1

Particle Physics
Dr M.A. Thomson

q g q

Qq

1 q2

Part II, Lent Term 2004

HANDOUT III
Dr M.A. Thomson Lent 2004

QCD
QUANTUM ELECTRODYNAMICS: is the quantum theory of the electromagnetic interaction. mediated by massless photons photon couples to electric charge, Strength of interaction : .

QUANTUM CHROMO-DYNAMICS: is the quantum theory of the strong interaction. mediated by massless gluons, i.e. propagator gluon couples to strong charge Only quarks have non-zero strong charge, therefore only quarks feel strong interaction Basic QCD interaction looks like a stronger version of QED,

QED q
2

q QCD
Qq

q
S

= e /4 ~ 1/137

S = gS2/4 ~ 1

( subscript em is sometimes used to distinguish the of electromagnetism from ).

Lent 2004

Dr M.A. Thomson

COLOUR
In QED: Charge of QED is electric charge. Electric charge - conserved quantum number. In QCD: Charge of QCD is called COLOUR COLOUR is a conserved quantum number
with 3 VALUES labelled red, green and blue Quarks carry COLOUR Anti-quarks carry ANTI-COLOUR

Leptons, , , DO NOT carry colour, i.e. DO NOT participate have colour charge zero in STRONG interaction.

Note: Colour is just a label for states in a

non-examinable SU(3) representation

Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

GLUONS
In QCD: Gluons are MASSLESS spin-1 bosons
Consider a red quark scattering off a green quark. Colour is exchanged but always conserved.

q gluon

r r g g

UNLIKE QED:

Gluons carry the charge of the interaction. Gluons come in different colours.

Expect 9 gluons (3 colours 3 anti-colours)

,
,

However: Real gluons are orthogonal linear

combinations of the above states. The is colourless combination and does not take part in the strong interaction.

Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

Colour at Work
EXAMPLE: Annihilation
q g q q g g q r r

Normally do not show colour on Feynman diagrams - colour is conserved.

QED POTENTIAL: V QCD POTENTIAL:

At short distances QCD potential looks similar

V
apart from colour factor.

Note: the colour factor (4/3) arises because more than one gluon can participate in the process

. Obtain

colour factor from averaging over initial colour states and summing over nal/intermediate colour states
Dr M.A. Thomson Lent 2004

SELF-INTERACTIONS
At this point, QCD looks like a stronger version of QED. This is true up to a point. However, in practice QCD behaves very differently to QED. The similarities arise from the fact that both involve the exchange of MASSLESS spin-1 bosons. The big difference is that GLUONS carry colour charge.

GLUONS CAN INTERACT WITH OTHER GLUONS:

g g g
3 GLUON VERTEX

4 GLUON VERTEX

EXAMPLE: Gluon-Gluon Scattering

e.g. r g + g b r r+ r b

Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

CONFINEMENT
NEVER OBSERVE: single FREE quarks/gluons quarks are always conned within hadrons This is a consequence of the strong self-interactions of gluons. Qualitatively, picture the colour eld between two quarks. The gluons mediating the force act as additional sources of the colour eld - they attract each other. The gluon-gluon interaction pulls the lines of colour force into a narrow tube or STRING. In this model the string has a tension and as the quarks separate the string stores potential energy.

Energy stored per unit length

Requires innite energy to separate two

quarks. Quarks always come in combinations with zero net colour charge: CONFINEMENT.
Dr M.A. Thomson Lent 2004

constant.

How Strong is Strong ? QCD Potential between quarks has two components: COULOMB-LIKE TERM : LINEAR TERM :

VQCD(GeV)

1 0

s+kr V = -4 3r s V = -4 3r s=0.2 k=1 GeV/fm

-1 -2 -3

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 r(fm)

Force between two quarks at separated by 10 m:

with

at large r

fm
Lent 2004

Equivalent to the weight of approximately 65 Widdecombes.

