VARIABLE

FREQUENCY DRIVES
Energy Efficiency
Reference Guide










DISCLAIMER: Neither CEATI International, the authors, nor
any of the organizations providing funding support for this work
(including any persons acting on the behalf of the
aforementioned) assume any liability or responsibility for any
damages arising or resulting from the use of any information,
equipment, product, method or any other process whatsoever
disclosed or contained in this guide.

The use of certified practitioners for the application of the
information contained herein is strongly recommended.

This guide was prepared by Scott Rouse of Energy @ Work with
technical editing and variable frequency drive expertise provided
by Dan Dederer of Enertech Solutions Inc. for the CEATI
International Customer Energy Solutions Interest Group
(CESIG) with the sponsorship of the following utility consortium
participants:

Natural Resources
Canada
Ressources naturelles
Canada






2009 CEATI International. All rights reserved.
Appreciation to Ontario Hydro, Ontario Power Generation and
others who have contributed material that has been used in
preparing this guide.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
1 Introduction 5
a. Scope of the Variable Frequency Drive 5
b. Overview of Variable Frequency Drives 6
c. Economics 8
2 Classifications of Drives 19
a. AC Drives 19
b. Other AC Drives 20
c. DC Drives 22
d. Eddy Current Clutches 23
e. Advanced Motors 24
f. Mechanical Speed Control 24
3 Principles of Operation - AC VFD Drives 25
a. AC Induction Motors 25
b. Squirrel Cage AC Induction Motors 26
c. Pulse Width Modulated Variable Frequency
Drives 27
4 Selection of VFD Drives 31
a. Electrical Considerations When Applying VFD to
AC Motors 31
b. Motor Considerations 37

5 Application considerations and estimated
Savings for VFD Drives 47
a. Driven Load Characteristics and Power
Requirements 47
b. Comparison with Conventional Control Methods 53
c. Monitoring and Verification 64
d. System Efficiency 66
e. Electrical Efficiency 67
f. Cost Per Unit Product 67
g. Reliability and Maintenance 68
6 Case Studies 69
a. Case Study: Replacement of Eddy-Current Drive
with a VFD 69
b. Case Study: Replacement of Damper Controls
with VFDs in an HVAC System 72
c. Case Study: Replacement of Vacuum Pump
Controls with a VFD in a Dairy Facility 75
Appendix A: Bibliography 79
Appendix B: Useful Web Sites 81
Appendix C: Industry Acronyms and Glossary Of
Terms 85
Appendix D: Useful Formulas 91
Appendix E: Conversion Factors 97

1 Introduction

5
1 INTRODUCTION
a. Scope of the Variable Frequency Drive
This guide has been developed as an overview of Variable
Frequency Drive (VFD) technology to assist in the effective
understanding, selection, application, and operation of VFDs.
In this guide, the word drive refers to the electronic VFD.
This guide does NOT cover other Variable Speed Drives
(VSDs) that have mechanical or hydraulic controls.
The primary focus of this guide is for off-the-shelf, low
voltage VFDs used in conjunction with AC, polyphase,
induction motors in the factional to 500 horsepower range that
are:
600V or less
IGBT PWM (pulse width modulated using insulated
gate bipolar transistors)
Commercially available
Engineered products for special and large motor applications
are not included.
Selecting the proper VFD for your application is best achieved
by understanding the technology, your specific load
requirements and asking the right question up front. This
question might be:
Does my load profile vary sufficiently to justify a VFD?
1 Introduction

6
NOTE: It is strongly recommended that individuals or
companies installing VFDs secure the services of a professional
specialist qualified in VFDs in order to understand and
maximize the available benefits.
Project managers for VFD projects who are not familiar with
the technology often undervalue the importance of obtaining
the correct data, analysis and up-front engineering that is
necessary to thoroughly understand the system.
b. Overview of Variable Frequency
Drives
A Variable-Frequency Drive (VFD) is a device that controls
the voltage and frequency that is being supplied to a motor and
therefore controls the speed of the motor and the system it is
driving. By meeting the required process demands, the system
efficiency is improved.
A VFD is capable of adjusting both the speed and torque of an
induction motor.
A VFD therefore provides continuous range process speed
control (as compared to the discrete speed control that
gearboxes or multi-speed motors provide).
VFDs may be referred to by a variety of other names, such as
variable speed drives, adjustable speed drives, or inverters.
Motor Speed Control
AC (Alternating Current) induction motors are essentially
constant speed machines, with a variation of speed from no
1 Introduction

7
load to full load of about 2-5%, representing the slip of the
motor.
The speed of the machine is determined by the frequency of
the power supply and the number of magnetic poles in the
design of the stator.
Fixed speed motors serve the majority of applications. In these
applications or systems, control elements such as dampers and
valves are used to regulate flow and pressure. These devices
usually result in inefficient operation and energy loss because
of their throttling action.
However, it is often desirable to have a motor operate at two or
more discrete speeds, or to have fully variable speed operation.
The conventional control elements can often be replaced by
incorporating variable speed operation using a VFD.
Substantial energy savings can be achieved in many of these
applications by varying the speed of the motors and the driven
load using a commercially available VFD. Savings include
capital costs and maintenance costs associated with these
control elements.
The following table gives typical examples of loads and their
energy savings potential.
1 Introduction

8
Type Of Load Applications Energy Consideration
Variable Torque Load
- HP varies as the cube of the
speed
- Torque varies as the square
speed

- Centrifugal Fans
- Centrifugal Pumps
- Blowers
- HVAC Systems

Lower speed operation results in
significant energy savings as
power to the motor drops with
the cube of the speed.
Constant Torque Load
- Torque remains the same at
all speeds
- HP varies directly with the
speed.

- Mixers
- Conveyors
- Compressors
- Printing Presses

Lower speed operation saves
energy in direct proportion to the
speed reduction.
Constant Horsepower Load
- Develops the same
horsepower at all speeds.
- Torque varies inversely with
the speed.
- Machine tools
- Lathes
- Milling machines
- Punch presses
No energy savings at reduced
speeds; however, energy savings
can be realized by attaining the
optimized cutting and machining
speeds for the part being
produced.

c. Economics
Economics is typically one of the most important factors
involved in selecting industrial equipment, but the method of
evaluation is not straightforward. Many important economic
considerations are often ignored in VFD evaluations.
1 Introduction

9
Potential Energy Savings from Replacing an Inlet or Outlet Damper with a VFD
Airflow
Volume
(percent of
maximum)
Daily
Operating
Time (hours)
Energy
Consumed
with Damper
(kWh/year)
Energy
Consumed
Using a VFD
(kWh/year)
Difference in
Energy
Consumption
(kWh/year)
50%
60%
70%
80%
90%
100%
Total
2
3
6
6
4
3
24
18 500
29 300
61 700
63 300
44 200
34 200
251 200
4 800
9 800
26 800
35 900
32 600
35 200
145 100
13 700
19 500
34 900
27 400
11 600
-1 000
106 100
Reference: Office of Energy Efficiency, Natural Resources Canada,
How Much Will I Save
Electrical savings are important but there are also other factors
that should be included as part of an evaluation of the life-
cycle costs of the equipment. For example when pumps or fans
are operated at reduced speeds there are often significant
maintenance savings due to reduced wear on seals, bearings,
shafts, etc. The purchase price is typically less than 10% of the
life cycle costs when operating and maintenance costs are
considered. Productivity increases from reduced downtimes
and reduced waste from optimized process control should also
be quantified for significant life cycle cost economics.
Simple Payback Evaluation
The simple payback method is frequently used to determine
how long it would take for a piece of equipment to pay for
itself through saved costs. The payback time is calculated as
follows:
1 Introduction

10
Number of Years = Total Initial Capital Cost
Total Annual Savings
This method should only be used as a risk indicator. Simple
payback neglects the impact of a number of important
variables, such as tax incentives, inflation, etc.
The following table provides a VFD checklist of costs and
savings and can help avoid overlooking economic
considerations.
Capital Costs Capital Savings Operational
Costs and Saving
Other
Drive
Motor
Power Conditioning
Equipment
Installation
Electrical System
Upgrade
Torsional Analysis
Space Requirements
Cooling
Control valves
Gear box
Fluid coupling/
mechanical speed
changing equipment
Reduced voltage
starters
Energy (total energy
consumed, peak
demand change)
Maintenance/ useful
life/ downtime
Overspeed capability
Salvage Value
Tax Implications

Net Present Value Evaluation
Calculating the net present value (NPV) is a better technique
for appraising the profitability of an investment. By using the
discounted cash flow technique, the NPV takes into account
the time value of money. A summary of this approach appears
in the following steps:
1. Evaluate the cost/savings of the factors in the above
table for each option that is being considered (for
example, purchasing a VFD or purchasing a
1 Introduction

11
mechanical drive system instead). Capital costs will be
expressed in total dollars; operating expenses will be
expressed in terms of time.
2. Determine the real discount rate that should be used
for each time dependent and future-valued factor. For
example, for energy savings calculations:
x% per annum = nominal discount rate
y% per annum = rate at which electricity rates will
rise
i% = {x/y -- 1}%
As another example, salvage value in years from the
present should be discounted using the rate at which
the interest rate is expected to rise between now and
n years.
3. The factors for each option should be discounted to
their present values, using the appropriate discount
rate. The number of years used for time dependent
factors should be chosen as a reasonable payback
period. Present value tables and annuity tables are
useful for the discounting process.
4. The net present value (NPV) of each option is found
by summing the costs and savings that have been
calculated in present value terms for each factor.
5. For any option, if:
NPV > 0, there is a net gain
NPV < 0, there is a net loss
NPV = 0, breakeven occurs at the time under
consideration.
6. The option with the greatest positive value of NPV is
the most profitable.
7. The procedure could be repeated assuming different
total time periods.
1 Introduction

12

8. A comparison between two options could also be

made by using the relative difference between the
options for each factor and finding one NPV.
Capital Costs
Variable Frequency Drive
The cost of Variable Frequency Drives can vary greatly,
depending on the options required.
The cost should include:
speed controls,
start/stop controls,
engineering,
cable and conduit,
foundations,
spare parts and any related modifications.
For example, a battery back-up for the controls may be
provided for auto restart or shut-down sequences.
Motor
The cost of an inverter duty motor should be considered for a
new system; however, if the system is being considered for an
upgrade to a VFD then the existing motor should be reviewed
for size, capacity and efficiency. Usually only high efficiency
motors should be considered.
See the CEATI Motor Energy Efficiency Reference Guide for
more details.
1 Introduction

