by repeating the root as a factor three times, in which case the product must equal the number given, of which the cube root has been extracted. If there is a remainder, the figures obtained do not represent the exact root, but a close approximaIf this approximate root is repeated as a factor three times the tion. product should very nearly equal the given number; if not, an error

has been made.

CHAPTER

III

THE

'USE

OF FORMULAS

In mathematical and mechanical books and treatises, as well as in articles containing calculations published in the engineering journals,

formulas are used to a great extent instead of rules expressed in words. In these formulas, signs and symbols are used in order to condense into a small space the essentials of what would otherwise be long and cumbersome rules. The symbols .used are generally the letters in the alphabet, and the signs are simply the ordinary signs for arithmetical calculations, with some additional ones necessary for special purposes. Letters from the Greek alphabet are commonly used to designate angles, and the Greek letter IT (pi) is always used to indicate the pro-

10

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

portion of the circumference of a circle to its diameter; ir, therefore, is always, in formulas, equal to 3.1416. The most commonly used Greek
TT, are a (alpha), /3 (beta), and 7 (gamma). of algebra is not necessary in order to make possible the successful use of formulas for the solving of problems such as occur

letters, besides

Knowledge

and processes

in ordinary shop practice; but a thorough understanding of the rules of arithmetic is very essential. The symbols or letters

used in the formulas simply stand in place of the actual figures or numerical values which are inserted in the formula in each specific
case, according to the

these values are inserted, the result required arithmetical processes.

requirements of the problem to be solved. When may be obtained by simple

There are two main reasons why a formula is preferable to a rule Firstly, the formula is more concise, it occupies less space, and it is possible for the eye to catch at a glance the whole meaning of the rule laid down; secondly, it is easier to remember a short formula than a long rule, and it is, therefore, of greater value and convenience, as it is not always possible to carry a handbook or reference book about, but the memory must be relied upon to store up a number of the most frequently occurring mathematical and mechaniexpressed in words.
cal rules.

The use of formulas can be explained most readily by actual examples. In the following, therefore, a number of simple formulas will be given, and the values will be inserted so as to show, in detail, the
principles involved.

ence

When the diameter of a circle is known, the circumfer1. be found by multiplying the diameter by 3.1416. This rule, expressed as a formula, is:
Example

may

in

which C

C = D X 3.1416 = circumference of D = diameter of

circle, circle.

This formula shows at a glance that no matter what the diameter of the circle be, the circumference is always equal to the diameter times Let it be required to find, for example, the circumference of a 3.1416. circle 24 inches in diameter. If, then, we insert 24 in place of D in the formula, we have:

24:

3.1416

= 75.3984 inches.

Hence, our formula gives, by means of a simple multiplication, the

result required. Assume that the diameter of a circle is 5.13 inches.

The circumfer-

ence of this circle formula:

is

found by inserting this value instead of

3.1416

in the

C=5.13 x
2.

= 16.1164

inches.

In spur gears, the outside diameter of the gear can be Example found by adding 2 to the number of teeth, and dividing the sum obtained by the diametral pitch of the gear. This rule can be expressed very simply by a formula. Assume that we write D for the outside

diameter of the gear,

for the

number

of teeth,

and P

for the diam-

USE OF FORMULAS
etral pitch.

tl

Then

the formula would be:

T\

N+
P

outside diameter

This formula reads exactly as the rule given above. It says that the (D) of the gear equals 2 added to the number of T teeth (A ), this sum divided by the pitch (P). If the number of teeth in a gear is 26 and the diametral pitch 4, then simply put these figures in the place of N and P in the formula, and find the outside diameter as in ordinary arithmetic.

D=

26

+
4

28

=1.
4

D, or the outside diameter, then, is 7 inches. In another gear the number of teeth is 62 and the pitch 8; find the outside diameter of the gear.

D=

62

+
8

= ^8
8

64

inches.

From the examples given it will be seen that in formulas, each letter stands for a certain dimension or quantity. When using a formula for solving a problem, replace the letters in the formula by the equivalent figures given in a certain problem, and find the result by means of
regular arithmetical calculation.

Example
as follows:

3.

The formula

for the

horsepower of a steam engine

is

H.
in

P.=

PXL

X A

XN

33,000.

which H.

Assume

= indicated horsepower of engine, P = mean effective pressure on piston in pounds per square inch, L = length of piston stroke in A = area of piston in square inches, N = number of strokes of piston per minute. that P = 120, L = A = 320 and N'= 160; what would
P.
feet,
2,

be the horsepower? If we insert the given values in the formula

120

we

have:

H.P.=

320

160

= 372.36

33,000

tween

In formulas the sign for multiplication ( x ) is often left out beletters, the values of which are to be multiplied. Thus AB means A X B. and the formula

P X L X A X
33,000

N
can also
bet

written

PLAN
33,000

Thus,

if

A = 6 and B

7,

then:

12

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

AB
6
42.

If

9,

=A X B= X 7= = then: ABC = AX-BXC = 9X6X7 = 378.

and

(7

7,

only the multiplication sign ( x ) that can be thus left out beletters in a formula. All other signs must be indicated the same as in arithmetic. A parenthesis ( ) or bracket [ ] in a formula means that the expression inside the parenthesis or bracket should be considered as one single symbol, or in other words, that the calculation inside the parenthesis should be carried out by itself, before other calculations are
It is

tween the symbols or

carried out.

Examples:
5 7

X X

(8

4) 6)

=5
+

X
6

12 =-60.
(4.52
1.95)

(18

15.42

12

2.57

= 84

99.42.

In the last example above it will be seen that 7 is multiplied by 12, 6 by 2.57, and then the products of these two multiplications are added. From the order of the numbers 7 X 12 + 6 X 2.57, one might have assumed that the calculation should have been carried out as follows: 7 times 12 84, plus 6 90, times 2.57.= 231.3. This latter procedure, however, is not correct, as the following rule should be applied: When several numbers or expressions are connected by the signs X and -T-, the operations are carried out in the order written, + except that all multiplications should be carried out "before the other operations. The reason for this is that numbers connected by a multiplication sign are only factors of the product thus indicated, which Divisions product should be considered by itself as one number. should be carried out before additions and subtractions, if the division is indicated in the same line with these other processes.

and

Examples:

4x7 +
6

+
X

72
8.5

-f-

9 2 X 9 X 4 = 6 + 28 3 X 8 = 72 -=16.4
-r-

+
+
-f-

But

(7
7)

(6

9) X 4

(72
(8.5

3)

X
I

= 28 = 24 = = = 2 X = 13 X = = 24 X =
34. 4.1 2.5

-f 9

18

= 37
2.5

18

19.

3.

8.5

X
52.

16

18

= = 64

10.

18

46.

192.

16.4)

-f-

(4.1 II

2.5)

24.9

-t-

1.6

15.56.

and cube, and square meaning root and cube root have already been explained. The squares and square roots as well as the cubes and cube roots of all numbers up to 1,000 (sometimes up to 1,600) are generally given in all standard handIn Chapters
the
of square

and

books.

Example:

Find the value

of

in the
2

formula
2

if

= 16 and C =

A = iB + C
12.

USE OF FORMULAS
If

13

we

insert the given values in the formula,

we have
400

= i/ 16

12 2 == i/ 256

3 2 X 2 X 2, we 2 2, and 2 In the same way as we write 25 ''and the expression 2 would mean that can write 2 4 2 is repeated as a factor five times, or

144

=y
2

= =

20.

='2x2x2x2;
2r
>

32.
,

"the fifth The expression power of 6," etc. In the same way as we may say that the square root means the reverse of square, and the cube root the reverse of cube, so we may
2 4 is

read "the fourth power of 2" and 6 5

say that the fourth root is the reverse of the fourth power; that is, if we want the number which repeated as a factor four times gives a Thus \ 81 given number, we must obtain the fourth root, or {/ 3^ 81. Similarly we write the fifth rooty because 3 X 3 X 3 X 3
.

32. and {/~32 2, because The examples given indicate the principles involved in the use of formulas, and show also how easily formulas may be employed by anyone who has a general understanding of arithmetic. While it would be possible to express in words all the rules required in ordinary

2X2X2X2X2 =

FORMING TOOL
Fig. 1

END VIEW OF PIECE TO BE FORMED Machinery, N.Y.

shop problems,

it is

very much

simpler to

make

in the following, formulas will be employed their use in practical work thus made clear.

use of formulas; and wherever required, and

and square root of numbers, figuring forming tools.

useful application both of the use of formulas and of the square is found in the problems occurring when

Formulas for Circular Forming- Tools

When laying out circular forming tools, such as shown in Fig. 1, the cutting edge, as is well known, must be located a certain amount below the horizontal center line of the tool, in order to provide for On account of this, the actual difsufficient clearance for the cut. ferences of diameters in the piece of work to be formed cannot be The distance A in the piece to be directly copied' in the forming tool. formed must equal the distance a on the forming tool, but as this latter distance is measured in a plane a certain distance & below the horizontal plane through the center of the forming tool, it is evident that the differences of diameters in the tool and the piece to be formed are not the same. A general formula may, however, be deduced, by the

14

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

use of elementary geometry, by means of which the various diameters of the forming tool may be determined if the largest (or smallest) diameter of the tool, the amount that the cutting edge is below the center, and, of course, the diameters of the piece- to be formed, are known. If R the largest radius of the tool, a difference in radii of steps in the work, and
b

= = = amount

cutting edge

is

below center,
2

then,

if

r be the padius required,

r
If the

= \/(i/ R*
is

6-

a)

+ +

&2

smaller radius r

given and the larger radius

sought, the

formula takes the form:

R
in Fig.

Xr

2
ft

a)

2
ft

Suppose, for an example, that a tool is to be made to form the piece 2. Assume that the largest diameter of the tool is to be 3

Fig.

inches,
tool.

and that the cutting edge

is

to be

Then the diameter next smaller

to

inch below the center of the 3 inches is found from

the formulas given by inserting the given values: R iy 2 inch, ft 14 inch, and a y inch (half the difference between 4 and 3V2

inches; see Fig. 2).

Then

= 1.254

inch.

While the formula looks complicated, by means of a table of squares the calculations are easily simplified and can be carried out in three or four minutes. The value of r being 1.254 inch, the diameter to make the smaller step of the forming tool will be 2.508 inches, instead of 2% inches exact, as would have been the case if the cutting edge had been
on the center
line.

