David Coyle moved to his current

position as Technology ManagerLNG/

GTL/Gas Processing for KBR, in Houston,
Texas in 2002. He is responsible for
technical support of worldwide sales and
project management activities including
technical risk management, performance
guarantees, intellectual property, and
technical development. For most of the last
27 years Mr. Coyle has worked in the KBR
process engineering group where he spe-
cialized in gas processing and LNG technologies. In 1996, he
became the LNG Section Leader, leading a group of up to 30
process engineers working on projects ranging from small feasi-
bility studies to process design of multibillion dollar EPC projects.
Mr. Coyle received a B.S. degree (Chemical Engineering, 1977)
from the University of California at Berkeley and joined KBR
shortly thereafter.
Vinod P. Patel is a Senior Principal
Machinery Engineer, Machinery Technology,
for KBR, in Houston, Texas. He has been
with KBR for 30 years. In his current
assignment, he is responsible in the prepa-
ration and auditing of specifications,
equipment evaluation, engineering coordi-
nation, and testing and installation startup
of rotating and special equipment. He has
worked in the various application of
rotating machinery in the petrochemical
and refinery processes including ammonia, LNG, olefins, cat-
cracking, and hydrotreating for domestic and international
projects.
Mr. Patel received B.S. and M.S. degrees (Mechanical and
Metallurgical Engineering) from Maharaja Sayajirao University
of Baroda, India, and Youngstown University, respectively. He is a
registered Professional Engineer in the State of Texas.
ABSTRACT
The liquefied natural gas (LNG) industry continues to grow
worldwide, and there are many LNG terminals planned for the US
in response to growing natural gas demands. This tutorial covers
the LNG supply chain with emphasis on pumping services at each
step along the chain including liquefaction, shipping, and
receiving. This paper presents an overview of LNG processes and
the service parameters that make pumps in the LNG industry
unique.
THE LNG CHAIN
Figure 1 shows the elements of the LNG chain. The chain starts
with gas production, usually from offshore wells though some
plants receive gas from onshore sources. The gas produced can be
from a gas field (nonassociated gas) or may be produced along
with oil (associated gas). The distinction between associated and
nonassociated gas is important because associated gas must have
liquified petroleum gas (LPG) components (i.e., propane and
butane) extracted to meet heating value specifications of the LNG
product.
Figure 1. The LNG ChainFrom Production to User.
The produced gas enters the LNG liquefaction facility and goes
through several steps of treating before being liquefied. The LNG
leaving the liquefaction plant must be stored until a ship arrives to
transport the product. Although it would be possible, in theory at
least, to run down the product directly into the ship and greatly
reduce or eliminate storage. Storage tanks are less expensive than
ships and economics favor storage at the facility.
For a facility making 8 MMTPA a 140,000 m
3
LNG ship will
arrive every three days. A single ship holds enough energy to
meet the natural gas needs of 33,000 Americans for one year,
and at a gas price of $3.00/MMBtu the cargo is worth about $10
MM. The ships are powered by steam engines and typically
travel at 19 knots; thus, a round trip voyage of 5000 miles takes
between nine and 10 days of travel plus at least a day of turn-
around at each end for a total duration of 12 days. The time it
takes to load a ship once the loading pumps are started is about
12 to 14 hours.
179
PROCESSES AND PUMP SERVICES IN THE LNG INDUSTRY
by
David A. Coyle
Technology ManagerLNG/GTL/Gas Processing
and
Vinod Patel