13
Power Conditioning Equipment
The cost of any power conditioning equipment, such as
harmonic filters, should be included. This includes filters for
incoming power to the motor as well as power conditioners for
harmonic voltages and currents sent back to the power supply
from the drive.
Installation
Installation, labour and commissioning charges for the drive,
motor and power conditioning apparatus should be
determined.
Electrical System Upgrade
Upgrading the electrical system may be necessary if reliability
greater than what the present system can offer is required.
Potential upgrades include relay protective systems, supply
transformer redundancy, transfer switching/alternate feeders,
maintenance, emergency staff training and preventive
maintenance programs.
Torsional Analysis
A torsional analysis will define the vibration effects of inverter
harmonics in the drive train. This should be conducted for
large drive applications.
Space Requirements
This includes the cost of any indoor space requirements for the
drive and filters, as well as any outdoor space costs, such as
those associated with transformers, filters or reactors.
1 Introduction

14
Cooling
Additional cooling may be required for drive installation.
Water cooling may be a much more economical alternative for
large applications, although HVAC equipment is often used.
Capital Savings
Use of a VFD may avoid certain capital investments. Examples
are gear boxes, control valves, fluid coupling/mechanical speed
changing equipment and reduced voltage starters.
Operating Costs and Savings
Electrical Energy and Demand Savings
There may be savings in terms of both energy consumed
(kWh) and peak demand (kW) charges. The extent of these
savings depends on the specific load profile of the application,
the load profile of the overall operation, the local utilitys rate
schedule, etc.
Installing a VFD, in addition to the other benefits, will usually
reduce the total energy consumed (kWh). Manufacturers and
utilities have on-line spreadsheets that can be downloaded,
typically at no cost, and used to estimate the electrical savings.
The other element of electrical power cost is the apparent
power charge, measured in kVA, which compensates the utility
for the peak current that must be delivered during the month.
Each utility rate structure is different and contacting your
utility can ensure that the correct rates are being used. The
figure below illustrates the daily demand (kW) and the
apparent power (kVA). The ratio between kW and kVA is the
1 Introduction

power factor. Most utilities now charge a power factor penalty,
i.e., charging for apparent power (kVA) rather than kW.

Figure 1: Demand (kW) and Apparent Power (kVA)
Courtesy of UGS Profiler, Real time monitoring
The most significant factor affecting demand is the power
required by the load. Variable frequency drives provide
significant savings if the demand can be reduced.
15
It is also important to keep in mind the actual cost of the
kilowatt-hours (kWh) of energy being saved. In the case of
fixed price contracts or increasing rate blocks, the kWh saved
are the last ones that would have otherwise been purchased and
would usually have been charged at the highest price. However
some utilities continue to use inverted and/or fixed cost rate
structures so the actual cost per kWh is dependent on the
utilitys rate structure.
In deregulated markets where the price per kWh varies
depending on the supply and demand, each applications
energy savings will be dependant on the electric energy price
1 Introduction

for that period. For example, the volatile price in Ontario is
illustrated below:

Figure 2: Electrical Energy (kWh) and Hourly Ontario Energy
Price (HOEP) ($/kWh) Price
Courtesy of UGS Profiler, Real time monitoring

16
Figure 3: Resulting Electric Energy Cost for 24 hours
Courtesy of UGS Profiler, Real time monitoring.
Thus it is important to properly evaluate the true benefit of
energy savings since using an average energy cost can be
misleading.
1 Introduction

17
Process Flow and Operational Improvements
Often the installation of the VFD will result in operational
improvements and these efficiencies should be factored into
the savings.
Elimination of other Mechanical Control Devices
The installation of the VFD may eliminate some mechanical
control devices including valves and dampers. The costs
associated with the purchase and maintenance of these devices
also needs to be included in the VFD savings evaluation.
Advantages of using VFD: Maintenance / Useful
Life
The reduction of maintenance and downtime may be quite
substantial if an AC variable frequency drive is employed.
Contributing factors are elimination of control valves, current-
limit feature (prevents motor burnouts caused by multiple
restarts) and protection of the motor insulation (it will be
shielded from external voltage problems).
Useful equipment life, such as for bearings, can be extended by
operating at reduced speeds. Stresses and metal fatigue in the
drive train shafts will be lowered.
Improvements to VFD technology and off the shelf spares
have reduced repair time significantly and have generally not
resulted in an operation issues.
1 Introduction

18
Over-Speed Capability
The over-speed capability of variable frequency drives can save
considerable operating costs, as well as investment, if increases
in production levels occur. For example, the airflow through an
existing fan may be increased by retrofitting a VFD to the fan
motor, which will allow operation at a frequency higher than
an existing 60 Hz rating.
Considerations in applying VFDs (Tips & Cautions)
A variable frequency drive is the most cost effective choice if
the duty cycle is more evenly distributed over the entire range
of flow rates. Relative energy savings improve if the
performance and system resistance curves are steep.
Many potentially good VFD applications are passed up
because benefits other than energy savings are overlooked.
Frequently, process control and reliability far outweigh
efficiency related benefits to the user. By using the average cost
of energy in savings analyses, the savings can be understated
for variable frequency applications. Instead, both the energy
and demand charges of the local utilitys rate schedule should
be used.
For variable torque loads, the variable frequency drive savings
can be significantly greater since the horsepower varies
proportionally to the cube of the speed.
For horsepower applications above 25 HP, installation costs
are usually comparable to the total capital cost for the drive.
Below 25 HP, installation costs may be more than the cost of
the drive.
2 Classifications of Drives


19
2 CLASSIFICATIONS OF DRIVES
a. AC Drives
Variable Frequency Drives
Electronic VFDs are speed control devices which vary the
voltage and frequency to an induction motor using a technique
called Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). VFDs have become
the preferred way to achieve variable speed operation as they
are relatively inexpensive and very reliable.
VFDs use power semiconductor devices called insulated-gate
bipolar transistors (IGBT). Using PWM, the speed of the
motor and torque characteristics can be adjusted to match the
load requirements. They convert the fixed frequency AC
supply voltage to a variable frequency, variable voltage AC
supply to the motor and can regulate the speed of an induction
motor from about 10% to 200% with wider ranges possible
depending on the model and options selected.
The speed accuracy is affected by the slip of the motor,
resulting in slightly slower operation than the synchronous
speed for a given frequency. The accuracy can be increased
greatly by using tachometer feedback. Extremely precise speed
and position control of the motor shaft can be achieved by
using a VFD with Vector Control.
The VFD can provide many solutions depending on the
required application. For example, a VFD can provide the
following:
2 Classifications of Drives


20
1. Energy savings on fan and pump applications
2. Better process control and regulation
3. Speeding up or slowing down a machine or process
4. Inherent power-factor correction
5. Bypass capability in the event of an emergency
6. Protection from overload currents
7. Safe acceleration.
b. Other AC Drives
Wound Rotor Motor Control
Wound rotor motors are a special type of induction motor with
copper windings on the rotor rather than typical aluminum,
squirrel cage rotor bars.
Connections to these windings are available through a slip ring
assembly on the shaft.
If the windings are connected as a short circuit, the motor
operates like a fixed speed squirrel cage motor, but if resistance
is added to the circuit the slip of the motor increases thus
allowing the speed of the motor to be adjusted.
The energy removed from the rotor circuit during the starting
procedure is wasted in the resistors as heat.
As an alternative, an electronic circuit can be used instead of
resistors, to reduce energy wasted. This circuit recovers the
energy and feeds it back to the AC supply system, increasing
the overall efficiency of the motor operation.
2 Classifications of Drives


21
This motor control technique was once a popular method of
speed control, but has largely being replaced by electronic
VFDs.
Multi-Speed Motors
Multi-speed motors are induction motors with specially wound
stators that allow the number of magnetic poles to be changed
by reconnecting the windings of the motor.
Single winding multi-speed motors allow a speed ratio of 2:1.
Pole changing is accomplished by reconnecting the windings
which doubles the number of poles by reversing the current in
each alternate coil group. This is known as consequent pole
changing.
Two winding motors can be configured for any number of
poles, so other speed ratios are possible. Three speeds are
possible by configuring one of the two windings for
consequent pole changing. Four speeds are possible by
configuring each of the two windings for consequent pole
changing.
Because two winding multi-speed motors have to
accommodate a second set of windings, they are often larger
for a given horsepower than their single speed counterparts.
Multi-speed motors are a relatively inexpensive option where
fixed and limited discrete operating speeds are acceptable.
2 Classifications of Drives


22
Variable Voltage Speed Controllers
These controllers typically use Silicon Controlled Rectifiers
(SCRs) to control the voltage to the motor.
Under reduced voltage, a motor will slip more and thus its
speed will be reduced.
This control scheme is generally limited to fan applications
and requires a motor with high slip rotors.
The control is imprecise and has limited application to single
phase Permanent Split Capacitor (PSC) motors. These are
typically found in agricultural applications up to several HP.
Variable voltage speed controllers are no longer used in
industrial and commercial applications.
c. DC Drives
Direct current (DC) motors are inherently variable speed
machines. Speed and torque control is achieved by varying the
armature voltage, the field excitation, or both.
Traditionally, speed control for a DC motor came from a
motor-generator, or M-G set. In an M-G set, an AC motor
drives a DC generator to provide variable voltage DC for
motor operation. M-G sets are large, inefficient and require a
lot of maintenance.
M-G sets have now been replaced with microprocessor
controlled rectifier sets, which permit simple and accurate
speed control, high efficiency and reliability.
2 Classifications of Drives


23
However, due to the complexity, cost and maintenance
associated with a DC motor, they are seldom used in new
applications. Many existing DC drive applications are being
replaced with AC motors and VFDs.
New applications using DC motors and drives are usually
engineered applications where AC motors and drives cannot
fulfill a load requirement. An example is for traction drives
where the starting torque requirements exceed that available
from AC motors.
d. Eddy Current Clutches
Eddy current clutches can be used to control standard AC
squirrel-cage induction motors. However, they are low
efficiency compared to VFDs and have limited applications.
An eddy current clutch has essentially three major
components:
a steel drum directly driven by an AC motor,
a rotor with poles,
windings on the poles that provide the variable flux
required for speed control.
A voltage is applied to the pole windings to establish a flux and
thus relative motion occurs between the drum and its output
rotor.
By varying the applied voltage, the amount of torque
transmitted is varied and therefore the speed can be varied.
2 Classifications of Drives