Dr M.A. Thomson

JETS
Consider the

pair produced in
e
+

:
q q

qq

VQCD(GeV)

1 0

As the quarks separate, the energy stored in the colour eld (string) starts to increase linearly with separation. When new pairs can be created.

s+kr V = -4 3r s V = -4 3r s=0.2 k=1 GeV/fm

-1 -2 -3

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 r(fm)

qq q q qq q q

as energy decreases... hadrons freeze out

Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

As quarks separate, more pairs are produced from the potential energy of the colour eld. This process is called HADRONIZATION. Start out with quarks and end up with narrowly collimated JETS of HADRONS
SPACE
q q q q q q q q q q (ud) etc...
+ 0 + + 0K 0 0 +

10

q q

TIME

e e

q
e
-

q e q
+

Typical

Event
The hadrons in a quark(anti-quark) jet follow the direction of the original quark(antiquark). Consequently is observed as a pair of back-to-back jets of hadrons

Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

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aside.....
ALEPH
DALI 3 6 Gev EC Gev HC Run=56698 Evt=7455

Y"
1cm RO TPC 1cm 0

Made on 30-Aug-2000 17:24:02 by konstant with DALI_F1. Filename: DC056698_007455_000830_1723.PS

1cm Z0<5 D0<2 ( 175)*SIN()

0 x o o x o x x o o x o o x x o

1cm

X"

o o o o xx x x o o xo o x x o x x o x o x o x o xo o o o o x o o x x x o x o x x o 15 GeV =180 x =0

You will now recognize the Higgs event from the cover of Handout I as

something

Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

Running of
interaction

12

species the strength of the strong BUT just as in QED, isnt a constant, it
runs

In QED the bare electron charge is screened

by a cloud of virtual electron-positron pairs.

In QCD a similar effect occurs.

In QCD quantum uctuations lead to a cloud of virtual pairs
q

q q

q q

one of many (an innite set) such diagrams analogous to those for QED.

q q

In QCD the gluon self-interactions ALSO lead to a cloud of virtual gluons

g g

one of many (an innite set) such diagrams. Here there is no

g q

analogy in QED, photons dont have self-interactions since they

g
q

dont carry the charge of the interaction.

Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

13

Colour Anti-Screening

Due to the gluon self-interactions bare colour charge is screened by both virtual quarks and virtual gluons The cloud of virtual gluons carries colour charge and the effective colour charge INCREASES with distance ! At low energies (large distances)

becomes large
QCD
MZ

cant use perturbation theory (not a weak perturbation)

EM
1/128

QED
1/137 MZ Low Energy

Mp Low Energy

High Energy

High Energy
1

MZ

Mp
0 0 2 4 6 0 -20 -18 -16

log10(q /GeV )

log10(r/m)

At High energies (short distances) is

small. In this regime treat quarks as free particles and can use perturbation theory ASYMPTOTIC FREEDOM

At
Dr M.A. Thomson

.
Lent 2004

14

Scattering in QCD
EXAMPLE: High energy proton-antiproton scattering

Jet along beam direction

u
p g

u
1 q2

g u

p
Visible jet in direction of q

The upper points are the Geiger and Marsden data (1911) for the elastic scatterparticles as they ing of traverse thin gold and silver foils. The lower points show the angular distribution of the quark jets observed in proton-antiproton scattering at Both follow the Rutherford formula for elastic scattering: .

Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

EXAMPLE: vs

scattering

15

p g p p g

Calculate ratio of

total to

total

QCD does not distinguish between quark

avours, only COLOUR charge of quarks matters.
At high energy (E binding energy of quarks within and hadrons) ratio of total cross sections depends on number of possible quark-quark combinations.

Predict

Experiment

Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

 QCD in

Annihilation

16

Direct evidence for the existence of colour comes from Annihilation. , Compare :

e+

+ e+
1 q2

1 q2

Qq

If we neglect the masses of the nal state quarks/muons then the ONLY difference is the , charge of the nal state particles ( = or ) Start by calculating the cross section for the . ( represent a process fermion-antifermion pair e.g. or ). see Handout II for the case where

Lent 2004

Dr M.A. Thomson

17

e + p 2

f
1 q2 Qf e
-

f e
+

p1

Electron/Positron beams along

where is (centre-of-mass energy .