Senior Principal Machinery Engineer, Machinery Technology
KBR
Houston, Texas
The LNG ships unload at the receiving terminal using their
cargo pumps. The receiving terminal stores the LNG, which is
vaporized and sent out into a pipeline, or in some cases directly to
an electric power plant (commonly done in Japan).
THE LNG LIQUEFACTION FACILITY
The liquefaction facility is the greatest contributor to the LNG
price at the receiving end, with the possible exception of shipping
depending on distance to market. LNG plants produce LNG and
condensate (natural gasoline) products, and in some cases LPG
(propane and butane).
Liquefaction Process
A block flow diagram of the liquefaction process is shown in
Figure 2. The first step in the process is removal of acid gases such
as carbon dioxide (CO
2
) and hydrogen sulfide (H
2
S). CO
2
would
freeze at cryogenic process temperatures and H
2
S must be removed
to meet the LNG product specifications. Typical specifications for
acid gas removal are 50 ppm for CO
2
, 4 ppm for H
2
S, and total
sulfur content less than 25 ppm. An amine solvent process is most
common for acid gas removal. The process has an absorber tower
where lean solvent contacts the natural gas and absorbs acid gas
components, thus becoming rich solvent. The rich solvent leaves
the bottom of the absorber and regenerates with a drop in pressure
and heating in the stripper tower. The regenerated solvent is now
lean again and cooled and pumped up to the absorber pressure.
Figure 2. Liquefaction Process Block Flow Diagram.
Figure 3 shows a simplified process flow diagram for acid gas
removal. The amine solvent pumps are often the largest pumps in
the plant, especially when the natural gas contains a high amount
of CO
2
(10 to 15 mol% CO
2
is considered high though some
natural gas reserves have even more). The solvent can be
monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA), methyldi-
ethanolamine (MDEA), Sulfinol, diglycolamine (DGA), or others,
but the current trend is toward activated MDEA-based solvents.
The gas leaving the acid gas removal unit is saturated with water
from the amine solvent, and a dehydration unit removes the water.
The dehydration unit consists of multiple mol sieve beds and
regeneration equipment. Typically two mol sieve beds run in
adsorption mode while a third bed regenerates. Hot, dry natural gas
flowing through the bed accomplishes the regeneration. After
regeneration, cool natural gas cools the bed, and then the bed
cycles into adsorption mode while one of the other beds cycles to
regeneration.
The treated and dry gas now enters the liquefaction unit that
chills and liquefies the gas in a refrigeration process. Figure 4 is a
drawing of a process that makes about 85 percent of the worlds
LNG production. A multiple stage propane refrigeration system
first chills the gas through a series of heat exchangers down to
about 30C. The natural gas drops out liquids at this temperature,
and the scrub column removes these heavy liquids (especially
benzene and other aromatics) that would otherwise freeze in the
main cryogenic heat exchanger.
Figure 3. Acid Gas Removal Process Flow Diagram.
Figure 4. Liquefaction Process Flow Diagram. (Courtesy of APCI)
The natural gas leaves the scrub column overhead drum and
enters the main cryogenic heat exchanger (MCHE) where it is
cooled down to about 160C at which temperature the natural
gas is a liquid at atmospheric pressure. The stream exits the MCHE
and becomes the LNG product after running down to storage. The
refrigerant for the MCHE is a mixture of mostly methane and
ethane, which can be made up from the natural gas feed.
Several variations exist for the liquefaction process including
nitrogen removal options on the back end of the plant (LNG
typically has a maximum nitrogen specification of 1 percent), and