24
f. Mechanical Speed Control
e. Advanced Motors
Advanced motors are generally classified as a group of motor
designs which require power electronics and microprocessor
control for operation. This concept was formulated many years
ago, but is only now practical with todays electronics. All
advanced motors allow for variable speed operation.
They are now starting to be used in original equipment
manufacturer applications, for instance as blower motors in
high-end heat pumps and air compressors. Some advanced
motors have become available as general purpose motors with
ratings up to about 600 HP. Examples include Switched
Reluctance motors, Electronic Commutated motors, and
Written Pole motors.
Variable speed operation of machines can be achieved by using
a fixed speed motor with a mechanical speed control device.
Examples include fluid couplings, adjustable pulley systems,
magnetic speed control, and mechanical transmissions such as
belt drives, chain drives, gear boxes, etc.
Mechanical methods of speed control require the motor to
operate at a constant speed and the choice of coupling alters
the speed for the applied load. The efficiency of the systems is
dependant on a number of factors including belt tension, type
and number of belts/chains, etc. Typical mechanical methods
have constant and preset speeds which cannot be dynamically
adjusted to variable loads. Mechanical speed control devices
typically have low efficiencies at low loads.
3 Principles of Operation AC VFD Drives


25
3 PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION - AC
VFD DRIVES
a. AC Induction Motors
An AC induction motor is constructed with a rotor that has
windings which intersect the rotating magnetic field generated
by the stator windings.
At full load speed, the rotor turns slightly slower than the
synchronous speed of the motor. This is because the magnetic
field causes currents to flow in the rotor windings and
produces a torque which turns the rotor; so if the rotor turns at
the same speed as the magnetic field, there would be no
relative motion between the rotor and the magnetic field, and
no torque would be produced.
The amount of speed by which the rotor lags the rotating
magnetic field is known as the slip of the motor. The higher
the slip, the more torque is produced by the motor.
The speed at which the magnetic field rotates depends on the
number of poles or coils distributed around the stator and the
frequency of the supply current. This is called the synchronous
speed.
Synchronous Speed = 120 x Frequency
Number of poles
Typical AC induction motor speeds are 3600, 1800, 1200, and
900 RPM.
3 Principles of Operation AC VFD Drives


The following diagram shows the torque-speed relationship of
a typical induction motor.

Figure 4: Torque-speed Curve of an Induction Motor.
b. Squirrel Cage AC Induction Motors
Most AC induction motors are squirrel cage motors.
26
The rotor windings in a squirrel cage motor are aluminum or
copper alloy bars that are positioned along the direction of the
shaft and short circuited by end rings as shown in the
following diagram.

Figure 5: Diagram of a squirrel cage rotor
3 Principles of Operation AC VFD Drives


27
The shape of the bars and the resistance of the alloy used in
their construction influences the torque-speed characteristics
of the motor.
c. Pulse Width Modulated Variable
Frequency Drives
When operated from a constant frequency power source
(typically 60Hz), AC induction motors are fixed speed devices.
A variable frequency drive controls the speed of an AC motor
by varying the frequency supplied to the motor.
The drive also regulates the output voltage in proportion to the
output frequency to provide a relatively constant ratio of
voltage to frequency (V/Hz), as required by the characteristics
of the AC motor to produce adequate torque.
The first step in this process is to convert the AC supply
voltage into DC by the use of a rectifier. DC power contains
voltage ripples which are smoothed using filter capacitors. This
section of the VFD is often referred to as the DC link.
This DC voltage is then converted back into AC. This
conversion is typically achieved through the use of power
electronic devices such as IGBT power transistors using a
technique called Pulse Width Modulation (PWM). The
output voltage is turned on and off at a high frequency, with
the duration of on-time, or width of the pulse, controlled to
approximate a sinusoidal waveform.
Older drive technologies like Current Source Inverters and
Variable Voltage Controllers used SCRs or Thyristors as
3 Principles of Operation AC VFD Drives


control devices. These technologies have now been replaced by
the PWM VFD.
The entire process is controlled by a microprocessor which
monitors the:
incoming voltage supply,
speed set-point,
DC link voltage,
output voltage and current to ensure operation of the
motor within established parameters.
Figure 6 shows a typical PWM VFD.

28


Figure 6: Block diagram of a typical PWM VFD
3 Principles of Operation AC VFD Drives


29
In the simplest drives or applications, the speed reference is
simply a set-point; however, in more complex applications, the
speed reference comes from a process controller such as a
Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) or a tachometer.
3 Principles of Operation AC VFD Drives


30


4 Selection of VFD Drives


31
4 SELECTION OF VFD DRIVES
a. Electrical Considerations When
Applying VFD to AC Motors
Successful application and maintenance of VFD drives requires
an understanding of their impact on the motor and electrical
distribution system.
The application of VFDs to induction motors can cause effects
which must be considered for successful operation. Examples
include:
The ability of a motor to cool itself effectively is
reduced as the motor is slowed down. Over-sizing the
motor or providing external forced air ventilation may
be required with extended operation at low speeds and
high loads.
Operation at different speeds can cause mechanical
resonances in driven equipment. These speeds should
be identified and programmed out of the motors
operating range.
VFDs generate harmonic voltages and currents which
can, in some cases, cause undesirable effects on the
electrical distribution system and affect equipment
operation. If a power quality problem is suspected, the
electrical system should be examined by a qualified
person. Sometimes isolation transformers, line
reactors or filtering devices will be required to
minimize these effects. Contact your local electrical
utility representative for more information.
4 Selection of VFD Drives


32
Installation of filtering devices should be considered at
the time of purchase of VFDs to minimize power
quality issues in the electrical system. A practitioner
trained in this area should be used to evaluate and
determine this requirement.
Electrical Supply to Drives
AC drives require an acceptable electrical supply for safe,
successful and reliable operation.
Single phase drives have standardized voltages of 120 and 240
volts. Three phase motors have standardized voltages of 200,
230, 460 and 575 volts.
The nominal supply voltage of the distribution system is
normally higher than the drive nameplate voltage to allow for
voltage drops from the distribution transformer to the point of
utilization.
Rated frequency is usually 60Hz (hertz or cycles per second) in
North America.
Harmonics
Harmonic distortion of voltage and current is produced in
electrical systems by non-linear loads such as VFDs, welders,
rectifiers, Uninterruptible Power Supplies (UPS), arc furnaces
etc. Harmonics cause electrical waveform distortion that can
propagate through the entire power system and even outside of
the plant.
4 Selection of VFD Drives


The source of harmonic distortion in VFDs is the solid-state
power switching devices used to generate the varying supply
frequencies.
These effects, known as line harmonic currents, are multiples
of the fundamental 60 Hz supply current. For example, a
frequency of 180 Hz is called the third harmonic. These
currents generate harmonic voltage distortions which often
exceed acceptable levels.
For more information, refer to the CEATI Power Quality
Energy Efficiency Reference Guide.
Harmonic Components

33
Figure 7: Harmonic Amplitudes
The odd harmonic amplitudes usually decrease with increasing
frequency, so the lowest order harmonics are the most
significant. Even numbered harmonics are not normally
generated by VFD drive systems.
4 Selection of VFD Drives


34
Harmonics occur as long as the harmonic generating
equipment is in operation and tend to be of a steady
magnitude.
Harmonics may be greatly magnified by power factor
correction capacitors. The supply system inductance can
resonate with capacitors at certain harmonic frequencies
developing large currents and voltages, which can damage
equipment.
Effects of Harmonics
Microprocessors, numerically controlled machines, and process
controllers all rely on accurate control signals. The presence of
harmonics can cause these devices to malfunction. Harmonics
can also cause interference with computers and improper
operation of electronic equipment. They can also cause
capacitor and fuse failure.
Motors run at higher temperatures in the presence of harmonic
currents. Motors consume more energy as they have to
overcome counter rotating torques created by odd harmonics.
This may cause premature breakdown of insulating materials
and a reduction in life. The motor will also drop in overall
efficiency, experience voltage stresses on its windings and
experience torque pulsations.
Dealing with Harmonics
If a harmonic problem is suspected, it should be confirmed
before any attempt at corrective action is taken. A fairly simple
test consists of viewing the power system waveforms on an
oscilloscope. Significant waveform distortion is an indication
4 Selection of VFD Drives


35
of harmonic presence. Power harmonic analyzers can be used
to measure the magnitude of the individual harmonics. This
work is often best left to an expert in power quality services.
There are a variety of ways in which users can resolve these
problems, after ensuring the installation meets the applicable
electrical code including adequate grounding:
Separate Supply
Ideally, loads producing harmonics, and sensitive
loads, should be supplied from entirely separate
feeders and independent transformers.

Isolation Transformers and Line Reactors
Isolation transformers and line reactors are frequently
used to protect the drive as well as the AC line from
distortion.

Filters
Harmonic filters can be used to reduce the amplitude
of one or more fixed frequency currents to prevent
them from entering the rest of the system. Filters can
be custom designed to suit the electrical environment.

Cable Length
Cable length should be kept as short as possible, i.e.,
less than 15 meters or 50 feet, wherever possible.
As a general rule of thumb, it is considered good practice to
buy a complete drive system that includes line reactors rather
than just purchasing the drive on its own. Generally a 3% to
5% impedance line reactor will prevent harmonics generated by
4 Selection of VFD Drives


36
a VFD from interfering with sensitive equipment on the
distribution system.
If non-linear loads exceed 20% of the total plant load, special
consideration should be given to performing a harmonic study
and minimizing potential harmonic impact through the use of
isolation transformers in addition to line reactors.
Specifying Drives for Harmonics
Drive specifications often cite The power conditioning
equipment shall not produce voltage distortion or notches in
excess of the limits suggested in IEEE 519, but it may be
unclear what this means for a particular installation. What
does meeting IEEE 519 mean when installing a drive on a
power system?
IEEEs Recommended Practices and Requirements for
Harmonic Control in Electric Power Systems, IEEE Std 519-
1992, is often referenced but may not be well understood.
IEEE 519-1992 contains sections on problems caused by
harmonic currents and voltages, calculation examples,
application examples, and the harmonic currents caused by
different types of power converters and non-linear loads.
From a practical drive application point of view, meeting
harmonic requirements for drives means having less than 5%
total harmonic distortion of the current at the terminals of the
drive at rated load. At low power demand with variable torque
loads, the currents total harmonic distortion (THD) may be
higher than 5% as measured by a harmonic analyzer, but the
magnitude of the harmonic current will be less than those
produced at full load.
4 Selection of VFD Drives


b. Motor Considerations
Motor Electrical Issues
Winding insulation systems are classified by their temperature
or thermal capabilities. Tests used to prove thermal properties
for low voltage systems do not stress the electrical insulation
beyond 600 volts.
Application of a PWM VFD can cause voltage transients well
above the rated voltage of the motor which can lead to failure
of the insulation system in a very short period of time.
To understand this, consider the way in which a PWM
inverter approximates a sinusoidal current waveform. The
following figures show typical voltage and current waveforms
for Pulse Width Modulation inverters.
37