CHAPTER

IV

TIME REQUIRED FOR DRILLING, MILLING

AND' PLANING
In MACHINERY'S Reference Series No. 18, Shop Arithmetic for the Machinist, a rule is given for calculating the time required for turning In this chapter, rules and formulas in tlie lathe, with a given feed. will be given for calculating the time required for drilling, milling
drill in the drill press is the downward motion of the per revolution. The feed of a milling cutter is the forward movement of the milling machine table for each revolution of the cutter. Sometimes the feed is expressed as the distance which the drill or the milling machine table moves forward in one minute. In order to avoid confusion, it is, therefore, always best to state plainly in each case whether feed per revolution or feed per minute is meant.

and planing. The feed of a

drill

Time Required
hole, the

for Drilling-

In order to calculate the time required for drilling a given depth of number of revolutions per minute of the drill, and the feed per revolution (or the cutting speed, the diameter of the drill and the
feed per revolution) must be known. Assume that a 1%-inch drill makes 80 revolutions per minute and that the feed per revolution is 0.008 inch. How long a time will it

require to drill a hole

5^

inches deep?

To

find the

number

of revolu-

tions required to drill the full depth of the hole, divide 5% by 0.008, obtaining the quotient 687.5 or approximately 690 revolutions. As the
drill

makes 80 revolutions in one minute, we find the total number of minutes required by dividing 690 by 80, the quotient 8.6 being the number of minutes required to drill a hole 5% inches deep under the given

conditions.

L=
2V

T =. time required

F=

in the foregoing, for drilling, in minutes, depth of drilled hole, in inches, number of revolutions per minute of the drill, feed per revolution, in inches,
If,

then

L
rp

N XF
Expressed as a rule, this formula would be: To find the time required to drill a hole to a given depth when the feed per revolution of the drill, the depth of the hole, and the number of revolutions per minute are given, divide the depth of the hole by the number of revolutions per minute multiplied by the feed per revolution.
If

the cutting speed cf the drill and

its

diameter are given instead

16
of the

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

number of revolutions, the number of revolutions must first be found before applying the formula given.* If the feed per minute is given, the feed per revolution can be found by dividing the feed per minute by the number of revolutions per min-

ute.

The feed of drills should be about 0.004 inch per revolution for a 1/16-inch drill, 0.005 inch for a 14 -inch drill, 0.008 inch for a i/srinch If drill, 0.010 inch for a 1-inch drill, and 0.015 inch for a 2-inch drill.
the drill breaks or chips at the cutting edges, the feed should be reduced.

Time Required
The time required
for milling

for Milling-

be found if the number of revolutions per minute of the cutter, and the feed per revolution (or the cutting speed, the diameter of the cutter and the feed per revolution) are known. If the feed per minute is given, the feed per revolution can be found by dividing the feed per minute by the number of revolutions per minute. If the length of the cut taken in a milling machine is 8% inches and the feed is 1/64 per revolution, how long a time will it take for a cutter making 20 revolutions per minute to traverse the work? As the feed per revolution is 1/64 inch and the cutter makes 20 revolutions per minute, the feed per minute is 20/64 or 5/16 inch. To find the time required for the cutter to traverse the full length of the work, divide the length of the cut, 8% inches, by the feed in one minute; thus:

may

3
8
8
=

67

16

X
8

134
5

= 26 =
5

26.8.

16

The time required would thus be

If !F

= time required for the cutter traverse the work, in minutes, L = length of in inches, N = revolutions per minute of the cutter, F = feed per revolution, in inches,
to
cut,

27 minutes, approximately.

then

NXF

It will be seen that the form of this formula is the same as that of the formula for the time required for drilling. If the cutting speed and the diameter of the cutter are given instead of the number of revolutions, the latter number must first be

found before the formula above is applied.* The average feed of milling cutters per minute should vary from about 4 inches for a V 2 -inch mill cutting cast iron, and 1% inch for the same mill cutting steel, to 1% inch for a 6-inch cutter on cast iron Of course, these feeds must and y 2 inch for the same cutter on steel. be varied with the depth of the cut.
* See MACHINERY'S Reference Series No. 3d Edition.

18,

Shop Arithmetic for the Machinist,

DRILLING, MILLING
The feed

AND PLANING

17

Feed of Planer Tools

of a planer tool is its sidewise motion for each cutting stroke of the table or platen. If for each cutting stroke the tool-carry

ing head moves 1/16 inch along* the cross-rail, we say that the feed is 1/16 inch. Each cutting stroke necessitates a return stroke, and in the following, when the expression "number of strokes" is used, it means number of cutting strokes.

Time Required
The time required

for Planing-

for planing a piece of work can be calculated if the feed per stroke, the number of strokes of the planer table per minute, and the width of the work, are known.

Assume that a planer makes 6 strokes per minute, that the feed per stroke is 3/32 inch, and that the width of the work is 22 inches. Find the time required for planing the work. As the planer makes 6 strokes per minute and the feed per stroke
is 3/32 inch, the feed per minute is 6 x 3/32 or 9/16 inch. The tool must traverse 22 inches to plane the complete work; the traverse in one minute being 9/16 inch, the total number of minutes required to traverse the work is found by dividing 22 by 9/16.

22-^ 16

= 22 X 16 =
1 9

352
9

= 39
is

minutes.
9

The time required for planing the work

mately.

thus 40 minutes, approxi-

may be summed up in the following formula, appliany case where the feed per stroke, the number of strokes per minute, and the width of the work are known:
This calculation
cable to

W
rp

F
In this formula

XN

W = width of work,
To

= time required for planing, in minutes, in inches, F = feed per stroke, in inches, N = number of strokes per minute.
r
as a rule
find the time required for planing

The formula expressed

of the work, the feed per stroke and the number of strokes per minute, are known, divide the width of the work by the feed times the number of cutting strokes per minute.

would be as follows: when the width

CHAPTER V

PULLEY AND GEAR DRIVES

In MACHINERY'S Reference Series No. 18, Shop Arithmetic for the Machinist, the calculations for simple and compound gear drives and simple pulley drives are treated. In this chapter some special cases of compound pulley drives and combined pulley and gear drives will be considered.

Compound

Pulley Speeds

In Fig. 3 are shown four pulleys of which the two pulleys B and C are keyed to the same shaft. Pulley A is the driving pulley and drives pulley B', pulley C, on the same shaft as B, is also a driving pulley, and pulley Z>, a driven pulley. The rules and formulas for compound

Machinery, N.Y.
FlgT. 3.

Compound

Pulley Drive

gearing can be directly applied to pulleys arranged in this manner by simply substituting in the formulas the diameters of the pulleys, in inches, for the numbers of teeth in the gears. Thus, to find the revolutions per minute of the driven pulley D when the diameters
of all the four pulleys and the number of revolutions of pulley given, the formula below is used:

are

rev. per min. rev. per min. ~~ of driven pulley of driving pulley

product of diameters of driving pulleys product of diameters of driven pulleys

of revolutions of the shafts on which pulley A and are mounted, are given, and it is required to find the diameters of four pulleys which will transmit motion from pulley A to pulley D at the given speed ratio, we proceed in the same way as when finding the number of teeth in gears for transmitting a given motion.* Find the speed ratio by writing the number of revolutions o/ the
If the

numbers

pulley

3d Edition, page

See MACHINERY'S Reference Series No. 18, Shop Arithmetic for the Machinist,
80.

PULLEY AND GEAR DRIVES

19

driving pulley as the numerator and the number of revolutions in the driven pulley as the denominator of a fraction, and reduce this frao Then divide both the numerator and denomition to its lowest terms. nator in the fraction giving the ratio in two factors, and multiply each
"pair" of factors by the same number until pulleys with suitable diameters are found. (One factor in the numerator and one in the denominator are considered as "one pair.")

Assume
pulley
pulley

that the
is is

number

A D

260,

and that it is required mounted at 720 revolutions.

260

of revolutions per minute of the shaft with to drive the shaft on which

What diameters
its

of pulleys

can he

used?

The

fraction

reduced to
720

lowest

terms

is

Machinery, .V.F.

Pig. 4.

Combined Pulley and Gear Drive

13

13
-^-;

/ 260 /
I

= =
13

26

13 \ \
I.

The speed

ratio, therefore, is

Now,

follow-

36

36 / 72 \ 720 ing the rule given above:

36

1X13
2

(1

X
X

12)
12)

X
X

(13

X X

1)

12X13
24

36

18

(2

(18

18

13 inches diameter, are the driven pulleys B and D, and the pulleys in the denominator, with The rule above 18 and 24 inches diameter, are the driving pulleys.

The pulleys

in the numerator, with 12

and

reduced to a formula would be:

first

ratio of speed of the driving pulley to

product of diam. of driven pulleys product of diam. of driving pulleys

the last driven pulley

Combined Belt and Gear Drive

In Fig. 4 is shown a combined belt and gear drive, where pulley A drives pulley B, and gear (7, which is mounted on the same shaft as pulley B, drives the gear D. Calculations for numbers of revolutions and numbers of teeth and diameters of pulleys are carried out exactly

20

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

as in the examples where

we have dealt exclusively with gears cr exclusively with pulleys. When dealing with the iwrileys we use the diameter of the pulley in inches, and when dealing with the gears, the

number of teeth in the gears. Assume that the diameter of pulley A is 54 inches and that of pulley 13, 18 inches, that gear C has 112 teeth, and that gear D has 78 teeth. If pulley A makes 39 revolutions per minute, how many revolutions per minute does gear D make? Using the formula for finding the revolutions per minute previously given, we have:
rev. per

min.

= 39 X 54 X 112 =
18

168.

X78

If the number of revolutions of the shaft on which pulley A is mounted is 60, and the number of revolutions required for the shaft on which gear D is mounted, is 110, what diameter pulleys and what size of gears could we employ to transmit the required motion? The

60

speed ratio

is

=
X

6
.

Proceeding as before, we have:

(2
(1

110
6

11

2X3
1

X X

16)

X X

(3

X X

8)

32

24

11

11

16)

(11

8)

16X88

numerator of the last fraction give the diameter of the driven pulley B and the number of teeth of the driven gear D, respectively, and the numbers 16 and 88 in the denominator of the fraction give the diameter of the driving pulley A, and
24 in the

The numbers 32 and

the

number

of teeth in the driving gear C.