processes are licensed by many companies. Such processes include
cascade, dual mixed refrigerant (MR), single MR, and propane
precooled among others. The differences in licensed processes are
small with respect to thermodynamics and cost. The real key in
selecting a liquefaction process is equipment selection and meeting
the plant capacity goals.
The major equipment selections include MCHE type and com-
pressor and driver. One process technology company uses a spiral
wound type heat exchanger shown in Figure 5. Other licensed
processes use plate fin heat exchangers shown in Figure 6. The
plate fin exchangers tend to cost less than spiral wound but are
more susceptible to leaks caused by thermal stress, and mainte-
nance can be difficult if the plate fins are installed in a cold box
insulation system where the exchangers are placed in a sheet metal
box filled with perlite. Access to the exchangers is difficult because
the insulation is similar to a white dust. The spiral wound
exchanger can be maintained by access to the tube sheets by
manhole or hand hole. The plant owner makes the choice of
exchanger type based on these tradeoffs in addition to their own
operating experiences.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTY-SECOND INTERNATIONAL PUMP USERS SYMPOSIUM 2005 180
CO
2
REMOVAL
DEHYDRATION
&MERCURY
REMOVAL
CHILLING LIQUEFACTION
NITROGEN
REJECTION
REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM
REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM
OFFSITE
LNG
STORAGE
HYDROCARBON
FRACTIONATION
NATURAL
GAS
FEED
C2
FUEL
FUEL
LNG
C3
C4
BY PRODUCT
GASOLINE
C4 C2
CO
2
REMOVAL
DEHYDRATION
&MERCURY
REMOVAL
CHILLING LIQUEFACTION
NITROGEN
REJECTION
REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM
REFRIGERATION
SYSTEM
OFFSITE
LNG
STORAGE
HYDROCARBON
FRACTIONATION
NATURAL
GAS
FEED
C2
FUEL
FUEL
LNG
C3
C4
BY PRODUCT
GASOLINE
C4 C2
Stripper Stripper
Low Low- -Pressure Pressure
Flas Flash h
Reboiler Reboiler
Reflux Reflux
Condenser Condenser
Acid G Acid Gas as
Lean A Lean Amine mine
Bulk Bulk
Absorber Absorber
Lean Lean
Absorber Absorber
Treated G Treated Gas as
Semi Semi- -Lean Lean
Amine Amine
Amine Amine
Cooler Cooler
Rich A Rich Amine mine
as as as as
as as
Sour Sour Sour Sour G GG G
Flash G Flash G
High High- -
Pressure Pressure
Flas Flash h
Lean/Rich Lean/Rich
Exchanger Exchanger
Stripper Stripper
Low Low- -Pressure Pressure
Flas Flash h
Reboiler Reboiler
Reflux Reflux
Condenser Condenser
Acid G Acid Gas as
Lean A Lean Amine mine
Bulk Bulk
Absorber Absorber
Lean Lean
Absorber Absorber
Rich A Rich Amine mine
as as as as
as as
Lean/Rich Lean/Rich
Exchanger Exchanger
High High- -
Pressure Pressure
Flas Flash h
Flash G Flash G
Sour Sour Sour Sour G GG G
Amine Amine
Cooler Cooler
Treated G Treated Gas as
Semi Semi- -Lean Lean
Amine Amine
DEHY /Hg
REMOVAL
MP
C
3
LP
C
3
TREATED
FEED
GAS
HP
C
3
LLP
C
3
NRU
LOW BTU
FUEL GAS
LNG
RUNDOWN
To FRACTIONATION
LLP
C
3
HP
C
3
MP
C
3
LPG
REINJECTION
HP
MR
MP
MR
MR LIQ EX P
LP
MR
REFLUX
DRUM
SCRUB
COLUMN
LNG
EXP
MCHE
LP
C
3
Figure 5. Sketch and Photo of a Spiral Wound Heat Exchanger (SWHE).
Figure 6. Photo and Schematic of a Typical Plate Fin Heat
Exchanger (PFHE).
Compressor drivers in the past were typically steam turbines, but
the trend today is gas turbines with a few trains driven by large
electric motors with variable drive systems. The steam system
costs more, adds equipment to the project, and takes more plot
space; the authors company expects the trend to continue along
with a few motor driven compressor trains.
One other critical decision for the liquefaction plant is the
cooling medium. Fresh water is not available at most liquefaction
sites, and the usual choice is between once-through seawater and
air cooling.
Pump Services
The major pump services in the liquefaction unit are:

Amine circulation (acid gas removal process).

Reflux for scrub column and fractionation towers (liquefaction

process).

LNG product pumps.

Seawater pumps (if seawater cooled).

Hot oil pumps.

The amine pumping service is often split into two parts: a low
head pump working at high temperature followed by a high head
pump operating at near-ambient temperature. Using the low head
booster pump at the high temperature avoids problems with cavita-
tion within the pump that would be present if the high head pumping
were done at high temperature. The booster pump is typically a
single-stage double suction pump with low net positive suction head
(NPSH)) requirements. By using a pump with low NPSH require-
ments for the booster pump, the residual dissolved CO
2
remains in
solution. When CO
2
is allowed to come out of solution, a phenome-
non similar to cavitation occurs that is potentially very damaging to
the pumps. To avoid the potential for cavitation damage, calculated
NPSH available numbers are typically reduced by three to four times
to provide sufficient actual margin. The amine circulation rate
depends on the amount of acid gas, but a train making 5 MMTPA of
LNG with a natural gas feed containing 15 percent CO
2
can have a
circulation rate over 2000 m
3
/hr handled with 3 50 percent pumps.
The high-head circulation pumps are typically multistage, between-
bearing, horizontal designs driven by electric motors.
The reflux pumps for the scrub column operate at about 30 to
50C, and in the fractionation unit the de-ethanizer reflux pumps
also operate at about 30C. The flow rates of these pumps
depend to a large extent on the natural gas composition. For a 5
MMTPA train handling associated gas the scrub column reflux
flow can be in the 350 to 400 m
3
/hr range, though a plant process-
ing nonassociated gas usually has a smaller scrub column reflux
pump. The scrub column reflux pump size depends to a great
extent on the aromatics present, but in some cases where the
natural gas contains little ethane and propane, recovering refriger-
ant components can be the main factor that determines reflux pump
size. These pumps are normally single-stage.
The LNG product pump has a special design for cryogenic
service. The pump is a submerged motor, pot mounted pump for
these applications. Figure 7 shows an illustration of the pump that
is mounted inside a container. The container, flooded with LNG
during operation, also contains the motor. The suction of the pump
is at the bottom of the container, and the LNG discharge flows
through the motor thus providing cooling for the motor. There are
no cryogenic rotating seals with this arrangement; the only seal
needed is for the electrical connection box, and the box is always
purged with nitrogen to prevent natural gas leakage through the
conduit. This type of pump has the following advantages over con-
ventional sealed pumps:
Figure 7. Cryogenic Pump Cross Sections.

Pump is completely submerged in the pumped fluid, resulting in

reduced noise

Does not contain rotating shaft seals that are difficult to design
and maintain for the cryogenic temperatures. No leakage of
flammable gas into the atmosphere. (The pump does have static
seals in the electrical conduits to seal around the main power
supply and instrumentation wiring.)

Uses a single shaft design with both the pump impellers and
motor on the same shaft, eliminating the need for a coupling and
removing alignment issues

Motor and pump bearings are product lubricated, eliminating the

need for an external lube oil system.

Explosion proof motor is not required

The operational and design challenges for a submerged motor
LNG pump include the following:

The suction pot of the pump must be liquid filled prior to starting
the pump. Cool down of the pump is a delicate activity that must be
done slowly to prevent excessive thermal stresses and damage
within the pump. Various methods are used to try to ensure that the
pump is properly cooled down and liquid filled prior to startup.
PROCESSES AND PUMP SERVICES IN THE LNG INDUSTRY 181
Spiral Wound Exchanger Spiral Wound Exchanger
Schematic and photo (Courtesy of APCI)
(Courtesy of Linde)
(
(Photo courtesy of Linde)
Multistage Single-Stage
(Drawing courtesy of Ebara International Inc.)
These include monitoring the temperature on a vent/bleed connec-
tion to the pump, use of temperature sensors within the pump
suction container, and a level gauge on the suction pot.