Figure 8: Voltage and Current Waveforms
The voltage waveform is made up of a series of pulses
controlled by the inverters output devices. The width or
duration of these pulses is controlled to approximate a
sinusoidal current waveform. Figure 9 is a half cycle voltage
waveform for a typical PWM inverter operating on a 600 volt
system.
4 Selection of VFD Drives



Figure 9: Half Cycle Voltage Waveform for a
Typical PWM Inverter
The maximum voltage stress on the insulation system (Vm)
can be significantly higher than the motors rated voltage and
have extremely fast voltage rise times (shown in Figure 9).
Due to multiple reflections or resonance effects, the frequency
can increase due to the interactions of the PWM switching
frequency and waveshape, the cable length supplying the
motor, and the inductance of the motor.
38
A voltage reflection of up to two times the applied voltage can
occur due to standing waves or a ringing effect, and becomes
more problematic with longer cable runs (typically greater than
15 m or 50 feet).
A ringing effect creates very high voltage stresses across the
first few turns of the motor windings, and can result in interim
short-circuits and ground wall insulation failure.
This problem can be minimized by using appropriate filtering,
using motors with improved insulation systems (inverter duty
4 Selection of VFD Drives


39
motors) and ensuring that repaired motors have upgraded
insulation systems.
Many VFDs provide for user adjustment of the switching
frequency. This frequency can be adjusted over a range as
broad as 500 Hz to 20 kHz. The choice of switching frequency
can be significant because it defines the number of voltage
overshoots occurring at the motor in a certain amount of time.
Higher switching frequencies will result in higher numbers of
overshoots and higher magnitudes, which will stress the
motors insulation system. If the motors peak voltage rating is
higher than the level of the overshoot, high switching
frequency should not be a problem. If, however, the overshoot
levels are higher than the peak voltage rating of the motor, the
use of a lower switching frequency may reduce the overshoot
levels below the peak voltage rating of the motor. However,
too low a frequency may cause an audible noise from the motor
which may be undesirable in some applications such as HVAC
systems.
Factors to consider include:
reducing cable runs where possible,
using inverter output filter reactors (1%-3%
impedance is typical),
using a lower switching frequency,
for new and repaired motors, using additional lacing
on end turns, phase paper, VPI resin and pulse
resistant magnet wire enamel (triple, quad or new
heavy build),
4 Selection of VFD Drives


40
maintaining the original winding design when
rewinding motors since reducing turns increases inter-
turn voltage levels.
Motor Selection Issues
Thermal considerations of motor operation with a VFD
should be one of the first areas of attention for successful
application.
As the motor speed is reduced, the amount of cooling available
from the motors ventilation system is reduced, so motor
torque must be limited at reduced speed to avoid overheating.
In addition to the reduced cooling capability, motors have
additional internal heating due to the non-sinusoidal voltages
and currents from the inverter operation.
The application of a VFD to a variable torque load such as a
fan or centrifugal pump does not usually present problems, but
constant torque or constant horsepower loads can cause motor
overheating at reduced speeds because there is less air flow over
the motor.
It should be noted that many applications where a DC motor
has been replaced by an AC induction motor with an inverter
are of the constant torque or constant horsepower class.
Figure 10 shows the allowable torque of NEMA design A&B
motors due to reduced cooling from operating at reduced
speeds. It can be used as a guide for de-rating motors or
selecting an appropriately oversized motor.
4 Selection of VFD Drives



Figure 10: The Effect of Reduced Cooling on Torque Capability
The use of a motor with a 1.15 service factor and class F
insulation is generally recommended to allow for additional
heating due to harmonics.
The ability of a motor to cool itself effectively is reduced as the
motor is slowed down. Oversizing the motor or providing
external forced air ventilation may be required with extended
operation at low speeds and high loads.
41
Inverter duty motors are designed for optimized performance
when operated with VFDs. These motors typically have better
insulation systems and can also be forced ventilated with
auxiliary blowers available as an option. This allows them to
run cooler rather than having to oversize them when running
high torque loads.
When applying a PWM inverter it is important to check for
shaft currents on motors with frequent or unusual bearing
failures. Shaft currents are not normally a problem with motors
less than 20 in core diameter, but can become a problem with
high frequency harmonics associated with inverter use. Shaft
4 Selection of VFD Drives


42
voltages exceeding 0.3-0.5 volts may indicate potential trouble
and may require shaft grounding or insulating the non-drive
bearing.
Physical & Environmental Issues
VFDs must be selected to ensure that they have adequate
protection from their environmental conditions.
VFDs are usually mounted into an electrical enclosure with
other electrical devices, or as a standalone unit in its own
enclosure.
The National Electrical Equipment Manufacturers
Association (NEMA) has determined standard enclosure types
to protect electrical equipment and to protect people from
exposure to that equipment for standard environmental
conditions. They are designated as follows:
TYPE NEMA ENCLOSURE
1 General Purpose-indoor
2 Drip proof-indoor
3 Dust tight, Rain tight, Sleet tight-Outdoor
3R Rain proof, Sleet Resistant-Outdoor
3S Dust tight, Rain tight, Sleet proof-Outdoor
4 Watertight, Dust tight, Sleet Resistant
4X Watertight, Dust tight, Corrosion Resistant
5 Dust tight-indoor
6 Submersible, Water tight, Dust tight
6P Watertight-Prolonged Submersion
7 Class 1, Group A, B, C or D Hazardous Locations, Air-Break-Indoor
8 Class 1, Group A, B, C or D Hazardous Locations, Oil-immersed-Indoor
9 Class II, Group E, F, or G Hazardous Locations Air-Break-Indoor
10 Bureau of Mines
11 Corrosion-Resistant and Drip proof Oil-Immersed
4 Selection of VFD Drives


43
TYPE NEMA ENCLOSURE
12 Industrial Use, Dust tight and Drip tight-Indoor
12K Industrial Use, Dust tight and Drip tight with knockouts
13 Oil tight and Dust tight-Indoor

The following is a more detailed description for commonly
used enclosure types:
Type 1Enclosures constructed for indoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against
access to hazardous parts and to provide a degree of
protection for the equipment inside the enclosure
against ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt).
Type 2Enclosures constructed for indoor use to
provide a degree of protection to personnel against
access to hazardous parts, to provide a degree of
protection of the equipment inside the enclosure
against the ingress of solid foreign objects (falling dirt)
and to provide a degree of protection with respect to
harmful effects on the equipment due to the ingress of
water (dripping and light splashing).
Type 3Enclosures constructed for either indoor or
outdoor use to provide a degree of protection to
personnel against access to hazardous parts, to provide
a degree of protection of the equipment inside the
enclosure against ingress of solid foreign objects
(falling dirt and windblown dust), to provide a degree
of protection with respect to harmful effects on the
equipment due to the ingress of water (rain, sleet,
snow) and that will be undamaged by the external
formation of ice on the enclosure.
Type 4XEnclosures constructed for either indoor
or outdoor use to provide a degree of protection to
4 Selection of VFD Drives


44
personnel against access to hazardous parts, to provide
a degree of protection of the equipment inside the
enclosure against ingress of solid foreign objects
(windblown dust), to provide a degree of protection
with respect to harmful effects on the equipment due
to the ingress of water (rain, sleet, snow, splashing
water, and hose directed water), that provide an
additional level of protection against corrosion and
that will be undamaged by the external formation of
ice on the enclosure.
In addition to protection from contamination and ingress of
dirt, dust, water, etc., operation within the following limits
would be considered usual operating conditions:
1. Exposure to an ambient temperature in the range of
-15C to 40C.
2. Exposure to an altitude which does not exceed
3300 feet (1000 meters).
3. Installation on a rigid mounting surface.
4. Installation in areas or supplementary enclosures
which do not seriously interfere with the ventilation of
the drive.
Vibration and Resonance
There is a general assumption that slowing down rotating
equipment leads to less wear and tear and hence promotes
better maintenance conditions. Frequently, equipment life can
be extended through the benefits of variable speed. However,
there are a number of detrimental mechanical conditions that
can arise when equipment is slowed down.
4 Selection of VFD Drives


45
Most machines are designed to operate at a speed which is
selected at a calculated safe margin below the first critical
speed or natural frequency of the shaft.
In certain cases, to facilitate shaft design, some high speed
machines are designed to operate between the first and second
critical speeds. A speed reduction for a machine of this type
could result in operation at the first critical speed.
For larger installations, contact should be made with the
machine manufacturer to ensure that the critical speeds are
known and dealt with appropriately.
Resolving vibration and resonance usually involves
programming the VFD so that it will not operate equipment in
the critical speed range.
If the design data cannot be located, field tests should be
performed or the complete apparatus should be measured and
the critical speeds recalculated.
4 Selection of VFD Drives


46


5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


47
5 APPLICATION CONSIDERATIONS
AND ESTIMATED SAVINGS FOR
VFD DRIVES
a. Driven Load Characteristics and Power
Requirements
The behaviour of torque and horsepower with respect to speed
partially determines the requirements of the motor-drive
system.
Horsepower = RPM x Torque (ft-lb)
5250

1 Horsepower (HP) = 746 Watts = 0.746 kWatts

Power (kW) = RPM x Torque (kgfm) = RPM x Torque (Nm)
5250 9555
= RPM Torque (ft-lb)
3917
This torque formula implies that the torque is proportional to
the horsepower rating and inversely proportional to the speed.
We can categorize drive applications by their operational
torque requirements:
Constant Torque Loads
Constant Horsepower Loads
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


Variable Torque Loads where torque is the amount of
turning force required by the load.
Efficiency of Electric Motors and Drives
Constant Torque Loads

Figure 11: Constant Torque Load
48 A constant torque load is characterized as one in which the
torque is constant regardless of speed. As a result the
horsepower requirement is directly proportional to the
operating speed of the application and varies directly with
speed. Since torque is not a function of speed, it remains
constant while the horsepower and speed vary proportionately.
Typical examples of constant torque applications include:
Conveyors
Extruders
Mixers
Positive displacement pumps and compressors
Some of the advantages VFDs offer in constant torque
applications include precise speed control and starting and
stopping with controlled acceleration/deceleration.
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


For constant torque loads the speed range is typically 10:1.
These applications usually result in moderate energy savings at
lower speeds.
Constant Horsepower Loads

Figure 12: Constant Horsepower Load
The second type of load characteristic is constant power. In
these applications the torque requirement varies inversely with
speed. As the torque increases the speed must decrease to have
a constant horsepower load. The relationship can be written as:
49
Power = speed x torque x constant
Examples of this type of load would be a lathe or drilling and
milling machines where heavy cuts are made at low speed and
light cuts are made at high speed.
These applications do not offer energy savings at reduced
speeds.
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


Variable Torque Loads

Figure 13: Variable Torque Load
The third type of load characteristic is a variable torque load.
Examples include centrifugal fans, blowers and pumps. The
use of a VFD with a variable torque load may return significant
energy savings.
In these applications:
50
Torque varies directly with speed squared
Power varies directly with speed cubed
This means that at half speed, the horsepower required is
approximately one eighth of rated maximum.
Throttling a system by using a valve or damper is an inefficient
method of control because the throttling device dissipates
energy which has been imparted to the fluid. A variable
frequency drive simply reduces the total energy into the system
when it is not needed.
In addition to the major energy saving potential, a
drive also offers the benefits of increased process
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


control often impacting on product quality and
reducing scrap.
For variable torque loads a 3:1 speed range is typical.
Efficiencies of Motors and Drives
The full load efficiency of AC electric motors range from
around 80% for the smallest motors to over 95% for motors
over 100 HP. The efficiency of an electric motor drops
significantly as the load is reduced below 40%. Good practice
dictates that motors should be sized so that full load operation
corresponds to 75% of the rated power of the motor. Figure 14
is a typical curve of motor efficiency versus loading.