In this case, then, pulley

would be 16 inches in diameter, pulley B, 32 inches, gear C would have 88 teeth, and gear D, 24 teeth.

CHAPTER

VI

HORSEPOWER OF BELTING
The horsepower which a belt of a given size can transmit depends on the speed with which the belt travels and the working stress advisable to permit in the belt. The speed with which the belt travels, of course, depends on the diameter and number of revolutions per minute of the pulley over which it travels, it being assumed that there is no appreciable slip between the belt and the pulley. If we are to find the horsepower a belt can safely transmit, we must, therefore, consider in our formulas the diameter of the pulley, its number of revolutions per minute, and the permissible working stress in the belt. Let d diameter of driving pulley in inches,

= velocity of belt in feet per minute, n = number of revolutions of pulley per minute,
v

HORSEPOWER OF BELTING

21

= working stress of belt per inch w = width of belt in

8
inefees.

of width, in pounds,

Then:

-=
irdn
12

3.1416

H.

P.=

8vw
33,000

dn
12

= 0.2618 dn
33,000

commonly used value

for the safe

working stress per inch

of

width

of single belts is 33 pounds. When this value is adopted, a belt one inch wide, traveling at a rate of 1,000 feet per minute, will transmit

one horsepower.

Example: How many horsepower will a single belt 2% inches wide, traveling over a pulley 12 inches in diameter, transmit, if the pulley makes 200 revolutions per minute? Assume the working stress at 33 pounds per inch of width of belt.
In this example d 33 and to l2, n 200, ues are inserted in the horsepower formula given,
0.2618

H.

P.=

=
X
33

=
X

12

200

X
2.5

= 2%.

If

these val-

we have:

=1.57.

33,000

A working stress up to 45 pounds per inch of width of belt is permissible for single belts in good condition. If we adopt this latter value for the stress, how many horsepower would the given belt
x

transmit?

We

only need to change 33 in the expression above to 45, and then

0.2618

we have:

H.P.=If

45

12

200

-=
2.5

2.14.

33,000

required lows
:

the horsepower to be transmitted is known, the width of belt may be found by a transposition of the given formula, as fol-

H.

P.

33,000

H. P.

33,000

8v
in

which formula the

letters denote the

same quantities as previously

given.

Example: Find the width of single belt required to transmit 20 horsepower with a belt velocity of 1,800 feet per minute? In this example H. P. =20, v 1,800, and 8 may be assumed to be 45. If we insert these values in the given formula for width of belt,

we have:

w=

20

33,000
1,800

= 8.15

or, say, 8*4 inches.

45

In order to reduce the width of a single belt when it becomes too wide, a double belt may be used. The working stress of a double belt per inch of width may be assumed at from 65 to 90 pounds, the latter

value being only for belts kept in good condition.

22

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

that in the example just given, we use a double belt instead of a single, and assume a working stress of 80 pounds per inch of width of belt. How wide, then, would the belt be?

Assume

Substituting 80 for 45,

we have:

w=

20 80

X X

33,000
1,800

4.58 or, say,

4%

inches.

As the working stress is an assumed quantity, always somewhat uncertain, it is, of course, not necessary to retain in our formulas so exact a quantity as 0.2618. If this number is given in round figures
as 0.25 or

y, we could simplify the given formulas as S dnw

follows:

H.P.=

33,000

H. P.

33,000

Sdn
As a final example, find the horsepower transmitted by a 5-inch wide double belt, working stress 75 pounds per inch width of belt, if the belt transmits power from a 4-foot pulley running at 200 revolutions per minute. In this example
If

w = 5,
H. P.

75,

200,

and d
5

12

= 48

inches.

we

insert these values in our simplified formula,

we have:

75

X
4

48

200

27.3.

33,000

CHAPTER

VII

CHANGE GEARS FOR CUTTING METRIC THREADS

of length measurement is in use in practically countries except in the United States, Great Britain and the British The unit of length in the metric system is the meter, which colonies. The subdiequals nearly 39.37 inches (or practically 39% inches). visions of the meter are given below:
all

The metric system

1
1

meter

decimeter 1 centimeter

= 10 decimeters, = 10 centimeters. = 10 millimeters.

In medium and small machine design the unit employed is almost always the millimeter. One millimeter equals 0.03937 inch; one inch
1

equals
0.03937

or 25.4 millimeters, almost exactly.

When screws are made in accordance with the metric system it is not the usual practice to give the number of threads per millimeter

CHANGE GEARS FOR METRIC THREADS

23

or centimeter in the same way as the number of threads per inch is given in the English system. Instead, the lead of the thread in millimeters is given. A screw thread is said to have 2 millimeters lead, 3 millimeters lead, 4.5 millimeters lead, etc.

Change Gears

for Cutting

Threads with Metric Pitch

It often happens that screws and taps having threads according to the metric system are required. This thread can be cut on a lathe having an English lead-screw, provided change gears with the required number of teeth are used. The first step in finding the change gears is to find how many threads per inch there are in the screw to be cut, when the lead is

given in millimeters. Assume that a screw is required with 3 millimeters lead. How many threads per inch are there in this screw? As there are 25.4 millimeters in one inch, we can find how many threads there would be in one inch, if we find how many times 3 is It is not contained in 25.4; in other words, we divide 25.4 by 3. necessary to carry out the- division; simply write it as a fraction in the
25.4

form
3

which implies that

25.4 is to be divided

by

3.

This fraction

now gives the number of threads per inch to be cut. When this fraction has been obtained, proceed as if change gears were to be found Place the lathe screw confor cutting threads with English pitches.* stant in the numerator of a fraction and the number of threads per inch to be cut in the denominator. If the screw constant of a lathe is
25.4
6

and the number

of threads to be cut
3
is

as previously found, the

ratio of the

change gearing

ratio.

25.4
3

This seems complicated, but remembering that the line between the numerator and denominator in a fraction means that the numerator is to be divided by the denominator, we get, by carrying out this division:
25.4
6
-5

X
25.4

= 6x3
25.4

6X3
The
all

fraction
25.4
to do

is

the ratio of the change gearing required, and

is to

we have

now

multiply numerator and denominator of

by the same number until we find suitable numbers of teeth for the change gears. By trial we find that the first whole number by which we can multiply 25.4 so as to get a whole number as a Multiplying 25.4 by 5 gives us 127. Thus we must have result, is 5. one gear v;ith 127 teeth whenever we cut a metric thread by means of
this fraction
*

SOP MACHINERY'S Reference Series No. 18, Shop Arithmetic for the Machinist,
81.

3d Edition, page

24

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

6

an English lead-screw.
teeth, because 5

X
:

The other gear required in this case has 90 The calculation would be carried out 90.

as

shown below

6X3X5
25.4

18

90
127

127

just been said can be expressed in the following rule: To find the change gears for cutting metric, pitches with an English lead-screw, place the lathe screw constant multiplied by the number of millimeters lead of the thread to be cut multiplied by 5, in the\ numerator of the fraction, and 127 as the denominator. The product

What has

of the numbers in the numerator give the number of teeth in the gear on the spindle stud, and 127 is the number of teeth in the gear on the lead-screw.

Written as a formula this rule would be:

lathe screw

constant

lead of thread to be cut, in millimeters

'

teeth in spindle stud

gear
teeth in lead-screw gear
2.5
8.

127

As an example, assume that a screw with

be cut en a lathe having a screw constant figures in the formula we have:
8

millimeters lead is to By placing the given

2.5

100
127

spindle stud gear

127

lead-screw gear
Gearing-

Compound

Sometimes it is necessary to compound the gears because the gear on the spindle stud would have too many teeth, that is, it would be loo large to be used in simple gearing. It may also happen that the
product of the screw constant whole number, in which case

x
it

the lead in millimeters

5,

is

not a
the

would be necessary

to

compound

gears to get whole numbers of teeth. The method for finding the change gears is exactly the same as the method for compound gears for cutting regular English pitch threads.* Assume that a screw of 6 millimeters lead is to be cut on a lathe with a screw constant 8. By first applying the formula just given, and then dividing the numerator and denominator into factors, each "pair" of which are multiplied by the same number, we find the change

gears as follows

8X6X5
127

240
127
60

60

4
1

(60

X X

1)
1)

X X

(4
(1

X X

25) 25)

127

(127

100
25

driving gears

127

driven gears.

the lead of the metric screw to be cut is not a whole number but a fraction, it sometimes causes difficulty in dividing up the numerator in two factors that can be multiplied by whole num* See MACHINERY'S Reference Series No. 18, Shop Arithmetic for the Machinist, 3d Edition, page 88.

In a case

when

CHANGE GEARS FOR METRIC THREADS

25

bers so as to give numbers of teeth for gears which are available. Several trials must often be made. Assume that the lathe screw constant is 6, and that a screw with 1.25 millimeters lead is to be/'cut. In this case we would find the

change gears as below:

6

X
It

1.25

37.5

30

1-25

(30

1)

(1.25

40)

30

X X

50 40

127

127

127

(127

1)

(1

40)

127

would not be necessary to write "30 X 1" and "127 X 1" as has been done in the example above, but these numbers have been multiplied by 1 simply to preserve a systematic appearance.

TEETH,.

Fig. 5.

Cutting a Metric Thread with an English Lead-screw

1

Pig. 6.

Cutting- an English Thread with a Metric Lead-screw

In Fig. 5

is

shown
43.75

screw of
7

1.25 millimeters lead

the arrangement of the gearing when cutting a on a lathe with a screw constant 7.
35

1.25

1.25

(35

1)

(1.25
(1

100)

35

X
X

125
100

127

127

127

(127

1).

100)

127

Cutting- an English Thread with a Metric Lead-screw If the lathe has a lead-screw having metric pitch, and it is required to cut a screw with a given number of threads per inch, we must find the "metric screw constant" of the lathe. This is found by placing gears (in simple gearing) with the same number of teeth on the spindle stud and the lead-screw of the lathe, and an idler with any number of teeth, between them, and then cutting a thread on a piece in

The lead of the thread thus cut, in millimeters, is the metric screw constant of the lathe. Now the method of figuring the
the lathe.