In a cryogenic application, condition monitoring is difficult

since the vibration monitors need to be placed inside the cryogenic
suction pot mounted on the pump. Some other options that have
been used are external vibration instruments on the cover plate of
the suction pot and operating without vibration instrumentation.
These pumps have historically been very reliable, therefore for
many users, operation without condition monitoring instrumenta-
tion has been an acceptable solution.
The seawater pumps are very large in a base load LNG plant and
the pumps are mounted vertically in a seawater intake basin. The
flow rates of these pumps are commonly in the 15,000 to 18,000
m
3
/hr range. Large, vertical, open pit, multistage pumps are
commonly used. In some plants the seawater removes heat from a
fresh water loop, instead of the more common once-through
cooling where the seawater goes directly through heat exchangers
and then discharges back to the sea. The fresh water loop circula-
tion rate is similar to the seawater rate, but the liquefaction unit
exchangers exchange heat with fresh water. The advantage of using
the extra cooling loop is higher reliability and lower cost materials
in the liquefaction unit. The disadvantages are extra cost and
equipment for the fresh water loop and a higher heat sink temper-
ature for the process (which makes the process slightly less
efficient). Fresh water circulation pumps are normally horizontal,
double suction designs.
The liquefaction process, in spite of being cryogenic, still
requires some heating services. Examples are the amine stripper
reboiler and fractionation reboilers. However, most gas turbine
driven LNG plants do not have heat recovery steam generation
(HRSG), and in such cases hot oil is a common heat transfer
medium. The hot oil is circulated between the heat source and
process services with hot oil pumps. In some cases steam is used
as a heating medium, and in such cases condensate pumps and
boiler feed water pumps replace the hot oil pump services. This
substitution commonly takes place when there are enough sulfur
compounds in the gas to make sulfur recovery in a Claus unit
necessary; the Claus unit generates low pressure steam that is
available for process heating services. Another option that has been
successfully used is to incorporate a waste heat recovery unit in the
exhaust of the gas turbine and utilize a heated water circuit for
heating. The heated water system is maintained under pressure to
prevent boiling, and a centrifugal pump is used for circulation. Hot
oil and hot water circulation pumps can vary widely in design, but
horizontal double suction designs are commonly used.
For a summary of the liquefaction pump services refer to Table 1.
Cryogenic Liquid Expanders
One other service in liquefaction related to pumps is the
cryogenic liquid expander as an alternative to a Joule Thompson
(JT) valve. The liquid expander (or hydraulic turbine) is like a
pump running in reverse; the fluid enters at high pressure and exits
at lower pressure, and shaft power is generated instead of being
consumed. The drop in pressure is controlled with a back-pressure
valve to prevent the discharge from flashing into two phases.
Two different technologies have been used for the cryogenic
liquid expander application. The first is a submerged motor LNG
pump operating as a liquid turbine. For this design, the
expander/generator speed is controlled by using a Variable Speed
Drive System (VSDS). This design has the advantages of the
mechanical portions of the LNG cryogenic pumps, i.e., no seals
and couplings.
The second approach is to use a liquid expander similar to a
vertical turbine pump. This technology requires the use of a shaft
seal (either dry gas or oil film) and an external generator. The per-
formance of the turbine is controlled using a set of wicket gates
(inlet guide vanes) to control the pressure drop across the expander.
Table 1. LNG Liquefaction Plant. Pump Services Based on 5
MMTPA Train (Typical Only).
The speed of the expander is fixed with the synchronous generator
connected to the electrical grid.
The two examples of cryogenic liquid expanders are shown in
Figures 8 and 9, and an actual installation is shown in Figure 10.
LNG STORAGE
The LNG product pump delivers liquid LNG to the LNG
storage tanks. There are three common types of LNG storage
tanks, known as single containment, double containment, and
full containment. In all cases there is secondary containment in
the event of a spill, and the differences between the types are
mostly in the method of secondary containment. Figure 11 shows
drawings of the three types of storage. The single containment
storage has a 9 percent nickel self-supporting inner tank and a
carbon steel outer wall. There is perlite insulation between the
two tanks. In the event of an inner tank leak, the outer wall may
fail because carbon steel is not suitable to cryogenic tempera-
tures. In this case secondary containment is provided by a dike
surrounding the tank.
The double containment tank has a post-tensioned concrete
outer wall capable of holding cryogenic materials, and no dike is
needed because the outer wall provides the secondary containment.
However the cold vapors contacting the roof may cause the roof to
fail, thus the containment is not full containment because vapors
may be released in the event of an inner tank leak.
The full containment tank is similar to double containment
except that the roof is made of materials that can handle cryogenic
temperatures; if the inner tank leaks, all liquids and vapors are still