51
Figure 14: Typical Efficiency of a 10 HP Induction Motor Standard
Efficiency Versus the Load
The efficiency of an electric motor and drive system is the ratio
of mechanical output power to electrical input power and is
most often expressed as a percentage.
Output
Mechanical

Motor System Efficiency = x 100%
Input
Electrical

5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


52
A VFD is very efficient. Typical efficiencies of 97% or more
are available at full load. At reduced loads the efficiency drops.
Typically, VFDs over 10 HP have over 90% efficiency for
loads greater than 25% of full load. This is the operating range
of interest for practical applications.
The following table shows the efficiency of typical VFDs at
various loads.
PWM VFD Efficiency as a Function of VFD Power Rating
VFD HP rating Efficiency %
Load, Percent of Drive Rated Power Output
12.5 25 50 75 100
1
5
10
25
50
75
100
200
.48
.80
.83
.88
.86
.86
.89
.91
.74
.88
.90
.93
.92
.94
.94
.95
.84
.92
.94
.95
.95
.97
.96
.96
.87
.94
.95
.96
.96
.97
.96
.97
.89
.95
.96
.97
.96
.97
.97
.97
Table from the U.S. Department of Energys Industrial Technologies
Program Motor Tip Sheet No. 12: Use Adjustable Speed Drive Part-
Load Efficiency When Determining Energy Saving (2005 draft
version).
The system efficiency is lower than the product of motor
efficiency and VFD efficiency because the motor efficiency
varies with load and because of the effects of harmonics on the
motor.
Unfortunately, it is nearly impossible to know what the motor/
drive system efficiency will be, but because the power input to
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


53
a variable torque system drops so remarkably with speed, an
estimate of the system efficiencies is really all that is needed.
When calculating the energy consumption of a motor drive
system, estimated system efficiency in the range of 80-90 %
can be used with motors ranging from 10 HP and larger and
loads of 25% and greater.
In general, lower efficiency ranges correspond to small motor
sizes and loads and higher efficiency ranges corresponds to
larger motors and loads.
b. Comparison with Conventional Control
Methods
Estimating Energy Savings
Fans and pumps are designed to be capable of meeting the
maximum demand of the system in which they are installed.
However, quite often the actual demand could vary and be
much less than the designed capacity. These conditions are
accommodated by adding outlet dampers to fans or throttling
valves to pumps.
These are effective and simple controls, but severely affect the
efficiency of the system.
Using a VFD to control the fan or pump is a more efficient
means of flow control than simple valves or inlet or outlet
dampers. The power input to fans and pumps varies with the
cube of the speed, so even seemingly small changes in speed
can greatly impact the power required by the load. The table
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


below shows the power required by a fan or pump as the speed
of the machine is reduced.
Speed of Fan/Pump Mechanical Power Required
100% 100%
90% 73%
75% 42%
50% 13%
Power Required by Fan/pump as a Function of Speed
In addition to major energy savings potential, a drive also
offers built-in power factor correction, better process control
and motor protection.
The most common application is the centrifugal fan or pump
that imparts energy in to the working fluid by centrifugal force.
This results in an increase in pressure and produces air flow at
the outlet of the fan or liquid flow from a pump.
54
Figure 15 is an example of what a typical centrifugal fan can
produce at its outlet at a given speed.

Figure 15: Plot of Outlet Pressure Versus the Flow of Air
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


55
Standard fan and pump curves will usually show a number of
curves for different speeds, efficiencies and power
requirements. These are all useful for selecting the optimum
fan or pump for any application. They also are needed to
predict operation and other parameters when the operation is
changed.
Figure 15 also shows a system curve added to the fan curve.
The system curve is not a product of the fan, but a curve
showing the requirements of the system that the fan is used on.
It shows how much pressure is required from the fan to
overcome system losses and produce an air flow.
The fan curve is a plot of fan capability independent of a
system. The system curve is a plot of load requirement
independent of the fan. The intersection of these two curves is
the natural operating point. It is the actual pressure and flow
that will occur at the fan outlet when this system is operated.
Without external influences, the fan will operate only at this
point.
Many systems however require operation at a wide variety of
points. Figure 16 illustrates a profile of the typical variations in
flow experienced in a typical system. How these variations are
produced and controlled will have a direct effect on the energy
saved.
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives



Figure 16: Variations in Flow
There are several methods used to modulate or vary the flow of
a system to achieve the optimum points. Some of these
include:
Outlet dampers on fans and valves on pumps
Inlet dampers or guide vanes on fans
VFD control
56
Each of these methods affects either the system curve or the
fan curve to produce a different natural operating point. In so
doing, they also may change the fans efficiency and the power
requirements.
Outlet Dampers and Valve Throttle Positions
The outlet dampers on a fan system and valves on a pump
system affect the system curve by increasing the resistance to
flow through their throttling action.
The system curve is a simple function that can be stated as
P = K x (Flow)
2
. P is the pressure required to produce a given
flow in the system. K is a function of the system and represents
the friction to air flow. The outlet vanes affect the K portion of
the formula.
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


Figure 17 shows several different system curves indicating
different throttle positions.

Figure 17: Pressure Versus Flow
Figure 18 presents a curve of the power requirement for this
type of operation. From this curve, it can be seen that the
power decreases gradually as the flow is decreased. At 50%
flow 80% power is required.
57

Figure 18: Pressure Versus Flow Curve
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


Variable Inlet Vanes
This method modifies the fan curve so that it intersects the
system curve at a different point.
There is no equivalent on a pumping system as throttling
valves are never placed on the suction side of a pump.
Figure 19 illustrates several different system curves indicating
different throttle positions.

58
Figure 19: Fan Versus Inlet Vane Setting
Figure 20 shows that the power required by this method drops
and to a greater extent than it did in the outlet throttle
method. At 50% flow 60% power is required.

Figure 20: Fan and Inlet Vane Settings Curve
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


59
Variable Frequency Drives
This method takes advantage of the change in the fan or pump
curve that occurs when the speed of the machine is changed.
These changes are quantified in a set of formulas called the
affinity laws. These laws are as follows:
Q
1
=N
1
P
1
= (N
1
)
2
HP
1
= (N
1
)
3

Q
2
N
2
P
2
(N
2
)
2
HP
2
(N
2
)
3

Where: N = Speed
Q = Flow
P = Pressure
HP = Power
Note: when the flow and pressure laws are combined, the
result is a formula that matches the system curve formula:
SYSTEM Pressure CURVE P = K x (N)
2
.
Thus the machine will follow the system curve when its speed
is changed.
Figure 21 is a representation of the adjustable-speed method.
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives



Figure 21: Adjustable-Speed Method
Figure 22 illustrates the significant reduction in power
achieved by this method. The theoretical power formula from
the affinity laws shows the effect of the cube functions.
Experience has shown that the actual power requirement will
approximate a square function due to real life system effects
like static back pressure or head, and friction so the affinity law
for most real life applications is:
60
Q
1
=N
1
P
1
= (N
1
)
2
HP
1
= (N
1
)
2

Q
2
N
2
P
2
(N
2
)
2
HP
2
(N
2
)
2

Where: N = Speed
Q = Flow
P = Pressure
HP = Power
For most applications that a user will consider, the square law
approximation should be used. Only fans with little or no static
pressure, such as cooling tower fans and roof vent fans with
domes, or pumps with no static head like discharge pumps will
approximate a cube function.
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives



Figure 22: Square Law Approximation
The adjustable-speed method achieves flow control in a way
that closely matches system or load curve. At 50% flow only
25% of the power is required.
This allows the fan or pump to produce the desired results
with the minimum of input power.
61
The other two methods modify some system parameter which
generally results in a reduction of the machines efficiency.
This is why the power demand is greater than the adjustable-
speed method.
Calculation of Energy Savings
It is now appropriate to estimate the power consumption and
then compare the power consumption for each of the various
methods to determine potential savings.
The fan selected for this example is a unit operating at
300 RPM producing a 100 percent flow rating of
2,500 m
3
/min, with a motor shaft power requirement of
25 kW. Pumps would be dealt with in a similar manner using
the appropriate pump curve.
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


62
The fan will operate 8,000 hours per year. With no control
available and at an energy cost of $0.10/kWh, the annual
electricity cost will be:
(25 kW) (8,000 hrs) ($0.10/kWhr) = $20,000 /year
To determine the potential savings from a control method, a
load profile must be developed. For this example, the following
load profile is determined:
Flow Duty Cycle
100% 20%
75% 40%
50% 40%

Required Power
For each operating point, a required power from the fan curve
can be obtained (from the preceding curves for each control
scheme).
This power is multiplied by the percent of time that the fan
operates at this point. These calculations are then summed to
produce a weighted power that represents the average energy
consumption of the fan.
From the outlet damper curve (Figure 18), the weighted power
calculations for the outlet damper method are as follows:
% Flow % Duty Cycle Power Required (kW) Weighted Power (kW)
100 20 25 (1.00) = 25.0 25.0 (0.2) = 5.0
75 40 25 (0.96) = 24.0 24.0 (0.4) = 9.6
50 40 25 (0.88) = 22.0 22.0 (0.4) = 8.8
Average Annual Power 23.4 kW
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