26

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

change gears when a screw with a given number of threads per inch is to be cut with a lead-screw of metric pitch, is s'imply the reverse of the method already explained for cutting a metric thread with an
English lead-screw. To find the change gears for cutting English threads with a metric lead-screw, place 127 in the numerator, and the threads per inch to> be cut multiplied by the metric screw constant of the lathe multiplied by
5 in the

denominator of the fraction; 127

is

the

number

of teeth in the

gear on\ the spindle stud, and the product of the numbers in the denominator gives the number of teeth in the gear on the lead-screw. This rule expressed as a formula would be: teeth in gear on spindle
127

stud

metric screw constant

threads per inch to be cut

teeth in gear on lead-screw

Assume that 5 threads per inch are to be cut in a lathe having a metric screw constant of 4 millimeters. The gears are found directly by using the formula given:
127 127

spindle stud gear

4X5X5
It is

100

lead-screw gear

sometimes necessary to compound the gears in order to obtain gears which are found in the set of change gears provided with the
lathe.

Assume that 10 threads per inch are to be cut in a lathe with a metric screw constant of 4 millimeters. To find the gears we would proceed as follows:
127

127

127

(127

1)

(1

40) 40)

4X10X5

200
127
100

100X2 (100 X 1) X X 40 driving gears

X
80 ____ driven gears.

(2

In Fig. 6 is shown the arrangement of the gearing when cutting a screw, having 12% threads per inch in a lathe with a metric leadscrew, the metric screw constant being 5 millimeters.
.

127
5

127
312.5

127 100

X 12% X

(127
(100

X 3.125 X 1) X
1)

(1

40)

127
100

X
X

40
125

(3.125

40)

CHAPTER

VIII

AREAS
The square,
Fig.
7,

OF'

PLANE FIGURES
Squares

has four sides of equal length, and each of the four angles between the sides is a right or 90-degree angle. The area of the square equals the length of the side multiplied by If the side of a square itself, or the square of the length of the side. 196 square inches. If the is 14 inches, then the area equals 14 X 14 side is 14 feet, then the area is 196 square feet. If the area of a square is known, the length of the side equals the square root of the area. Assume that the area of a square equals

1,024 square inches.

Then the
shown

side equals Vl,024

= 32 inches.

Rectangles
8, has four sides, of which those opposite each other are of equal length, and the four angles between the sides are right or 90-degree angles. The area of a rectangle is found by multiplying the height or alti-

The

rectangle, as

in Fig.

tude by the length or base.

In Fig.

8,

is

the altitude and

C the

base,

28

No. 52- ADVANCED

SHOP ARITHMETIC
of

Any

figure

made up

of

four sides,

which those opposite are

The square and rectangle are paralparallel, is called a parallelogram. lelograms in which all the angles are right angles. In Fig. 9 is shown
a parallelogram where two of the angles are less and two more than 90 degrees. A line drawn from one side of a parallelogram at right angles to the opposite side is called the height or altitude of the parallelogram. In Fig. 9, D is the altitude, and E is the length or base. The area of a parallelogram equals the altitude multiplied by the base. The area of the parallelogram, in Fig. 9, equals D X E. If D is 16 inches, and E, 22 inches, then the area equals 16 X 22 352 square

inches.
If the area and the base are given, the altitude the area by the base.
is>

found by dividing

Fig. 11
Fig-s.

Fig. 12

9 to

12.

Parallelogram and Triangles

In parallelograms the angles opposite each other are alike, as indicated in Fig. 9, where the two angles a are equal, and the two angles /3 also are equal.

Triangles
lines is called a triangle. Any be called the base, and the line drawn from the angle opposite the base at right angles to it is called the height or altitude of the triangle. In Fig. 10, if the side F is taken as the base of the triangle, then G is the altitude. If all three sides of a triangle are of equal length, as in the one shown in Fig. 11, the triangle is called equilateral. Each of the three

Any

figure

bounded by three straight

one of the three lines

may

angles in an equilateral triangles equals 60 degrees. If two sides are of equal length, as shown in Fig.

12,

the triangle
is

is

an isosceles triangle. If one angle is a right or 90-degree angle, the triangle Such a triangle is shown right or right-angled triangle.

called a

in Fig. 13;

the side opposite the right angle is called the hypotenuse. If all the angles are less than 90 degrees, the triangle is called an acute or acute-angled triangle, as shown in Fig. 10. If one of the angles is larger than 90 degrees, as shown in Fig. 14, the triangle is called an obtuse or obtuse-angled triangle.

AREAS OF PLANE FIGURES

29

The sum of the three angles in every triangle is 180 degrees. The area of a triangle equals one-half the product of the base and the altiX F X G. tude; thus the area of the triangle shown in Fig. 10 equals If F equals 9 inches, and G, 6 niches, then the area equals X 9 X 6

% %

27 square inches. If the area and the base of a triangle are known, the altitude can be If the found by dividing twice the area by the length of the base.

area and the altitude are known, the base is found by dividing twice the area by the altitude. If the area of a triangle is 180 square inches, 20 and the base is 18 inches, then the altitude equals (2 X 180) -=-18

inches.
If the length of two sides of a right triangle, Fig. 13, are known, the third side can be found by a simple calculation. If the base and the altitude are known^ the hypotenuse equals' the square root of the sum of the squares of the base and the altitude, or

Hypotenuse

=V

(base)

(altitude)

2
.

Fig. 13.

Right-angled Triangle

Fig. 14.

Obtuse-angled Triangle
if

The base and the altitude can be found by similar formulas hypotenuse is known.
Base
2

the

= V (hypotenuse) (altitude) = V (hypotenuse) (base) Assume that the altitude feet and the base 4 Then the = V X 3) + (4 X 4) = V + 16 = hypotenuse = V3 V 25 = the hypotenuse 10 inches and the altitude inches, then the base equals V 10 = V (10 X 10) (6x6) = V 100 36 = V 64 = inches.
2
,

Altitude

is 3

is

feet.

-f

42

(3

5 feet.

If

is

62

Trapezoids

When
lel,

it is

a figure is bounded by four lines, of which only two are paralcalled a trapezoid. The height of a trapezoid is the distance

between the two parallel lines and R. The area of a trapezoid equals one-half the sum of the lengths of the parallel sides multiplied by the height. The area of the trapezoid in Fig. 15 thus X (H 16 feet, equals 24 feet, and L K) X L. If 14 feet, then the area 280 square feet. (16 -f 24) x 14
L, Fig. 15,

=%

H=

K=

Trapeziums

When
as

a figure

is

bounded by four
it is

lines,

no two of which are

parallel,

shown

in Fig. 16,

is found by dividing it dotted line in Fig. 16, and finding the area of each of the two triangles, and adding these areas. The dotted lines in Fig. 16 indicate the alti-

called a trapezium. The area of a trapezium into two triangles as indicated by the dash-

30

52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

two triangles into which the trapezium has been divided. the dimensions of the base and height of the one triangle are R and 8, respectively, and of the other T and V, as shown in Fig. 16, then the area of the whole trapezium would be (y x T x V). 2 X R X 8) -f (*
tudes of the
If

Assume

that

20 feet, 8

then the area of the trapezium 273.5 square feet.

= 17 = (^

feet,

23 feet,

and

9 feet,

X20X17) + (^ X23 x9)

The Circle

bounded by a curved line called the periphery or circumference, which is at all points at an equal distance from a point within the circle called the center. The distance from the center of the circle to the periphery is the radius, and the distance across the circle through the center is the diameter. (See Fig. 17.) If a line is It is evident that the radius is one-half of the diameter. drawn from one point on the periphery to another point, so that it does not pass through the center, it is called a chord.
circle is a plane surface

The

R
Machineru.X.Yr.

15.

Trapezold

Fig. 16.

Trapezium

If the diameter of a circle is known, the circumference is found by multiplying the diameter by 3.1416. Assume that the circumference of a circle is stretched out into a straight line by the circle rolling upon a flat surface and unfolding itself, as shown in Fig. 20, then the length of the straight line would be three times the diameter plus a distance equal to 0.1416 times the diameter; or the whole length of the circumference would be 3.1416 times the diameter. As the diameter equals 2 X radius, the circumference equals 2 X radius X 3.1416. If the circumference of a circle is known, the diameter is found by dividing the circumference by 3.1416; the radius is found by dividing the circumference by 2 x 3.1416. If D circumference, then the previous diameter, R radius, C

rules can be written as formulas, thus:

D=2 X
C C
2

= X R X 3.1416, = D X 3.1416,
C
'

R,

C
3.1416

3.1416

is

Instead of writing out the number 3.1416, the Greek letter TT (pi) often used; thus, for example, 3 7r 3 X 3.1416. Example: The diameter of a circle is 6 inches; find its circumfer-

ence.

AREAS OF PLANE FIGURES

Using the formula given, we have: 6 X 3.1416 18.8496 inches. Circumference The circumference of a circle is 13.509 inches; find

31

its

radius.

Radius

=
2

i'3.509

,2.150 inches.

3.1416

The area

of a circle equals the square of the radius multiplied by

3.1416; or, the square of the diameter multiplied by 0.7854. If the area of a circle is known, the radius is found by extracting the square root of the quotient of the area divided by 3.1416.

CIRCULAR SEGMENT

'

Fig. 19

32

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

p (beta) between the radii is called the angle of the sector, and the length L of the circumference of the circle is called the arc of the
sector.
If

R -= radius
/3

= angle of sector, in degrees, L = length of arc of sector, A = area of sector,

L

then the formulas below are used:

RX
A=
7? ___

R X PX
180
3.1416

of circle of

which the sector

is

a part,

180

XA

XL

3.1416

L
2

XR
2
.

XA
_
_

180
ft

X L
3.1416

^^_____^__^__^

L
If
is

is l 1 /^ inch, and the angle of a circular sector 60 degrees, how long is the arc of the sector? Using the given formula, we have:

the radius of a circle

L
What From
is

1% X

60

3.1416

= 1.5708 inch.

180

the area of the

the formula given,

same sector? we have:

A=

1.5708

X 1%
2

= 1.1781 square inch.

and a

Circular Segments

figure

bounded by a part

of the circumference of a circle

chord, as shown in Fig. 19, is called a circular segment. from the chord to the highest point of the circular arc
If

The distance
is

called the

height of the segment.

H = height

R = radius, C = length of chord, L = length of arc of segment, of segment, A = area of segment, then the following formu-

las are used:

= R=
C

X V
C2

HX
4

(2

XR

H),

X IP
,

If the angle, p, Fig. 19, is given, instead of the length of arc L. the length of the arc is found by the previously given formula:

3.1416 = RXPX

L X R
2

SXH

C X (R

H)

ISO

AREAS OF PLANE FIGURES

Assume
inches.