contained within the outer wall and roof.
The main advantage of the single containment tank is the low
cost relative to the other storage types. The main disadvantage is
that the impoundment basin requires more land, and providing
enough distance between the dike and the plant fence to protect the
public from heat and vapor dispersion requires even more land.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTY-SECOND INTERNATIONAL PUMP USERS SYMPOSIUM 2005 182
Item Capacity
(m
3
/hr)
Head
(meters)
Fluid Pump Specifics Comments
Lean Amine
Booster Pump
500-1800 80-120 Amine Double Suction
Between Bearing
Radial Split Case
Single Stage
Capacity
depends on
solvent used
and amount of
acid gas
present
Lean Amine
Charge Pump
500-1800 600-750 Amine Multi-Stage
Volute Type
Between Bearing
Radial Split Case
Pressure
lubricated sleeve
and tilt-pad
bearings
Dissolved CO2
results in these
pumps being
susceptible to
cavitation if not
properly
designed.
Scrub Column
Reflux Pump
150-400 90-100 Hydrocarbon Cryogenic
submerged motor
type.
Vertical can type
Capacity
depends on
the amount of
aromatics
contained in
natural gas
LNG Product
Pump
1100 - 2000 150 - 240 Hydrocarbon
(LNG)
Cryogenic
submerged motor
type. (no seal or
coupling)
-160 C
operating
temperature
LNG Loading
Pumps
1350 2000 150 - 240 Hydrocarbon
(LNG)
Cryogenic
submerged motor
type. (no seal or
coupling)
-160 C
operating
temperature
LNG Cargo
Pumps
1350 2000 150 - 240 Hydrocarbon
(LNG)
Cryogenic
submerged motor
type. (no seal or
coupling)
-160 C
operating
temperature
Seawater
Pump
15,000-
20,000
50-60 Seawater Vertical pump,
AL-BR or duplex
stainless steel
material.
10 15 meter
shaft length
Hot Oil Pump 1500-2000 120-140 Hot Oil Same as heated
water pump.
Heated Water
Pump
750 - 1250 220 - 250 Heated
Water
Double Suction
Axial Split Case
Between Bearing
Figure 8. Schematic of Cryogenic Hydraulic Turbine (A).
Figure 9. Schematic of Cryogenic Hydraulic Turbine (B).
The LNG loading in-tank pumps are similar to the LNG product
pumps in that they are submersed in the LNG, but instead of a
Figure 10. Hydraulic Turbine Removal.
Figure 11. Types of LNG Storage Tanks.
separate container the pumps are inside pump columns that extend
to the storage tank roof, as shown in Figure 12. The key design
feature of this pumping system is that it is possible to pull the
pump for maintenance while continuing to operate the storage
tank. There is a foot valve at the bottom of the column that prevents
LNG from entering the column when the pump is pulled. The
operators purge the column with nitrogen, and then remove the
pump from the top of the column.
In-Tank Pump Process Objectives
The LNG loading pump capacities are usually based on filling
a ship in 12 hours. The liquefaction plant typically has multiple
storage tanks, and two to four pumps per tank. It is common to
have a total of eight pumps running during loading, each with a
capacity in the 1100 to 2000 m
3
/hr range and 150 to 240 meters
of head. In many plants there is also a smaller pump in each tank
in addition to the loading pumps. The purpose of this smaller
pump is to recirculate LNG in the loading lines and stabilize the
PROCESSES AND PUMP SERVICES IN THE LNG INDUSTRY 183
(Photo courtesy of Flowserve)
(Photo courtesy of Ebara International Inc.)
(Photo courtesy of Flowserve)
N1-CO-GE-1
Base
Insulation
External
Insulation
Outer
Shell
Inner
Shell
Dike
Suspended
Deck with
Insulation
Pre-stressed
Concrete
Outer Shell
Base
Insulation
External
Insulation
Base
Insulation
External
Insulation
Inner
Shell
Suspended
Deck with
Insulation
Pre-stressed
Concrete
Outer Shell
Inner
Shell
Single Containment
Double Containment Full Containment Concrete or
Metal roof
N1-CO-GE-1
Base
Insulation
External
Insulation
Outer
Shell
Inner
Shell
Dike
Suspended
Deck with
Insulation
Pre-stressed
Concrete
Outer Shell
Base
Insulation
External
Insulation
Base
Insulation
External
Insulation
Inner
Shell
Suspended
Deck with
Insulation
Pre-stressed
Concrete
Outer Shell
Inner
Shell
Single Containment
Double Containment Full Containment Concrete or
Metal roof
Figure 12. Column Mounted LNG Products Pump.
temperature when no ship is present. The loading lines are large
diameter (24 to 36 inches) and must be kept cold between ship
loadings because cooling them down is a long procedure.
In-Tank Pump Mechanical Design Features
The pumps used for the in-tank application are similar to the
LNG product pumps except they are mounted in a column
connected to the top of the tank instead of in a vessel. The pumps
use submerged motors that are cooled by passing the LNG product
flow past the windings of the motor. Special care must be taken
when the pumps are removed from the tank because the winding
insulation is very hydroscopic and will absorb moisture. Nitrogen
purging of the pumps is required when they are not in use. The
condition of the pumps is monitored by using accelerometers
mounted on the pump housing close to the bearings. The pump
bearings are typically a stainless steel material and lubricated by
the LNG product. Reliability of the foot valve is as critical as the
reliability of the pump. The foot valve is required to seal when the
pump is removed to allow the tank to remain in service. The foot
valve is supplied by the pump supplier as an integral part of the
pump. The weight of the pump sitting on the foot valve causes the
foot valve to open and allows LNG to enter the pump and column
pipe.
LNG SHIPPING
LNG terminal layout and site selection are typically based on the
following ship parameters:

130,000 to 135,000 m
3
capacity, having an overall length of up
to 310 m, width of 46 m, and fully loaded draft of 11.6 m. The net
delivery unloading rate into the receiving terminal is approxi-
mately 10,000 m
3
/hr. There are smaller ships (down to less than
60,000 m
3
), but the industry trend is toward larger ship sizes with
designs on the drawing board for up to 250,000 m
3
.

15 meters minimum water depth

The LNG ships have two different types of pumps. These are the
large cargo pumps for transferring LNG, and the small spray
pumps that provide LNG for the spray ring that helps keep the
entire storage container in a cool state. The storage on the ship is
usually one of two types, either self-supporting aluminum spheres
or stainless steel membrane compartments supported by the ship
hull. There are either four or five spheres or compartments, and
each contains two cargo pumps and one spray pump. The cargo
pumps usually have a capacity of 1200 to 1400 m
3
/hr and the spray
pumps have a capacity of 40 to 50 m
3
/hr.
LNG RECEIVING TERMINALS
The LNG receiving terminal (sometimes called a regas
facility) receives liquefied natural gas from LNG ships, stores the
LNG in storage tanks, vaporizes the LNG, and then delivers the
natural gas into a distribution pipeline. The receiving terminal is
designed to deliver a specified gas rate into a distribution pipeline
and to maintain a reserve capacity of LNG. The amount of reserve
capacity depends on expected shipping delays, seasonal variations
of supply and consumption, and strategic reserve requirements
(strategic reserves are needed when the terminal may be called
upon to replace another large source of gas from either a pipeline
or another receiving terminal on short notice). A simplified process
flow diagram is shown in Figure 13.
Figure 13. Simplified LNG Receiving Terminal Process Flow
Diagram.
The LNG terminal consists of the following:

LNG unloading system, including jetty and berthLNG is

transferred to the onshore LNG tanks by the ship pumps. The
unloading facility is often designed to accommodate a wide range
of tanker sizes from 75,000 m
3
to 135,000 m
3
. It takes approxi-
mately 12 to 14 hours to unload one 135,000 m
3
ship. From the
ship, the LNG flows through the unloading arms and the unloading
lines into the storage tanks. The loading lines can be two parallel
pipes, each 24 or 26 inch diameter or a single 30 inch or larger
pipe.

LNG storage tanksTwo or more above ground tanks are

generally installed for receiving and storing LNG, though
terminals have been built with a single tank. To reduce cost,
designers try to minimize the number of tanks and maximize the
amount of storage per tank. If the facility has only one tank, then
sendout and LNG unloading will be from the same tank, but this
does not cause any operating difficulties. The types of tanks are
similar to the ones used for liquefaction facilities. The decision to
use single, double, or full containment is based on cost, land avail-
ability, and sometimes protection from external events such as
vapor cloud blast pressure, and missiles or small aircraft.

Vapor handling systemDuring normal operation, boil-off

vapor is produced in the tanks and liquid-filled lines by heat
transfer from the surroundings. This vapor is collected in the boil-
off header that ties into the boil-off compressor suction drum. A
boil-off gas (BOG) recondenser may also be provided, which
serves to recover the BOG as product and provides surge capacity
for the LNG second stage pumps. During ship unloading, the
quantity of vapor in the tank outlet increases significantly.
During upset, extreme turndown, or emergency conditions,
vapors may be generated within the terminal that exceed the
capacity of the BOG and pipeline compressor. If this occurs the
vapors vent to the atmosphere through an elevated vent stack or a
flare for safe disposal. In the case of a vent stack the vapors are
preheated if necessary to avoid flammable mixtures near ground
level.