63
The weighted power calculations for the variable inlet vane
(Figure 20) method are as follows:
% Flow % Duty Cycle Power Required (kW) Weighted Power (kW)
100 20 25 (1.00) = 25.0 25.0 (0.2) = 5.0
75 40 25 (0.73) = 18.3 18.3 (0.4) = 9.6
50 40 25 (0.60) = 15.0 15.0 (0.4) = 6.0
Average Annual Power 20.6 kW

The weighted power calculations for the VFD (Figure 22)
method are as follows:
% Flow % Duty Cycle Power Required (kW) Weighted Power (kW)
100 20 25 (1.00) = 25.0 25.0 (0.2) = 5.0
75 40 25 (0.55) = 13.8 18.3 (0.4) = 5.5
50 40 25 (0.25) = 6.3 15.0 (0.4) = 2.5
Average Annual Power 13.0 kW

The annual cost of operation for the three control methods are
as follows:
Outlet Dampers : 23.4 kW x $0.10/kWhr x 8000 Hours x $18,720
Inlet Dampers : 20.6 kW x $0.10/kWhr x 8000 Hours x $16,480
VFD Control : 13.0 kW x $0.10/kWhr x 8000 Hours x $10,400
The savings from these control methods are as follows:
Control Type Annual Operating Cost Annual Savings
None $20,000 0
Outlet Dampers $18,720 $1,280
Inlet Dampers $16,480 $3,520
VFD Control $10,400 $9,600

The above calculations use a simple blended cost for
electricity. How your utility charges for electricity usually
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


64
depends on a number of factors including demand, energy,
time of use and other factors. Your local utility representative
should be contacted for more detail on how to calculate your
electricity cost.
VFD Savings Software
Software is available from several VFD manufacturers,
suppliers and in some cases local utilities along with
government organizations.
These resources are very useful for estimating energy savings
and exploring control options. Several will allow performance
data to be input when it is available to make the analysis even
more accurate.
Each source of software assumes a basic understanding of
VFD technology and a thorough understanding of the
application.
c. Monitoring and Verification
It is important to establish a Measurement and Verification
plan (M&V) ahead of the project execution for several reasons,
including:
1. Proving the estimated savings is achieved.
2. Meeting conservation and demand management
incentive application requirements.
3. Obtaining support for future projects through
demonstrating success.
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


65
Energy savings are determined by comparing the energy use
before the project starts (base case) and then again after the
installation of the energy conservation measures (post project).
Proper determination of savings includes adjusting for changes
that affect energy use but that are not caused by the
conservation measures. Adjustments will vary on the
application and include considerations such as weather,
product or occupancy conditions between the baseline and post
installation periods.
M&V activities generally take place in the following steps:
1. Define the pre-installation baseline, including:
a) equipment and systems
b) baseline energy use (and cost)
c) factors that influence baseline energy use.
The baseline can be defined through site surveys, spot,
short-term, or long term metering and/or analysis of
billing data.
2. Define the post-project installation situation,
including:
a) equipment and systems
b) post-installation energy use (and cost)
c) factors that influence post installation energy
use.
3. Site surveys, spot, short-term, or long-term metering,
and/or analysis of billing data can be used for the
post-installation assessment.
4. Conduct ongoing M&V activities to verify the
operation of the installed equipment/systems,
determine current year savings, and estimate savings
for subsequent years.
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


66
NOTE: Adding a VFD is often part of an equipment upgrade.
This can affect process flow or related operations. It is
important that the post project energy use is equally adjusted
to match the pre-installation operating conditions.
Measurement and verification can be a fairly complex process
and the success of the current VFD project or future energy
efficiency projects may depend upon an accurate and detailed
measurement and verification process. It must be included as
part of the project costs. It is recommended that a professional
practitioner be used to ensure that the measurements are done
correctly. Usually the costs associated with the M & V can be
recovered from available incentives.
The CEATI Energy Savings Measurement Guide provides
details on the process for undertaking measurement and
verification of the project.
d. System Efficiency
System efficiency is defined as the ratio of the units of product
produced by that system to the electrical energy drawn by a
system. To determine any difference, subtract the old system
efficiency from the new.
If the number is negative, then the system efficiency has
declined since the system optimization. The outcome should
always be positive.
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


67
e. Electrical Efficiency
The electrical efficiency improvement is determined by
comparing the base case measured electrical consumption with
the electrical use determined during the project evaluation
metering.
Efficiency Improvement = Post Project Efficiency
Base Case Efficiency
f. Cost Per Unit Product
This calculation incorporates billing data to give a dollar value
to the optimization. Using the formula presented in the base
case, apply the post-project metering data.
[Demand Charge for Motor + (OP kWh * OP Rate +
FP kWh x FP Rate)]
Divided by:
# of Units Produced per Day
OP Rate = the rate per kWh of on-peak energy
consumption
FP Rate = the rate per kWh off off-peak energy
consumption
To compare against the base case, subtract the base case
number from the post-optimization number. If the resulting
number is negative, then the cost per unit product has
increased. The number should always be positive.
5 Application Considerations and Estimated Savings for VFD Drives


68
g. Reliability and Maintenance
Solid-state electronics in VFDs are relatively maintenance free.
Most drive manufacturers supply built-in diagnostics as well as
protection relays and fuses.
When service is required, trained personnel are needed to
troubleshoot and repair the drive.
Routine maintenance may include cleaning/replacing filters
where fitted in addition to standard electrical maintenance
activities such as cleaning and inspection on a regular basis.
When repairing electric motors being operated by VFDs, the
repair shop should utilize inverter duty magnet wire in any
rewinds. In addition, they should not reduce the number of
turns in coil groups as this increases the electrical stress per
turn in the winding.
If the motor failed due to overheating, consideration should be
given as to whether sufficient cooling is available to the motor.
Fitting an external cooling fan or over-sizing the motor are
two options that may be considered.
Your drive supplier or motor repair shop will be able to provide
assistance for any service problems.

6 Case Studies


69
6 CASE STUDIES
a. Case Study: Replacement of Eddy-
Current Drive with a VFD
Company Background
The company is a 100,000 square foot plant that produces
approximately 1 million linear feet of stainless steel tubing per
month for its customers in the automotive, food,
pharmaceutical and petrochemical industries.
Project Overview
The production process consists of drawing stainless steel
tubing through dies to reduce their diameter and/or wall
thickness. This drawing process is carried out on a drawbench.
Each tube typically goes through several breaking draws which
rapidly form the tube close to its final dimensions. Next, the
tube undergoes a few final finishing draws to achieve the
exact tube size. The drawbench used for breaking draws
operates 24/5, performing approximately 1,200 draws per day.
The breaking drawbench was powered by a 150 HP motor
running at 1,800 rpm. This motor was coupled to a speed
reducer through an eddy current clutch which is known to be
an inefficient although reliable technology.
6 Case Studies


70
Approach
The implementation team used data collected by the plant
engineering department to analyze the existing system. This
included observing the operation of other equipment similar to
the breaking drawbench and noting where similar operating
parameters could be applied to the breaking drawbench.
Due to the wide variety of tube diameters, wall thickness,
material used and orders received each week, a single
representative product does not exist. To obtain data
representative of actual operation, the project team randomly
selected orders and then performed a detailed analysis of the
intermediate steps to which the tubing undergoes. The team
compared the power requirement that plant engineering
measured in the base case study against the measured system
power requirements.
Project Implementation
A VFD using vector drive options was selected as it can
continuously monitor the current, voltage and angular position
of the AC induction motors. Prior to the development of
vector drive controls, only DC motors, which are less reliable
and required more maintenance than their AC counterparts,
could be used in applications requiring accurate torque and
speed control. Today, vector drive options are a regular feature
of VFDs.
In order to accomplish the project goals, the team replaced the
magnetic starter and eddy current clutch with a VFD vector
drive and line reactor. A line reactor was included as a system
specification to avoid and harmonic issues on the distribution
6 Case Studies


71
system. The plant engineer also wanted to increase the torque
output to the drawbench, improve overall drive efficiency, and
reduce energy consumption, so the standard efficiency
150 HP, 1,800 rpm motor was replaced with a high efficiency
200 HP, 1,200 rpm motor. The lower speed motor was chosen
as it produces greater torque than the higher speed motor.
Results
As a result of the changes implemented by the team, the
breaking drawbench now requires less energy to draw a tube,
even though the motor size was increased from 150 HP to .
For a typical draw, the eddy current coupling system required
190 HP to draw a tube, while the more efficient VFD drive
requires less than 90 HP. The projected total annual operating
time was also reduced by 623 hours as a result of the
modifications, since the greater horsepower available enabled
many of the tubes to be reduced to the desired size with a
smaller number of draws.
The modifications reduced the breaking drawing benchs total
annual energy consumption from 439,065 kWh to
290,218 kWh and reduced the total annual electricity costs by
34 percent from the base case cost of $20,812.
An estimated 2,762 hours of labor per year will be saved as the
result of these changes. Personnel estimate that one draw was
eliminated from 1/2 of the orders processed. Time is not only
saved through the reduced number of draws required to
break a tube, but is also saved other operations required by
the drawing process, such as degreasing, cut-off, swaging, and
annealing. Assuming a labour rate of $8.50 per hour, the
labour reduction amounts to labour cost savings of $23,473 per
6 Case Studies


72
b. Case Study: Replacement of Damper
Controls with VFDs in an HVAC System
year. The reduced number of draws necessary also saved an
estimated $41,322 of stainless steel, as fewer draws equate to
fewer swaged ends cut off (waste) after each draw. Including
other direct savings of $5,415, the total cost savings is $77,266.
When measured against the projects $34,000 cost, the simple
payback came in at about 6 months.
Energy and Cost Savings
Project Implementation Costs $34,000
Annual Energy Cost Savings $7,056
Annual non-energy cost savings (labour & scrap) $70,210
Simple Payback (years) 1/2
Demand Savings (kW) 189
Annual Energy Savings (kWh) 148,847
Company Background
A small textile processing plant processing raw fiber wanted to
improve the HVAC system performance in its plant. The
company worked with a VFD specialist to retrofit 15 of the
systems fan motors with variable frequency drives (VFDs). As
the plant operated 24/7, savings on the HVAC system could
be cost efficient and provide better space conditioning and air
quality for its workers.
Project Overview
The ventilation system uses nine supply fans and nine return
fans to control and maintain proper ambient conditions, cool
6 Case Studies