33

How

that the radius of a segment is 5 feet and the height 8 long is the chord of this segment?

First transform 5 feet into inches; 5 the formula given: 2 C 2 X V 8 X (2 X 60 8)

12

= 60 inches. Then apply V~896~ = X 29.93 = 59.86

2

inches.

The length
inches.

of the chord of a

How

long

a part?

Applying the formula given, we have:

R __

- -is

segment is 16 inches and the height 6 the radius of the circle of which the segment is

162 4. 4

62

256

144

__

8 i

8X6

48

Regular Polygons
plane surface or figure bounded by straight lines is called a polygon. If all the sides are of equal length and the angles between the sides are equal, the figure is called a regular polygon.

Any

A
A

regular polygon having

five sides is

shown

in Fig. 21.

The length
between the

of each of the five sides equals 8, sides equals )Q.

and each
is

of the angles

regular polygon with five sides

called a pentagon; one with six

sides (Fig. 22), a hexagon; one with seven sides (Fig. 28), a heptagon; and one with eight sides (Fig. 23), an octagon. When a regular polygon has only three sides (Fig. 24), it becomes an equilateral triangle,

has four sides (Fig. 25) a square. be drawn so that it passes through all the angle-points of a regular polygon, as shown in Figs. 24 to 29 inclusive; such a circle (with the radius R) is said to be circumscribed about the polygon. The smaller circle in the same illustrations (with the radius r) which touches or is tangent to the sides of the polygon, is said to be inscribed The centers of the circumscribed and inscribed circles in the polygon. are located at the same point. If the angle-points of the polygon are connected by lines with this center, as shown by the dotted lines in Figs. 21, 22 and 23, the polygon is divided up into a number of triit

and when

circle

may

angles of equal size and shape. number of sides in the polygon.

The number

of triangles equals the

The angle a (alpha) of each of these triangles at the center (see Fig. 21) can be determined for any polygon when the number of sides This angle, in degrees, equals 360 divided by the number is known.
the
of sides in the regular polygon, or expressed as a formula, number of sides:
if 2V

equals

360

N
between two adjacent sides of the polygon (see Fig. 21) equals a subtracted from 180, or:
/3

The angle

180

a.

The area of a polygon can bo found by dividing it into triangles, as shown in Figs. 21, 22 and 23. After having measured the base and

34

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

height of one triangle and calculated its area, the area of the whole polygon is found by multiplying the area of one triangle by the number of triangles or sides. For the more commonly used regular polygons, the formulas in the following give the area directly when the length of the side is known.

Equilateral Triangles

The sum
already

of the three angles in any triangle equals 180 degrees, as Each of the angles in an equilateral triangle, mentioned.

therefore, equals 1/3 of 180 degrees, or 60 degrees. The radius r of the circle inscribed in an equilateral triangle equals the side multiplied by 0.289.

The radius
by
0.577.

of the circumscribed circle equals the side multiplied

circle is

If the radius of the circumscribed by multiplying the radius by 1.732.

known, the side

is

found

If the radius of the inscribed circle multiplying the radius by 3.464.

is

known, the

side is found by

Flff.

22

Fig.

23

Regular Polygons

The area of an equilateral triangle equals the square of the side multiplied by 0.433; or, the square of the radius of the circumscribed circle multiplied by 1.299; or, the square of the radius of the inscribed circle multiplied by 5.196. If r radius of inscribed circle, R radius of circumscribed circle,

= 8 = length of A = area of equilateral triangle, then the previous rules may be expressed in formulas as r = 0.289 X # = 0.577 X 8 = 1.732 X R = 3.464 X A = 0.433 X S* = 1.299 X R = 5.196 X r\
side,
8,
8,
r,
2

follows:

Each

of the angles

The Square between the sides of a square

is

a 90-degree or

right angle. The radius of the inscribed circle equals one-half of the side. The radius of the circumscribed circle equals the side multiplied by
0.707.

The side of a square equals twice the radius of the inscribed circle, or 1.414 times the radius of the circumscribed circle.

AREAS OF PLANE FIGURES

35

The area equals the square of the side. The area also equals the square of the radius of the circumscribed circle multiplied by 2; or, the square of the radius of the inscribed circle- multiplied by 4. Using the same meaning for t.he letters as before, the previous rules may be expressed in formulas as follows:
72

= 0.5X8, = 0.707 X 8 = 1.414 X R =

r
8,

Xr,

The Pentagon
In the pentagon (Figs. 21 and 26) the angle /3 between the sides equals 108 degrees. This is found by the formulas previously given as shown below:

N = number
360
a

|8

= = = 72 degrees. N = 180 a = 180 72 = 108 degrees.

5

- 360

of sides

5.

Fig. 24.

Equilateral Triangle

Fig. 25.

Square

Fig. 26.

Regular Pentagon

The following formulas are used for finding the radii of the circumscribed and inscribed circles, the side and the area of regular
pentagons:
r = 0.688 X 8, # = 0.851 X = 1.176 X R = 1.453 X r, A = 1.720 X S = 2.378 X R
flf,

= 3.633 X r\

In the hexagon (Figs. of the side S equals the radius R of the circumscribed circle so that each of the six triangles formed, when lines are drawn from the center to the angle-points, are
equilateral triangles. The angle ft between two adjacent sides equals the sum of two angles in two of the equilateral triangles and, conse60 120 degrees. quently, equals 60

The Hexagon 22 and 27) the length

Using the same for the hexagon:

letters as previously given in the formulas,

we have

A = 2.598 X

R = S, 8 = R = 1.155 X
S2

= 0.866 X

8,

r,

2.598

R-

= 3.464 X r

2
.

36

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

The Heptagon

The heptagon,
adjacent sides

N = number
a

is

and the angle between two found by the formulas already given, as shown below:
Fig. 28, has seven sides,

of sides

7.

360

= 180

=
51

360
1

= 51 3/7 degrees. 3/7 = 1284/7 degrees.

k
Fig. 27.

H
Regular
Figr.

h
'

*i

Machinery, y.T.

Regrular

Figr.

28.

Hexagon

Heptagon
letters as in the

29. Regrular Octagron

Using the same

for the heptagon: r 1.038 X 8,

formulas previously given, we have

R = 1.152 X S, 8 = 0.868 X R = 0.963 X r, A = 3. 634 X 8 = 2.736 X R

2

= 3.371 X

r2

The Octagon
in Figs. 23

two adjacent sides of the octagon, as shown /3 between and 29, is 135 degrees. Using the same meaning for the letters as previously given, the

The angle

formulas for the octagon are:

r = 1.207 X 8, # = 1.307 X 8, 8 = 0.765 X # = 0.828 X r, A = 4.828 S = 2.828 X R = 3.314 X

2

r2

CHAPTER IX

VOLUMES OP SOLIDS
Volume of a Cube
a solid body having six surfaces or faces, all of which are squares; as all the faces are squares, all the sides are of equal length. If the side of a face of a cube equals 8, the volume equals 8 X 8 X 8 z or, as it is commonly written, S Assume that the length of the side of a cube equals 3 inches; then 27 cubic inches. the volume equals 3 X 3 X 3 When the volume of a cube is known, the length of the side is found by extracting the cube root of the volume. Assume that the volume of a cube equals 343 cubic inches. If we extract the cube root of 343, we find that the side of the cube is 7
cube, Fig. 30,
is
.

The

inches.

1728 cubic inches; therefore, One cubic foot equals 12 X 12 X 12 a volume given in cubic feet can be transformed into cubic inches by

38

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

The volume of a prism equals the area of the base multiplied by the length or height of the prism. The area of the base must, thereIf the base fore, first be found before the volume can be obtained. is a triangle, parallelogram, trapezoid, trapezium or a regular polygon, its area is found by the rules given in Chapter VIII. If it is a
polygon which is not regular, it can always be divided into triangles, and the area of each of the triangles can be calculated, and these areas added together to obtain the area of the whole polygon. Assume that it is required to find the volume of a prism, the base
of
is

which
L.

is

The volume

a regular hexagon having a side of this prism is

2.598

8',

the length of the prism

X S X L
2

[See page 35 for formula for area of hexagon.] If, in this example, 8 equals 1% inch, and L equals 9 inches, then the volume equals 52.6095 cubic inches. 2.598 X 1.5 X 1.5 X 9 2.598 X 1% 2 X 9

Volume

of a

Pyramid

body having a polygon for the base and a number of triangles all having a common vertex for the sides is called a pyramid. In Fig. 33 a pyramid is shown where the base has four sides and the side surfaces are made up of triangles having two equal sides. If a line is drawn from the vertex of the pyramid at right angles to the base, the length of this line is the altitude or height H of the
solid

pyramid.

The volume of a pyramid equals the base area multiplied by onethird of the height. It is, therefore, necessary to find the base area before the volume can be found.
of
it is required to find the volume of a pyramid, the base which is a regular pentagon, having a side 8', the height of the pyramid is H. The volume of the pyramid equals 1.720 X S 2 X 1/3 X H (area of base X one-third the height).

Assume that

[See page 35 for formula for area of pentagon.] 9 inches, then the volume equals 8 2 inches and 1.720 X 2 X 2 X 3 20.640 cubic inches. 1.720 X 2 2 X 1/3 X 9 A frustum of a pyramid is shown in Fig. 34. It is a pyramid from which the top has been cut off, the top surface being parallel to The height of a frustum of a pyramid is the length of a the base. line drawn from the top surface at right angles to the base. The volume of a frustum of a pyramid can be found when the height, the top area, and the base area are known. If V volume of frustum of a pyramid,
If

H=

= height of frustum, A, = area of top, A = area of base,

H2

then

H
V
3

(A,

Ao

V A X A 2 ).
1

VOLUMES OF SOLIDS

39

Assume, for example, that the base of a frustum of a pyramid is a square, and that the side of the square is 5 inches. The top area is, of course, also a square; assume the side of this to be 2 inches. The height of the frustum is Blanches. By first calculating the base and top areas and then inserting the values in the formula given, the

volume

is

obtained.
6

Volume^

X
3

(5

22

+
78.