Fermis Golden rule and Born Approximation

-axis

Matrix element

Dr M.A. Thomson

:
Lent 2004

comes from spin-1 photon decaying to

two spin-half fermions. see lecture on Dirac equation

18

Total cross section for

for

collider data at centre-of-mass energies 8-36 GeV

Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

19

Back to

For a single quark avour of a given colour

However, we measure not .A jet from a u-quark looks just like a jet from a d-quark... Need ). to sum over avours (u,d,c,s,t,b) and colours (

where the sum is over all quark avours kinematically , of collider. accessible at centre-of-mass energy,

Dr M.A. Thomson

Energy

1 GeV

u,d,s,c,b,t u,d,s,c,b u,d,s,c u,d,s

Ratio R

4 GeV

10 GeV

350 GeV

Lent 2004

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Data:

from

GeV

increases in steps with

charmonium (c ) and bottomonium (b ). Data exclude no colour hypothesis.

region complicated by resonances:

STRONG EVIDENCE for COLOUR

Dr M.A. Thomson Lent 2004

21

Experimental Evidence for Colour

The existence of the

The is a (L=0) spin- baryon consisting of 3 strange-quarks. The wave-function

is SYMMETRIC under particle interchange. However quarks are FERMIONS, therefore require an ANTI-SYMMETRIC wave-function, i.e. need another degree of freedom, namely COLOUR.

+ + - -
decay rate

Need colour to explain

decay rate.
u

u
0

EXPT
Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

22

Evidence for Gluons

In QED, electrons can radiate photons. In QCD quarks can radiate gluons.

q g q

Qq

giving an extra factor of in the matrix element, i.e. an extra factor of in cross section. In QED we can detect the photons. In QCD we never see free gluons due to connement. Experimentally detect gluons as an additional jet: 3-Jet Events.

1 q2

g q q
Angular distribution of gluon jet depends on
gluon spin
Dr M.A. Thomson Lent 2004

23

3-Jet Events and Gluon Spin

JADE GeV Direct Evidence for Gluons (1978)

OPAL (1990)

GeV

Distribution of the angle, between the highest energy jet (assumed to be one of the quarks) relative to the ight direction of the other two (in their depends on the cms frame). spin of the gluon.

Dr M.A. Thomson

GLUON is SPIN-1

Lent 2004

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Gluon Self-Interactions
Direct Evidence for the existence of the the gluon selfinteractions from 4-JET events.

g g g
Y

3 GLUON VERTEX
X

4 GLUON VERTEX

e+ ee+ e
-

q q q q g g

e+ eg g e+ e
-

q q q q

g g

q q

Angular distribution of jets is sensitive to

existence triple gluon vertex:

vertex consists of 2 spin- quarks and a spin-1 gluon.

different angular distribution.

vertex consists of 3 spin-1 gluons,

Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

25

Experimentally:

Dene the two lowest energy jets as the gluons. (gluon jets are more likely to be low energy than quark jets) Measure angle between the plane containing the quark jets and the plane containing the gluon jets,
q g
BZ BZ

q g

g q q

Gluon interactions

selfare

required to describe the data. experimental Theory with-

out self-interactions (ABELIAN) consistent observations is inwith

Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

Measuring

+....

26

can be measured in many ways. The cleanest is from : In practice measure

+
i.e. dont distinguish 2/3 jets. So measure

hadrons

When gluon radiation is included :

Therefore giving
Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

Many other ways to measure e.g. 3 jet rate :

....
S

27

e+

q g q

Qq

1 q2

Summary
Summary of measurements

3 jet 2 jet

RUNS !

Dr M.A. Thomson

Lent 2004

28

Nucleon-Nucleon Interactions

Bound states (e.g. Protons and Neutrons) are

COLOURLESS (COLOUR SINGLETS).

They can only interact via COLOURLESS intermediate

states - i.e. not by single gluons. (conservation of colour charge)

Interact by exchange of PIONS One possible diagram shown below :

d u u u u u d u u u d d u u p p
0

Nuclear potential is YUKAWA potential with Short range force : range

Range

Lent 2004

Dr M.A. Thomson