73
process machinery and provide proper air quality to its
workers. Initially, a mixture of return air and fresh air is
cleaned, cooled and humidity adjusted by four air washers.
This air is then supplied to the facility by the nine supply fans
and distributed to the plant through ceiling mounted ducts and
diffusers. Nine return fans pull air through the processing area
into a network of ducts. Any suspended particulate is filtered
out at the inlet of each return fan.
Factors that influence the pressure, volume or resistance of the
system directly impact the fan power requirements. Therefore,
air density, changes to damper positions, system pressure and
air filter pressure drops, supply and return air system
interaction and parallel fan operation all affect how much
power the fans require and must be monitored to ensure the
efficient functioning of the system. Variable inlet guide vanes
and outlet dampers initially controlled the systems air flow,
but were highly inefficient. Setting these devices was imprecise
and resetting them could only be done manually.
Approach
To determine how to improve ventilation system performance,
the company and VFD specialist collected base case system
data over two weeks to measure the performance of the
existing system. Motor power was electronically logged,
damper positions were manually recorded based on visual
inspection of the damper linkages and power was measured on
each fan at ten minute intervals. These data were analyzed and
the team then developed a load duty cycle to calculate energy
demand, operating hours (peak, and off-peak periods) and
annual energy consumption during this period for both the
6 Case Studies


74
return fans and supply fans. This data was later compared to
the new system data, collected from after installation.
Project Implementation
After determining that the ventilation systems fans were
significantly oversized, the team retrofitted 15 of the 18 fans
with VFDs. The remaining fans always ran at full flow and did
not need VFDs. A power and energy measurement was
connected to each of the VFDs to gather load data for the new
system. The system logged each fans speed and power
consumption in 15 minute intervals and savings analysis
reports were generated. With the VFDs installed, damper
control was no longer necessary so the fan control dampers
were left fully opened.
Results
Installation of the VFDs reduced the ventilation systems total
electricity demand from approximately 322 kW to 133 kW, a
59 percent reduction. The total annual energy consumption for
the fans similarly fell 59 percent from approximately
2,700,000 kWh to 1,100,000 kWh. The energy efficiency
gains were possible because the VFDs enabled plant personnel
to fully open the fan control dampers and reduced fan speed.
This resulted in a large drop in power consumption and
allowed the system to operate more efficiently. These
electricity savings translated to annual energy cost savings of
about $101,000. The cost of the project was $130,000 and
included:
Cost of the feasibility study
Capital cost
6 Case Studies


75
Installation cost
Engineering
M&V activities
The simple payback for the projects cost was 1.3 years.
Energy and Cost Savings
Project Implementation Costs $130,000
Annual Energy Cost Savings $101,000
Simple Payback (years) 1.3
Demand Savings (kW) 189
Annual Energy Savings (kWh) 1,579,400
c. Case Study: Replacement of Vacuum
Pump Controls with a VFD in a Dairy
Facility
Company Background
A dairy farm uses a vacuum system to operate automatic
milking equipment that milks cows and sends the milk to a
holding tank. Prior to undertaking the project, the dairy
vacuum system was utilizing a vacuum pump with a 30 HP
motor that controlled vacuum levels by bleeding in air from the
atmosphere, which is standard practice in the industry.
Project Overview
Modern dairy milking systems used in dairy farms utilize a
vacuum for automatically milking the animals. In typical dairy
vacuum milking systems, several milking units are attached to
the animals with teat cups and a vacuum is introduced into the
6 Case Studies


76
milking lines by a vacuum pump which draws milk from the
teats into a storage tank.
The vacuum pump is driven by a constant speed AC motor.
To maintain the stable vacuum needed for milking cows, air
must be removed from the system at the same rate at which it
leaks into the system. Air typically enters the system through
pulsators, leaks and units becoming detached from animals.
Conventional vacuum control is accomplished by running a
constant speed vacuum pump sized to the largest possible
airflow and allowing air to bleed into the system through a
pressure regulating system.
With some technical assistance from their utility, the farm
examined their vacuum pumping system to determine whether
it was operating efficiently. The evaluation determined that the
systems motor was oversized for the required vacuum and the
farm could lower its energy costs with a smaller, more efficient
system.
Project Implementation
Using the recommendations provided, the farm decided to
implement a system which reduced the motor size and
operated with a VFD. The motor was replaced with a new,
energy efficient 20 HP motor. In addition, the farm installed a
VFD on the new motor to adjust the pumping system speed
based on the system load. The dairy could have installed a
larger VFD on the existing 30 HP motor, but that would have
increased the capital cost and missed the opportunity for a
more efficient motor.
6 Case Studies


77
Project Results
The implementation of the new vacuum pump system resulted
in energy savings and more efficient production for the farm.
While the original system drew 16 kW, the new system never
uses more than 4.5 kW, even during peak needs. The farm was
able to decrease the horsepower required by the vacuum system
by 30% of the systems total capacity without any decrease in
vacuum pressure or system capacity. In addition, the VFD was
able to change the pumps speed to more precisely match the
process vacuum requirements.
The projects implementation has allowed the farm to achieve
annual energy savings of $5,520 and 55,000 kWh, representing
over 70% of the electricity used by that system. With a total
cost of $8,200 the simple payback was only 1.5 years. The
project also reduced maintenance costs and will lead to
increased equipment life.
Energy and Cost Savings
Project Implementation Costs $8,200
Annual Energy Cost Savings $5,520
Simple Payback (years) 1.5
Demand Savings (kW) 11.5
Annual Energy Savings (kWh) 55,000
6 Case Studies


78

Appendix A: Bibliography


79
APPENDIX A: BIBLIOGRAPHY
Canadian Electrical Code, Canadian Standards Association
CSA C390 Energy Efficient Test Methods for Three
Phase Induction Motors, Canadian Standards Association
EASA Technical Manual, Electrical Apparatus Service
Association, St. Louis
IEEE 519 Recommended Practices and Requirements for
Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems, Institute of
Electrical and Electronic Engineers, New York
IEEE Standard 112 Test Procedure for Polyphase
Induction Motors and Generators, Institute of Electrical and
Electronic Engineers, New York
NEMA Standard MG1, Motors and Generators, National
Electrical Manufacturers Association, Washington DC
NEMA Standard MG10, Energy Management Guide for
Selection and Use of Polyphase Motors, National Electrical
Manufacturers Association, Washington DC
Variable Frequency Drives Application Guide, Electric
Power Research Institute, Palo Alto California
Robert S Carrow: Electricians Technical Reference:
Variable Frequency Drives, Delmar Thomson Learning
ISBN07668 1923 X
Appendix A: Bibliography


80

Appendix B: Useful Web Sites


81
APPENDIX B: USEFUL WEB SITES
www.energyefficiency.org
The Canadian Energy Efficiency Centre was created by the
Canadian Energy Efficiency Alliance to help facilitate and ease
access to energy efficiency information and resources. The
Alliance promotes and advances energy efficiency and its
related benefits to the economy and the environment.
www1.eere.energy.gov/industry/
The Industrial Technologies Program works with U.S.
industry to improve industrial energy efficiency and
environmental performance.
www.ieee.org
A non-profit organization, IEEE is the worlds leading
professional association for the advancement of technology.
www.nema.org
NEMA is the trade association of choice for the electrical
manufacturing industry, and is the largest trade association for
manufacturers of electrical products in the United States.
www.electrofed.com/councils/EEMAC/
The Electrical Equipment Manufacturers Association of
Canada (EEMAC) is the meeting place for over 80 companies
involved in the manufacturing and sale of electrical products,
systems, and components in Canada. EEMAC focuses on the
economic well-being of the industry.
Appendix B: Useful Web Sites


82
http://www.midamericanenergy.com/pdf/ee_VFD_manuf.pdf
Utility Case Studies, such as this one offers further examples as
the VFD installed in a rubber manufacturing plant.
http://www.bchydro.com/business/investigate/investigate7
80.html
BC Hydros Power Smart program uses services such as
E Source to provide customer information, such as the one
above on Variable Speed Drives.
http://www.hydro.mb.ca/pop/pop_profile_whiteshell_labs.pdf
http://www.hydro.mb.ca/pop/pop_profile_prairie_forest.pdf
Utilities often provide case studies of the services that they
support, such as Manitoba Hydros case studies on a VFD
application. Contacting your utility may provide additional
support such as monitoring, system information, etc.
http://www.Energy-Efficiency.com
Presentations and useful references are available that support
the triple bottom line that energy efficiency provides, i.e.:
Economic Prosperity
Environmental Performance
Social Responsibility
http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/industrial/equipment/vfd/index.cfm
?attr=24
Natural Resources Canadas Office of Energy Efficiency offers
online help such as:
Description
Estimated Savings
Purchasing Tips
Appendix B: Useful Web Sites


83
Other useful links including manufacturing.
http://oee.nrcan.gc.ca/Publications/infosource/Pub/ici/eii/
M92-242-2002-11E.pdf
Fact sheets such as the above provide additional support.
http://www.pumpsystemsmatter.org/content_detail.aspx?id
=150
There are many more resources, such as the Hydraulic
Institute which is a market transformation initiative created to
assist North American pump system users gain a more
competitive business advantage through strategic, broad-based
energy management and pump system performance
optimization. A primary objective of the initiative is to change
the decision-making process for the purchase of pumping
systems and additional resources, such as the VFD is available.
http://www.ceati.com/eerg.php
Energy Efficiency Guides, such as this one, are available free
to download from the CEATI website.
Appendix B: Useful Web Sites


84

Appendix C: Industry Acronyms and Glossary of Terms


85
APPENDIX C: INDUSTRY
ACRONYMS AND GLOSSARY OF
TERMS
Industry Acronyms
AC = alternating current
ANSI = American National Standards Institute
ASD = adjustable speed drive
BHP = brakehorsepower
CFM = cubic feet per minute
CSA = Canadian Standards Association
CSI = current source inverter
DC = direct current
DSP = digital signal processor
ECC = eddy current coupling
FPM = feet per minute
GPM = gallon per minute
GTO = gate turnoff (thyristor)
HDF = harmonic distortion factor
IGBT = insulated gate bi-thermal thyristor
IEEE = Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers
LCI = load-commutated inverter
NEMA = National Electrical Manufacturers Association
NPV = net present value
PAM = pulse amplitude modulation
PLC = programmable logic controller
PWM = pulse width modulated (inverter)
SCR = silicon-controlled rectifier
SR = switched reluctance
Appendix C: Industry Acronyms and Glossary of Terms