52

22 )

(25

25

4)

=2
of

(25

10)

The Prismoidal Formula

The prismoidal formula is a general formula by which the volume any prism, pyramid or frustrum of a pyramid, and the volume of any solid body bounded by regular curved surfaces may be found.
If

A!

= area

at one

end of the body

at other end,

Tl

40

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

The volume
Z>
2

the area of the base equals 0.7854D*.

equals:
0.7854
If

of the cylinder then

X
3

H
5

inches and
32

5 inches,

then the volume equals:

3

0.7854

0.7854

= 35.343 cubic inches.

Volume of a Cone

A solid body having a circular base and the sides inclined so that they meet at a common vertex, the same as in a pyramid, is called If a line is drawn from the vertex of the a cone. (See Pig. 36.) cone at right angles to the base, the length of this line is the altitude
or height

of the cone. of a cone equals the base area multiplied by one-third It is, therefore, necessary to find the area of the base

The volume
of the height.

circle before the

volume can be found.

If

the diameter of the base

Fig. 35.

Cylinder

Fig. 36.

Cone

Fig. 37.

Frustum of Cone

area equals D, then the area equals 0.7854D 2 and this multiplied by one-third of the height gives us the volume:
,

0.7854

X D X
2

1/3

H=

1/3

0.7854

-D

X H =0.2618 X
4

D-

H.

diameter of the base of a cone equals 6 inches, then the volume equals:
If the

inches and the height

0.2618

42

= 0.2618

= 25.1328 cubic inches.

frustum of a cone is shown in Fig. 37. It is a cone from which the top has been cut off, the top surface being a circle parallel to the The height H of a frustum of a cone is the length of a line base. drawn from the top surface at right angles to the base. The volume of a frustum of a cone can be found when the diameters of the top and base circles, and the height are known. If y volume of frustum of a cone,

H = height

D D
then

= 7 = 0.2618
2

of frustum, =. diameter of top circle, diameter of base circle,

H X

(D*

+ V? +

[D,

X D ]).
2

Assume, for example, that the diameter of the base of a frustum of a cone is 5 inches, and that the diameter of the top circle is 2 The height of the frustum is 6 inches. By inserting these inches. values in the formula given we have:

VOLUMES OF SOLIDS

41

V= 0.2618

= 0.2618 X

6 6

X (2 + 5 + [2 X 5] X 39=: 61.2612 cubic

2

0.2618
inches.

(4

+ 25 + 10)

Volume of a Sphere, Spherical Sector, Segment and Zone The name sphere is applied to a solid body shaped like a ball or globe, that is, bounded by a surface which at all points is at the same distance from a point inside of the sphere called its center. The diameter of a sphere is the length of a line drawn from a point on
the surface through the center to the opposite side. The volume of a sphere equals 3.1416 multiplied by four-thirds of the cube of the radius, or 3.1416 multiplied by one-sixth of the cube of the diameter. If R radius of the sphere, D volume, this diameter, and V

rule given can be written in the form of formulas thus:

V = 3.1416 X V 3.1416 X
If the

4/3

1/6

X R* = 4.1888 X R 0.5236 X Z) XD
3

s
,

3
.

known, the radius can be found by extracting the cube root of the quotient of the volume divided by 4.1888; the diameter can be found by extracting the cube root of the quotient of the volume divided by 0.5236.
of a sphere is

volume

Written as formulas, these rules are:

R=
4.1888

0.5236

spherical sector is a part of a sphere bounded by a section of the spherical surface and a cone, having its vertex at the center of the sphere, as shown in Fig. 39. The volume of a spherical sector can be found if the radius R and the height H, Fig. 39, are known.

The formula

for the

volume 7

is

7
Assume

= 2.0944

R*

H.

that the length of the radius of a spherical sector is 15 inches and the height is 4 inches. Then the volume equals 2.0944 X 15 2 X 4 2.0944 X 15 X 15 X 4 1884.96 cubic inches. A spherical segment is a part of a sphere bounded by a portion of the spherical surface and a plane circular base, as shown in Fig. 40.

The volume

of a spherical

segment can be found when the radius

of the sphere and the height of the segment, or the diameter the base of the segment and its height H, are known.
If

of

H = height
R
C

V = volume

of segment,

= diameter of the base of the segment,

R (TT
3

of segment, radius of the sphere of

which the segment

is

a part,

then,

7 = 3.1416

XH X

42

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

is

Assume that the height of a spherical segment radius 8 inches, then the volume is
3.1416

inches and the

62

(8

6 6

-f-

3)

=3.1416
6

3.1416

X6x6x (8 = 678.5856 cubic inches.

2)

=
t

A spherical zone is bounded by a part of a spherical surface, and by two parallel circular bases, as shown in Fig. 40, where C and C 2 are the diameters of the circular bases of the zone, and H its height. The volume of a spherical zone can be found when the height of the segment and the two base diameters are known. If volume of zone, diameter of the smaller base circle, diameter of the larger base circle, C3

d= = H = height

7=

of zone,

then

= 0.5236 XH X

3C 2
2

h#

SPHERICAL SEGMENT.

Flgr.

38.

Sphere

Fig. 39.

Spherical Sector

4O.

ment and Zone

Spherical Seg-

Assume
inches,

that the diameter

of the

inches,

and the height

0.5236

segment equals

1 inch,

4 the diameter C, then the volume is

3X3= X
48
4
1

3X4=
1

X
\

(-

= 0.5236 X 1 X 19.75 = 10.3411 cubic inches. / [If a plane parallel with the end faces and passing through the center of the sphere intersects the zone, consider the zone as two zones, one zone being on each side of the center. Calculate the volume of +

1 1

4 (27

each,

and add these

to find the total volume.]

CHAPTER X
SPECIFIC GRAVITY 'AND

WEIGHTS OP BAB STOCK AND CASTINGS

The expression "specific gravity" indicates how many times a certain volume of a material is heavier than an equal volume of water. If it is found, for example, that one cubic inch of steel weighs 7.8 times as much as one cubic inch of pure water, the specific gravity of
steel is 7.8.

the density of water differs slightly at different temperatures, usual to make comparisons on the basis that the water has a temperature of 62 degrees F. The weight of one cubic inch of pure water If the specific gravity of any maat 62 degrees F. is 0.0361 pound. terial is known, the weight of a cubic inch of the material can, therefore, be found by multiplying its specific gravity by 0.0361.
it is

As

TABLE OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND WEIGHT PER CUBIC INCH OF VARIOUS METALS AND ALLOYS
Metal

44

AT

52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

The weight of a cubic inch of gold is 0.697 pound. The specific gravity of gold is then found by dividing 0.697 by 0.0361. The quotient, 19.32, is the specific gravity of gold. If the weight per cubic inch of any material is known, the \veight of any volume of the material is found by multiplying the weight per cubic inch by the volume expressed in cubic inches. If brass weighs 0.289 pound per cubic inch, 16 cubic inches of brass, of course, weigh In an example of this kind, if the spe4.624 pounds. 0.289 X 16 cific gravity is known, instead of the weight per cubic inch, this latter weight is first found by the rule previously given for finding the weight per cubic inch from the specific gravity.

Fig.

Fig.

42

-Fig.

43

Machinery,}?. Y.

Figs. 41 to 44.

44 Round, Square, Hexagonal and Octagonal Bar Stock

Fig.

the specific gravity of tool steel is 7.85, what is the weight of 12 cubic inches of tool steel? The weight of one cubic inch is found by
If

multiplying 7.85 by 0.0361. The product, 0.283, is then multiplied by 12 to find the weight of 12 cubic inches; 0.283 X 12 3.396 pounds.

Weight of Bar Stock

The weight of a piece of round bar stock, as shown in Fig. 41, can be found by first calculating the volume of the piece. When the volume is found in cubic inches, the weight is found by multiplying the volume by the weight of the material per cubic inch, as already explained.
If

inches,

the diameter D, Fig. 41, of a piece of round tool steel bar is 2 and the length L is 7 inches, the volume of this piece equals

WEIGHTS OF BAR STOCK AND CASTINGS

0.7854
2

45

X square of X 7 = 21.991

been found, it is which is 0.283 pound, as given, ,in the accompanying table of specific gravity and weight per cubic inch of various metals and alloys. The 6.2235 pounds. weight of the bar is then 21.991 X 0.283

X length, or 0.7854 X 2 X 7 0.7854 X cubic inches. The volume in cubic inches having multiplied by the weight of tool steel per cubic inch,
diameter
2

the specific gravity is given instead of the weight per cubic inch, find the weight per cubic inch as explained on page 43. The weight of a square bar, as shown in Fig. 42, can be calculated when the width across flats, W, the length of the bar, L, and the weight of one cubic inch of the material from which the bar is made, are
If

known.
that the width across flats is 2% inches, that the length is and that the bar is made from brass; the volume of this bar equals the area of its end section multiplied by its length, or, in this case, 2^ X 2% X 11 68% cubic inches. The weight of one cubic inch of brass is 0.289 pound, and the weight of the given bar is,
11 inches,

Assume

19.869 pounds. 68% X 0.289 In order to find the weight of a hexagonal bar, as shown in Fig. 43, when the width across flats, W, the length L, and the weight per cubic inch of the material from which the bar is made, are known, the area of its end section must first be found so that the volume can be determined by multiplying this area by the length; when the width across flats, W, is given, this area equals 0.866 X the square of the width across flats. Assume that the weight is to be found of a hexagonal piece of machine steel bar stock 3 inches across flats, and 6 inches long. The 0.866 X 3 X 3 X 6 volume of this piece equals then 0.866 X 3 2 X 6 13.234 46.764 cubic inches, and the weight equals 46.764 X 0.283 The factor 0.283 is the weight of one cubic inch of mapounds. chine steel, as given in the table on page 43. In order to find the weight of a piece of octagonal stock, as shown in Fig. 44, it is first necessary to find the area of the end section; when the width across flats, W, is given, this area equals 0.828 X the square

therefore,

of the

width across

flats.

that the weight of an octagonal piece of tool steel 4 inches across flats and 15 inches long is to be found. The volume of this 2 0.828 X 4 X 4 X 15 198.72 piece then equals 0.828 X 4 X 15

Assume

56.238 pounds. cubic inches, and the weight equals 198.72 X 0.283 The factor 0.283 is the weight of one cubic inch of tool steel as given

in the table on page 43.