LNG vaporizersLNG terminal facilities have multiple

parallel operating vaporizers with spares. Open rack vaporizers
(ORV) are common worldwide (although they are not used much
PROCEEDINGS OF THE TWENTY-SECOND INTERNATIONAL PUMP USERS SYMPOSIUM 2005 184
(Photo courtesy of Ebaras Cryodynamics Division)
in the US terminals to date) and use seawater to heat and vaporize
the LNG. The submerged combustion vaporizer (SCV) uses
sendout gas as fuel for the combustion that provides vaporizing
heat. Because of the seawater system cost, the ORVs tend to have
a higher installed capital cost while the SCVs have a higher
operating cost because of the fuel charge. At many facilities the
best economics are achieved by using ORVs for normal send out
and SCVs as spares.
Other site factors also impact the decision of whether to use
ORVs or SCVs. If the seawater temperature is below 42F, ORVs
are usually not practical because of seawater freezing. At some
sites, it is not practical to separate the seawater discharge from the
seawater inlet, and SCVs must be installed to avoid recirculation
problems. The submerged combustion vaporizers also have envi-
ronmental issues because of nitrous oxide (NOx) emissions and the
water combustion product that requires treating before discharge.

Open rack vaporizersSeawater in an open falling film type

arrangement vaporizes LNG passing through the tubes (Figure 14).
The water falls over aluminum panels and collects in a trough
before discharging back to the sea. The seawater first passes
through a series of screens to remove debris before entering the
intake basin. Raked bar screens provided in the inlet of the intake
basin remove floating debris and provide protection for the vertical
seawater and firewater pumps in the basin. The pumps are located
in individual bays within the intake basin. At the inlet of each
seawater pump bay, a traveling band screen may be provided for
further removal of suspended solids to prevent blockage or damage
to the open rack vaporizers. The larger, single ORV units installed
are for a gas sendout rate of approximately 200 to 250 MMSCFD.
Figure 14. Open Rack Vaporizer.

Submerged combustion vaporizersThese vaporizers burn the

natural gas taken from the sendout gas stream and pass the hot
combustion gases into a water bath that contains the heating tubes
for LNG (Figure 15). The largest single SCV units installed are for
a gas sendout rate of approximately 150 MMSCFD.
Figure 15. Submerged Combustion Vaporizer.

First stage sendout pumpsSeveral low-head LNG sendout

pumps are installed in each LNG storage tank. These pumps are
similar to the loading pumps at the LNG liquefaction facility, except
the sendout rate is much lower than the loading rate therefore the
pumps are smaller. A very large receiving terminal will have a
sendout rate of 2 billion standard cubic feet per day (BSCFD) while
the ship unloading rate is closer to 5 BSCFD. The discharge pressure
of the first stage sendout pumps is around 8 barg.

Second stage sendout pumpsThe sendout gas is usually

injected into a high pressure gas distribution system of approxi-
mately 80 barg. For this pressure, multistaged sendout pumps
(booster pumps) are required. The pumps are high-head and take
LNG from the first stage pump discharge and boost up the pressure
to the vaporizers at the required pipeline pressure.
Receiving terminals to date are expected to operate close to 365
days per year and have spared equipment to achieve this avail-
ability. In at least one case, a terminal operated over three years
continuously and was shutdown only for a statutory inspection. In
light of the traditionally high terminal availability, spare
equipment can be eliminated and cost savings achieved if the gas
consumers can tolerate interruptions in the sendout supply.
CONCLUSIONS
The LNG industry continues to change as companies with gas
reserves compete to supply markets. In this arena achieving low
cost per ton of LNG and high reliability makes the product attrac-
tive, and improving economy of scale with larger plants and
equipment continues to enhance plant economics. It is this reality
that is driving the technology forward. At the same time, the LNG
industry is based on converting a gas that has to be compressed for
pipeline transport into a liquid that can be pumped for transport by
ship; pumps will continue to play an indispensable role. With a
good understanding of the basic LNG chain and the forces driving
innovation, the pump manufacturers and rotating equipment
engineers will be able to anticipate and respond to industry
demands in a manner that provides high value for their customers.
PROCESSES AND PUMP SERVICES IN THE LNG INDUSTRY 185
(Drawings courtesy of Kobe Steel, Ltd.)