86
THD = total harmonic distortion
V = voltage
VSI = variable source inverter
VVI = variable voltage inverter
Glossary of Terms
Alternating Current: The flow of electricity which changes
direction on a regular continuous cycle reaching a maximum in
one direction, decreasing to zero, then reversing to reach a
maximum in the opposite direction.
Air Gap: The space between the rotating and stationary part
of an electric motor. Magnetic energy is transferred across this
gap.
Ambient: The air which surrounds a motor for air cooled
machines.
Ampere: A unit of current which is a measure of the rate of
electron flow. It is often abbreviated as Amp. The unit of
current flow is the amp.
Breakdown Torque: The maximum torque that a motor can
develop at rated voltage without stalling or an abrupt drop in
speed.
Brush: A current carrying material which is in contact with an
armature or slip ring assembly to provide an electrical
connection between rotating and stationary components of a
motor.
Appendix C: Industry Acronyms and Glossary of Terms


87
Capacitor: A device which can store electrical charge. In an
AC circuit, a capacitor causes the voltage to lead the current.
The unit of capacitance is the Farad.
Commutator: An assembly which is mounted on the shaft of
a DC motor to provide the switching functions between the
armature coils and the power supply.
Conductor: Any material which offers little resistance to the
flow of electricity such as copper.
Duty Cycle: The relationship between the operating time and
the resting time of an electric motor.
Eddy Current: Localized currents in electrical steels that are
caused by alternating magnetic flux resulting in losses and
heating.
Efficiency: The ratio of mechanical output to the electrical
input power of a motor.
Electromotive Force (emf): A synonym for voltage usually
used to describe induced or generated voltages in an electric
circuit.
Field: The term used to describe the stationary part of a DC
machine. The field provides the magnetic flux which interacts
with the armature.
Flux: The magnetic field which is established around a current
carrying conductor or a permanent magnet.
Appendix C: Industry Acronyms and Glossary of Terms


88
Frequency: The rate at which alternating current reverses its
direction of flow. The unit of frequency is either Hertz or
cycles per second.
Full Load Current: The current that a motor draws at rated
voltage, frequency and load.
Full Load Slip: The difference between the synchronous
speed of a motor and full load speed. It is often expressed as a
ratio of the synchronous speed to full load speed in percent.
Full Load Speed: The speed of the motor at rated voltage,
frequency and load.
Full Load Torque: The torque that is necessary to produce
rated horsepower at full load speed.
Horsepower: A measurement of power used to rate electric
motors. The unit of power rating in motors is either
horsepower or kilowatts. One horsepower is equal to 746
watts.
Impedance: The total opposition a circuit offers to the flow of
alternating current. It is the vector sum of resistance and
reactance.
Inductance: The property of an electrical circuit which
opposes a change in current due to the magnetic field induced
by that current.
Inertia: Inertia is the resistance an object has to a change in its
state of motion. It is determined by the weight of the object
multiplied by the square of the radius of gyration (k). Rotating
parts do not operate at the same speed, therefore calculating
Appendix C: Industry Acronyms and Glossary of Terms


89
the inertia for each moving part allows rotating parts to be
considered as a single unit working together.
Line Voltage: The voltage supplied to the input terminals of
an electric device.
Magnetomotive Force (mmf): The magnetic energy supplied
in the establishment of magnetic flux. It is analogous to the
electromotive force in an electric circuit.
Phase: A term used to describe the spatial relationship of
windings in an electric motor or voltages and currents in an
electric circuit.
Power Factor: A measurement of the difference in phase
between voltage and current in an electric circuit. Most
electrical devices cause the current to lag the voltage because of
inductance. The voltage leads the current in capacitive circuits.
Reactance (inductive): The property of a magnetic circuit
which causes the voltage to lag the current.
Resistance: The property of an electrical conductor which
impedes the flow of electricity. The unit of resistance is the
ohm.
Rotor: The rotating member of an electric motor.
Service Factor: The service factor of an AC motor is a
multiplier which when applied to the rated horsepower
indicates the permissible loading which may be carried under
the conditions specified for the service factor.
Appendix C: Industry Acronyms and Glossary of Terms


90
Slip: The ratio between the synchronous speed and the
operating speed of an induction motor, often expressed as a
percent.
Stator: The stationary part of an AC motor housing the steel
laminations and the windings.
Temperature Rise: The difference between the temperature
of the windings of an operating motor and the ambient
temperature.
Torque: The turning force applied to a shaft, usually expressed
as pound-feet (English) or Newton-meters (metric).
Voltage: The standard unit of electromotive force which
produces a flow of current in a conductor. The unit of
electromotive force is the volt.
Watt: A measurement of power in an electrical circuit which is
equal to one joule of energy being expended in one second.

Appendix D: Useful Formulas


91
APPENDIX D: USEFUL FORMULAS
Calculating the Horsepower Requirement of a
Load
The mechanical load required by the driven equipment is
known as the Brake Horsepower (BHP). The BHP value can
be calculated by the following:
BHP = T x N (required HP)
5,250
Where:
HP = horsepower supplied by the motor
T = Torque (lb-ft) force x radius
N = base speed of motor (rpm)
Once the machine BHP (speed times torque) requirement is
determined, horsepower (HP) can be calculated:
Rated motor HP = Motor Efficiency (%) / 100
= available HP
If the calculated horsepower falls between standard available
motor ratings, select the higher available horsepower rating. It
is good practice to allow some margin when selecting the
motor horsepower.
For many applications, it is possible to calculate the
horsepower required without actually measuring the torque
required.
Appendix D: Useful Formulas


92
Several typical examples:
For Conveyors:
hp (vertical) = weight (lb) x velocity (FPM)
33,000 x efficiency
hp (horizontal) = weight (lb) x velocity (FPM) x coefficient of friction
33,000 x efficiency
For Fans and Blowers:
Effect of speed on horsepower
HP = k
1
x speed(RPM)
3
horsepower varies as the 3rd power of speed
T = k
2
x speed(RPM)
2
torque varies as the 2nd power speed
Flow = k
3
x speed(RPM) flow varies directly as the speed
HP = CFM x pressure (lb/in
2
)
229 x (eff. of fan)
HP = CFM x (inches of water gauge total pressure)
6,362 x (eff. of fan)
Total pressure = static pressure + velocity pressure
Velocity pressure = V
2
x (1/1096.7)
2
x density
For Pumps
hp = [GPM x head (ft) x specific gravity]
[3960 x % eff. of pump]
Specific gravity of water = 1.0
1 ft
3
per sec = 448 GPM
1 PSI = A head of 2.309 ft for water weighing 62.36 lb/ft
3
at 62F
Appendix D: Useful Formulas


93
Constant Displacement Pumps
Effect of speed on horsepower (hp) = k speed(RPM).
Horsepower and capacity vary directly the speed.
Displacement pumps under constant heat require
approximately constant torque at all speeds.
Centrifugal Pumps
Effect of speed on input brake horsepower
HP = k
1
x speed (RPM)
3
- horsepower varies as the 3rd power of speed
T = k
2
x speed (RPM)
2
- torque varies as the 2nd power of speed
Flow = k
3
x speed (RPM) - flow varies directly as the speed
Centrifugal Pump Efficiency (Typical)
500 to 1,000 gal./min. = 70% to 75%
1,000 to 1,500 gal./min. = 75% to 80%
Larger than 1,500 gal./min. = 80% to 85%
Displacement pumps may vary between 50% to 80% efficiency,
depending on size of pumps.
Horsepower Required
HP = [torque(lb-ft) x speed (RPM)]
5,250
HP = torque (lb-in) x speed (RPM)63,000
Torque (lb-ft) = [HP x 5,250]
speed (RPM)
Appendix D: Useful Formulas


94
Ohms Law
Amperes = volts
ohms
Ohms = volts
amperes
Volts = amperes x ohms
Power in DC Circuits
Horsepower = volts x amperes
746
Watts = volts amperes
Kilowatts = volts x amperes
1,000
Kilowatts hours = volts x amperes x hours
1,000
Power in AC Circuits
Kilovolt-Amperes (kVA)
kVA (single-phase) = volts (line to line) x amperes (line to line)
1,000
kVA (three-phase) = volts (line to line) x amperes (line to line) x 1.73
1,000
Kilowatts (kW)
kW (single-phase) = volts (line to line) x amperes (line to line) x power factor
1,000
kW (three-phase) = volts (line to line) x amperes (line to line) x power factor 1.73
1,000
Appendix D: Useful Formulas


95
Power factor (PF) = kW
kVA
Three-Phase AC Circuits
hp = volts(line to line) x amperes(line to line) x1.73 x EFF x PF
746
Motor amps = hp x 746
volts(line to line) x (1.73) x EFF x PF
Motor amps = kVA x 1,000
1.73 x volts(line to line)
Motor amps = kW x 1,000
1.73 x volts(line to line) x PF
Power factor = kW x 1,000
volts(line to line) x amperes(line to line) x 1.73
Kilowatt-hours = volts(line to line) x amperes (line to line)x hours x 1.73 PF
1,000
Power (watts) = volts(line to line) x amperes(line to line) x 1.73 PF
PF = displacement power factor = cosine Angle = kW
kVA
Appendix D: Useful Formulas



Figure 23: Power Triangle - Illustrating Relationships Between
i) Active (kW) and Apparent Power (kVa)
ii) Ration of Active Vs Apparent Power is the Power
Factor (kW/kVa)
iii) Inductive Vs Capactive load (kVar)
96
iv) Inductive (leading) Vs Capacitive (lagging)

Appendix E: Conversion Factors


97
APPENDIX E: CONVERSION
FACTORS
Multiply By To Obtain
Length

Meters
Meters
Inches
Feet
3.281
39.37
0.0254
0.3048
Feet
Inches
Meters
Meters
Torque
Newton-Meters
lb-ft
lb-in
lb-ft
0.7376
1.3558
0.0833
12.00
lb-ft
Newton-Meters
lb-ft
lb-in
Rotation
RPM
RPM
Degrees/sec
Rad/sec
6.0
0.1047
0.16667
9.549
Degrees/sec
Rad/sec
RPM
RPM
Moment of
Inertia
Newton-Meters2
oz-in
2

lb-in
2

Slug-ft
2

oz-in-sec
2

lb-in-sec
2

2.42
0.000434
0.00694
32.17
0.1675
2.68
lb-ft
2
lb-ft
2
lb-ft
2
lb-ft
2
lb-ft
2
lb-ft
2

Power
Watts
lb-ft/min
HP
HP
0.00134
0.0000303
746
30300
HP
HP
Watts
lb-ft/min
Temperature
Degree C = (Degree F-32) x 5/9
Degree F = (Degree C x 9/5) + 32

Appendix E: Conversion Factors


98











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