The Weight of The weight

Casting's

when the volume of the casting and the specific gravity or the weight per cubic inch of the material from which the casting is made, are known. If the volume is known in cubic inches, the volume is simply multiplied by the weight per cubic inch to obtain the weight of the casting.
of a casting can be calculated

The
Inch
is

specific

0.260;

gravity of cast iron is 7.2 and the weight per cubic the specific gravity of brass is 8 and the weight per

46

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

cubic inch is 0.289; the specific gravity of cast zinc is 6.86, and the weight per cubic inch 0.248; the specific gravity of gun metal bronze is 8.7 and the weight per cubic inch is 0.314. With the constants above given, the problem of finding the weight of castings reduces itself to finding the volume of the casting. The multiplication by the weight per cubic inch of the material is then a simple matter. Assume that it is required to find the weight of a hollow cast iron cylinder, as shown in Fig. 45, where the outside diameter is A, the inside or core diameter B, and the length L. To find the volume, first calculate the volume of a cylinder with the diameter A and the length L and then subtract from this the volume of the cylinder forming the
core.

B=2

that in a hollow cylinder as shown in Fig. 45, A 3 inches, The volume of a cylinder 8 inches. 0.7854 X inches, and L the square of the diameter X the height. The volume of a cylinder

Assume

= =

with 3 inches diameter and a height of

inches

= 0.7854

32

Jtfachtneru.N.Y.

Pig. 45.

Hollow Cylinder

0.7854 X 3 X 3 X 8 56.5488 cubic inches. From this is subtracted the volume of the cylinder forming the core, which has a diameter of The volume of this cylinder is 0.7854 X 2 2 X 8 2 inches. 25.1328

This last volume subtracted from the volume 56.5488 gives us 31.416 cubic inches as the volume of the hollow cylinder 25.1328 (56.5483 31.416). As the weight per cubic inch of cast iron is 0.260 pound, the total weight of the hollow cylinder will be
cubic inches.

8.168 pounds. X 0.260 the cylinder had been cast from gun metal bronze instead of cast iron, the volume should be multiplied by 0.314, in order to find the weight. If the outside diameter of a hollow cylinder is A, the inside diameter B, and the length L. the following formula may be used for finding the volume of the cylinder:

31.416
If

all the necessary dimensions for calculating the weight being given. To calculate the volume of a casting of this shape, it is divided into prisms or other simple geometric shapes, and the volume of each of the parts is found, after which these volumes are added together to find the total volume The piece shown in Fig. 46 can be divided up into of the casting. three parts, the volume of each of which can be calculated by simple
is

In Fig. 46

Volume 0.7854 X (A 2 B 2 ) X L. shown a knee made from cast iron,

WEIGHTS OF BAR STOCK AND CASTINGS

means.
tangle

47

for base the rectangle HMLK, another the recthe base of the third is bounded by two straight The length of all the parts lines EF and FG and the circular arc EG. in this case equals the length of the casting, or 5 inches, as shown.

One part has

PFMN, and

12 square inches. The area of the rectangle HMLK equals 6 X 2 This area multiplied by 5 gives us the volume of this part in cubic

inches; 12

= 60 cubic inches.
NM
is

The length

of the line

4 inches
is

(6
2

the area of the rectangle

PFMN

2 8

4), and, therefore,

square inches.

This

area multiplied by in cubic inches; 8

It

gives us the volume of this section of the casting 5 40 cubic inches.

volume of the section having for base the area bounded by the two straight lines EF and FG and the circular arc EG. The area of the base is found by first finding the area of the square DEFG and subtracting from this area the area of the circular
to find the

now remains

48

52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

that the weight of a cast iron bracket, as shown in Fig. 47, All the required dimensions are here given by the letters A, B, C, D, E, F, and G. The casting is divided up into sections, and the volume of each section is calculated separately; then the volumes

Assume

is

required.

are added together and the total volume multiplied by the weight per cubic inch of cast iron. Very small fillets, like those shown at N and R, are not considered, and the area NR8T is regarded as a perfect rectangle.

In the example given, the casting is divided up in five parts; one a hollow cylinder with an outside diameter A; two parts have for bases the rectangles NRST and KMTU; and two parts have for bases the areas HKL and OML, respectively, each being bounded by two straight lines and a circular arc. 7 inches, B 4 inches, For an example, assume that in Fig. 47, A
is

3 inches,

4 inches,

12 inches,

10 inches,

inches.

Machinery, .V.F.
Fig. 47.

Bearing Bracket

The volumes of the different parts will then be found as Volume of hollow cylinder having an outside diameter
an inside diameter
0.7854
of 4 inches,
42 )

follows:
of 7 inches,

and length
0.7854

of 10 inches:

(7

= 0.7854
5

10

33

X X

(49 10

= 259.18 cubic inches.

NRST:

16)

10

Volume
Volume

of section

having for base the rectangle

4

X
7

= 160 cubic inches.

KMTU:
8

of section

having for base the rectangle

3V 2 X
Volume
of section
2

= 196 cubic inches.

HKL:
9.62)

having for base the area

3.1416

2 3V 2 X 3y

= X 8 =(12.25 -1 -|X8
2.63

=
The volume
of the section

= 21.U4

cubic inches.

having for base OML equals the volume of the section having for base HKL and is consequently 21.04 cubic
inches.

The

total of the five sections then equals

259.18

160

196 -f 21.04

21.04

The

total

weight of the casting equals 657.26

= 657.26 cubic inches. X 0.260 = 170.89 pounds.

CHAPTER
,"

XI

USE OF TABLES OP

SINES, COSINES,

TANGENTS

AND COTANGENTS
The figuring of angles the average mechanic usually looks upon as something above his capacity; but simple cases of the figuring of angles from given formulas are often much easier than many ordinary arithmetical problems in the shop which he successfully solves. All that is necessary is a table of sines, cosines, tangents, and cotangents; after having found the figures corresponding to a given angle from the table, the whole thing resolves itself into a case of simple multiplication or division.

such formulas

Often, in technical papers, the reader will find himself confronted by as, for instance,

A=
.

27
.

cos 36 deg.

Of course, it is impossible to figure out how much A is from this formula, unless the expression "cos 36 deg." (read: cosine of 36 degrees) can be transformed and expressed in plain figures. But if we know how much "cos 36 deg." is expressed in plain figures, then we can immediately divide 27 by this value, and thus find the value of A. Suppose that A stands for the length of one side in a triangle and that the expression "cos 36 deg." equals 0.80901. Then,

A=

27
0.80901

33.37.

The tables of sines, cosines, tangents, and the purpose of giving in figures the values The four expressions: sine, different angles. tangent, which are used to designate certain

cotangents simply serve

of these expressions for

cosine, tangent,

and

co-

numerical values, to be found from the tables, are called the functions of the angle. These functions or numerical values equal a definite amount for each different angle. On pages 52, 53, 54 and 55 will be found tables giving the values referred to for all degrees and for every ten minutes (1/6 of a degree). From these tables, when the angle is given, the angular function can be found, and when the function is given, the angle can
be determined. The four expressions, sine, cosine, tangent, and cotangent are abbreviated "sin," "cos," "tan," and "cot," respectively. The tables of sines, cosines, etc., are read in the same way as a railroad time-table. At the top of Tables I and II the heading reads "Table of Sines," and at the bottom is the legend "Table of Cosines." At the top of Tables III and IV the heading reads "Table of Tangents," and at the bottom is the legend "Table of Cotangents." At the top of all the tables the heading of the extreme left-hand column reads

50

No. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

"Deg." and the following columns are headed 0', 10', 20', etc. At the bottom of the tables the same legends are placed under the columns, but reading from right to left. When the sine or tangent of a given angle is to be found, first find the number of degrees in the extreme left-hand column in the respective tables, and then locate the number of minutes at the top of the table. Then follow the column, over which the number of minutes is given, downwards until arriving at the figure in line with the gives number of degrees. This figure is the numerical value of the sine or
tangent, as the case

may be, for the given angle. If the angle is given in even degrees with no minutes, the corresponding function will be found opposite the number of degrees in the column marked 0' at the
The cosines and cotangents of angles are found in the same tables as the sines and tangents, but the tables in this case are read from the bottom up. The number of degrees is found in the extreme right-hand
of minutes at the bottom of the columns. minutes given is not an even multiple of 10, as 10', 20', 30', etc., but 27', for example, it is, for nearly all shop calculations near enough to take the figures for the nearest number of minutes given, being in this case, for 30'.
If the

top.

column and the number

number

of

Examples of the Use of the Tables

Find from the tables given the sine of 56 degrees, or, Example as it is written in formulas, sin 56. The "sines" are found by reading Tables I and II from the top; the number of degrees, 56, is found in Table II in the left-hand column, and opposite 56 in the column 0',
1.

read

off 0.82903.

Example 2. Find sin 56 20'. In the column marked 20' at the top, follow downwards until opposite 56 in the left-hand column. The value
0.83227
is

Example

the sine of 56 20'. Find cos 36 3.

20'.

To

find the cosines, read the tables

from the bottom, and locate 36 in the right-hand column in Table II. Then follow the column marked 20' at the bottom upwards until opposite 36, and read off 0.80558. Example 4. Find tan 56 40'. The tangents are found in Tables III and IV by locating the number of degrees in the left-hand column and reading the value in the column under the specified number of minutes. In Table IV then we find tan 56 40' to be 1.5204. Example 5. Find the cotangent of 56 40'. Read the tables from the bottom, locating 56 in the right-hand column, and find the required value in line with this figure in the column marked 40' at the bottom.
Thus, cot 56
40'

= 0.65771.

Find sin 20 48'. For shop calculations it is almost always near enough to find the value of the angular functions for the nearest 10 minutes. Therefore in this case find sin 20 50', which is

Example

6.

0.35565.

Example 1. The sine for a certain angle, which may be called a, equals 0.53238. Find the angle. In the body of the tables of sines It will be seen that this number is opposite find the number 0.53238.

TABLES OF SINES AND COSINES

32 degrees

51
a,

and
8.

in the
10'.

column headed

10' at the top.

The angle

there^

fore, equals 32

Example

from the bottom in Tables

opposite 52 in the bottom. Angle Example 9. Sin
ft,

Find ft. The cotangents are read and IV. The value 0.77195 is located the right-hand column and in the column marked 20' at
Cot
ft

0.77195.
III

then,

value 0.31190

Find ft. It will be found that the not given in the table of sines; the nearest value in the table is 0.31178. For shop calculations it is near enough to consider the angle ft equal to the angle corresponding to this latter value; the angle then is 18 10'.
ft

is

52

20'.

0.31190.

is

Right-angled Triangles* In right-angled triangles the remaining sides and angles can be found when either two sides, or one side and one of the acute angles, are known. As previously mentioned, the side opposite the right Side & is the side angle, or side a in Fig. 48, is called the hypotenuse.

Machinery, XT.

Fig. 48.

Right-angled Triangle

Fig. 49.

Oblique-angled Triangle

adjacent to angle C and side c is the side opposite to the same angle. In the same way, c is the side adjacent to angle B, and & is the side opposite angle B. The problems in right-angled triangles may be divided into five classes, for which the following formulas are given: The hypotenuse and one of the sides forming the right angle 1. are given. Call the hypotenuse a, and the other given side &. Then
(see Fig. 48):
6

= 90

B
two

a
2.

sides b

The two and c.

a

sides forming the right angle are given.

Call these

Then

(see Fig. 48):

&

b2

c2

tanr=
c

90

B
Call the

The hypotenuse and one of the acute angles are given. 3. hypotenuse a and the given angle B. Then (see Fig. 48)
:

C
*

= 90

&

= a X sin B
Triangles
1

= a X cos B

For a more complete treatment of the solution of triangles, see MACHINERY'S

of
.

Reference Series No. 54, Solution

62

52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

I.

TABLE OF SINES
column and minutes at top
7
10'

Read degrees

in left-hand

Example: sin

= .12475

Deg,

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

II.

53

TABLE OF SINES

Read degrees in left-hand column and minutes .83227 Example: sip 56 20'

at top

Deg.

54

Xo. 52

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

III.

TABLE OF TANGENTS

Read degrees in left-hand column and minutes .12573 Example: tan 7 10'

at top

Deg.

ADVANCED SHOP ARITHMETIC

IV.

55

TABLE OF TANGENTS

Read degrees in left-hand column and minutes 1.5013 Example: tan 56 20'

at top

Deg.

A\,
4.

32 -.-;/)/ \l_VClir

SHOP ARITHMETIC
side are given.
(see Fig. 48):
b

angle

One acute angle and its adjacent B and its adjacent side c. Then

Call the given

= 90
5.

= c;

cosB
angle

One acute angle and its opposite side are given. Call the given B and the side opposite it b. Then (see Fig. 48):

= 90

c=bXcot.B
sin.8

Formulas for Solving Oblique Triangles

Below are given a summary of all the generally required formulas, and the methods of procedure in solving oblique triangles. In all the formulas reference is made to Fig. 49, in which the sides and angles
are given the
1.

same names as in the formulas below. angles and one side are given, call the given side the angle opposite it A, and the other angle B. Then if A is known: a X sin B ax sin C b c (7=180 (A + B)

When two

a,

sin

Area
If

b
2

A X sin C

sin

are given, but not A, then other formulas being as above.

2.

B and C

180

(B

-f

C), the

When two
and
b

sides a

sides and the included angle are given, call the given and the given angle between them C. Then:

tanA

=
b

X
a

sin

C C
Area

5 = 180

(A +C)
b

sin

cos

sin

X
2

sin

and the angle opposite one of the sides are given, call the given angle A, the side opposite it a and the other given side Then: b.
3.

When two

sides

sin

sin

A
(7=180
(

A + B)
sin

ax

sin

sin

Area
4.

X
2

When
Z>

the three sides of a triangle are given, call

2

them

a,

and

and the angles opposite them A, B and C respectively.

-f c
2

Then:

a2

sinB
2

=
a

X
a
b

sin

A
C

= 180

(A

+ B)

Area

cos

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YC 53944

UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA LIBRARY

MACHINERY'S DATA SHEET SERIES

MACHINERY'S Data Sheot Books include the well-known series of Data Sheets originated by MACHINERY, and issued monthly as supplements to the publication; of these Data Sheets over 500 have been published, and 6,000,000 copies sold. Revised and greatly ampiiiied, they are now presented in DOOK form, kindred subjects

being grouped together.

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CONTENTS OF DATA SHEET BOOKS

No- 1. Screw Threads. T'r.ited States. VTl. itworth, Sharp V- and British Association Tin-. Briggs Pipe "Din-ad; Oil Well Casing GJ Fire Hose Connections. Acme, \\-in.. ;unl Metric Threads; Machine, \V ,od, Lag Screw, and Carriage Bolt Threads, etc. No. 2. Screws, Bolls and Nuts. Fillister-head, a_'ou hc.id Screws; Headless, Collar-head and li Standard and Special Nuts: T-imts. T-l.olts and Screws and Nuts; Machine Screw Washers: Thumb Heads; \Vood Screws; Tap Drills.
No. 3. Taps and Dies. Hand, Machine. Tapper and Machine Screw Taps; Taper IMr Taps; Sellers Hobs' Screw Machine Taps; Straight and Taper i'.oiler Taps; Stay-bolt, Washout, and Patch -bolt Taps; 1'ipe Taps and Hobs; Threading Dies. No. 4. Reamers, Sockets, Drills and Milling Hand Keaniers; Shell Reamers and ArCutters. bors; Pipe Reamers; Taper Tins and Reamers; Brown & Sliarpe, Morse and .Tarno Taper Sockets and Reamers; Drills: Wire Qagea; Milling Cutters: Setting Angles for Milling Teeth in Knd Mills and Angular Cutters, etc. No. 5. Spur Gearing. Diametral and Circular Pitch; Dimei <ion> o, Spur dears; Tables of Pitch Diameters; Odontograph Tab'cs; ({oiling Mill bearing; Strength of Mmr dears: Horse|H,wer Transmitted by Cast iron and Itawi.ide Pinions; Design of Spur Cears; I0pic.\ die d.,ring. Rules No. 6. Bevel, Spiral and Worm Gearing. and Formulas for Level dears: Strength of I'.evel dears; Design of Revel dears' Rules and Formulas for Spiral dears; Diagram for Cutters for Spiral dears; Rules and Formulas for Worm daring, etc.
Shafting, Keys and Keyways. TTorsc Sliaftiiu; Strength of Shafting: Forcing. and Running Fits: Woodruff Shrinking Driving, Keys; Standard Keys: dib Ke\s; Milling KeyKeys. Dupb ways; No. 8. Bearings, Couplings, Clutches, Crane Chain and Hooks. Pillow Blocks; Babbitted Hearings; Ball and Roller P.eaiings; Clamp Couplings; Flange Couplings; Tooth Clutches: Crab Couplings; Cone Clutches; reversal Joints; Crane Chain; Crane Hooks; Drum Scores.

No. 11. Milling Machine Indexing, Clamping Devices and Planer Jacks. Tables for Milling Machine Indexing; Change dears for Milling Spirals: Angles for setting Indexing Head when Milling Clutches; Jig Clumping Devices. No. 12. Pipe and Pipe Fittings. Pipe Threads and dages: Cast-iron Fittings; P.ron/.e Fittings; Pipe Flanges; Pipe Bends; Pipe Cl: mps and Hangers. No. 13. Boilers and Chimneys. Flu. Spacing and P.racing for Boil.rs: Strength of Boil., .Joints; Riveting; Boiler Setting; Chimneys. No. 14. Locomotive and Railway Da i. Txu-ootive hollers: Bearing Pressures for euinoti\e Journals: Locomotive Classitications; Rail Sections;" ^'witches and Crossovers; Tires; Tra<-ti\e
i
I

Inertia of Trains;

Brake Levers.

No. 15. Steam and Gas Engines. Saturated Steam: Steam Pipe Si/es; Steam Kngiiie Design; Volume of Cylinders; Stulling Boxes: Set ing Cor ne Valve dears: Condenser :ind r Pump Data; Horsepower of dasoline Kngines; \ntoiuo bib- Kngiuc Crankshafts, etc. No. 16. Si Mathematical Tables. Mixed Numbers; Fun. ions of Fractions Ci-.-um femice and D..imetcrs of Circles; Tables .r Spacing oft' Circles; Solution of Triangles; minlas
_
.1
I

for

Sohuig
etc.

Regnl

!'.:

metrlfal

Pro-

gression,

No. 17.

Mechanics and Strength of

Ma

-rials.

Work:
ity;

KrierK.v: M..-

Centrifugal Force; Center of dravon; iVmhmim; Falling Bodies;

No.

7.

power of

Strength of Mali-rials: Strength of Fla Plates; Strength of Thick Cylinuers, etc. No. 18. Beam Formulas and Structural Design. Beam Formulas; S, ijohal Moduli of si u.-tu: -al Beam Chart-; Net A'-. -as of Siriictnr.il Sliapes: Angles; Rivet Spacing: Splices for Channels and beams; Stresses in Roof Trusses, etc.
,

No. 19. Belt, sions of Pulleys; of Belting; Belt

No. 9. Springs, Slides and Machine Details. Formulas and Tables for Spring Calculations: Machine Slides; Machine Handles and T.evers: Collars; Hand Wheels; Pins and Cotters; Turn-buckies.
No. 10. Motor Drive, Speeds and Feeds, Change Gearing, and Boring Bars. Power required for Machine Tools: Cutting Sp Is and Feeds for Carbon and High-speed Steel: Screw MaclUne Speeds and Feeds; Heat Treatment of High speed Steel Tools; Taper Turning; Change Gearing for the Lathe; Boring Bars and Tools.

"Dimen\\eights of Pulleys; Horsepower Velocity: Angnla'r Belt Drives; Horsepower transmitted by Ropes; Sin.. Rope Drive; Bending Stresses in Wire Ropes: Sprockets for Link Chains; Formulas and Tables for Driving Chain.
tion,

Rope and Chain Drives.

No. 20. Wiring Diagrams, Heating and Ventilaand Miscellaneous Tables. Typical Motor Wiring Diagrams; Resistance of Round Copper

Wire; Current Densities for Various Contacts and Materials; Centrifugal Fan and Blower Cupa.-iti -: Hot. Water Main Capacities: Decimal Kquiva\Ietric Conversion Tables, Weights and Specific Gravity of Metals, Drafting room Con.
veutious,
etn.

MACHINERY, the leading journal in the machine-building field, the originator of the 25-cent Reference and Data Books. Published monthly. Subscription, $2.00
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