Chapter 13: Cardiovascular System

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The Blood Vessels

The cardiovascular system has three types of blood vessels: Arteries (and arterioles) carry blood away from the heart Capillaries where nutrient and gas exchange occur Veins (and venules) carry blood toward the heart.
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Blood vessels

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The Arteries
Arteries and arterioles take blood away from the heart. The largest artery is the aorta. The middle layer of an artery wall consists of smooth muscle that can constrict to regulate blood flow and blood pressure. Arterioles can constrict or dilate, changing blood pressure.
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The Capillaries
Capillaries have walls only one cell thick to allow exchange of gases and nutrients with tissue fluid. Capillary beds are present in all regions of the body but not all capillary beds are open at the same time. Contraction of a sphincter muscle closes off a bed and blood can flow through an arteriovenous shunt that bypasses the capillary bed.
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Anatomy of a capillary bed

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The Veins
Venules drain blood from capillaries, then join to form veins that take blood to the heart. Veins have much less smooth muscle and connective tissue than arteries. Veins often have valves that prevent the backward flow of blood when closed. Veins carry about 70% of the bodys blood and act as a reservoir during hemorrhage.
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The Heart
The heart is a cone-shaped, muscular organ located between the lungs behind the sternum. The heart muscle forms the myocardium, with tightly interconnect cells of cardiac muscle tissue. The pericardium is the outer membranous sac with lubricating fluid.
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The heart has four chambers: two upper, thin-walled atria, and two lower, thickwalled ventricles. The septum is a wall dividing the right and left sides. Atrioventricular valves occur between the atria and ventricles the tricuspid valve on the right and the bicuspid valve on the left; both valves are reenforced by chordae tendinae attached to muscular projections within the ventricles.
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External heart anatomy

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Semilunar valves occur between the ventricles and the attached arteries; the aortic semilunar valve lies between the left ventricle and the aorta, while the pulmonary semilunar valve lies between the right ventricle and the pulmonary trunk.

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Coronary artery circulation

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Passage of Blood Through the Heart

Blood follows this sequence through the heart: superior and inferior vena cava right atrium tricuspid valve right ventricle pulmonary semilunar valve pulmonary trunk and arteries to the lungs pulmonary veins leaving the lungs left atrium bicuspid valve left ventricle aortic semilunar valve aorta to the body.
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Internal view of the heart

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The pumping of the heart sends out blood under pressure to the arteries. Blood pressure is greatest in the aorta; the wall of the left ventricle is thicker than that of the right ventricle and pumps blood to the entire body. Blood pressure then decreases as the cross-sectional area of arteries and then arterioles increases.
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Path of blood through the heart

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The Heartbeat
Each heartbeat is called a cardiac cycle. When the heart beats, the two atria contract together, then the two ventricles contract; then the whole heart relaxes. Systole is the contraction of heart chambers; diastole is their relaxation. The heart sounds, lub-dup, are due to the closing of the atrioventricular valves, followed by the closing of the semilunar valves.
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Stages in the cardiac cycle

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Intrinsic Control of Heartbeat

The SA (sinoatrial) node, or pacemaker, initiates the heartbeat and causes the atria to contract on average every 0.85 seconds. The AV (atrioventricular) node conveys the stimulus and initiates contraction of the ventricles. The signal for the ventricles to contract travels from the AV node through the atrioventricular bundle to the smaller Purkinje fibers.
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Conduction system of the heart

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Extrinsic Control of Heartbeat

A cardiac control center in the medulla oblongata speeds up or slows down the heart rate by way of the autonomic nervous system branches: parasympathetic system (slows heart rate) and the sympathetic system (increases heart rate). Hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla also stimulate faster heart rate.
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The Electrocardiogram
An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a recording of the electrical changes that occur in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle. Atrial depolarization creates the P wave, ventricle depolarization creates the QRS wave, and repolarization of the ventricles produces the T wave.
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Electrocardiogram

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The Vascular Pathways

The cardiovascular system includes two circuits: 1) Pulmonary circuit which circulates blood through the lungs, and 2) Systemic circuit which circulates blood to the rest of the body. Both circuits are vital to homeostasis.
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Cardiovascular system diagram

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The Pulmonary Circuit

The pulmonary circuit begins with the pulmonary trunk from the right ventricle which branches into two pulmonary arteries that take oxygenpoor blood to the lungs. In the lungs, oxygen diffuses into the blood, and carbon dioxide diffuses out of the blood to be expelled by the lungs. Four pulmonary veins return oxygen-rich blood to the left atrium.
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The Systemic Circuit

The systemic circuit starts with the aorta carrying O2-rich blood from the left ventricle. The aorta branches with an artery going to each specific organ. Generally, an artery divides into arterioles and capillaries which then lead to venules.
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The vein that takes blood to the vena cava often has the same name as the artery that delivered blood to the organ. In the adult systemic circuit, arteries carry blood that is relatively high in oxygen and relatively low in carbon dioxide, and veins carry blood that is relatively low in oxygen and relatively high in carbon dioxide. This is the reverse of the pulmonary circuit.
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Major arteries and veins of the systemic circuit

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The coronary arteries serve the heart muscle itself; they are the first branch off the aorta. Since the coronary arteries are so small, they are easily clogged, leading to heart disease. The hepatic portal system carries blood rich in nutrients from digestion in the small intestine to the liver, the organ that monitors the composition of the blood.
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Blood Flow
The beating of the heart is necessary to homeostasis because it creates pressure that propels blood in arteries and the arterioles. Arterioles lead to the capillaries where nutrient and gas exchange with tissue fluid takes place.

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Blood Flow in Arteries

Blood pressure due to the pumping of the heart accounts for the flow of blood in the arteries. Systolic pressure is high when the heart expels the blood. Diastolic pressure occurs when the heart ventricles are relaxing. Both pressures decrease with distance from the left ventricle because blood enters more and more arterioles and arteries.
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Cross-sectional area as it relates to blood pressure and velocity

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Blood Flow in Capillaries

Blood moves slowly in capillaries because there are more capillaries than arterioles. This allows time for substances to be exchanged between the blood and tissues.

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Blood Flow in Veins

Venous blood flow is dependent upon: 1) skeletal muscle contraction, 2) presence of valves in veins, and 3) respiratory movements. Compression of veins causes blood to move forward past a valve that then prevents it from returning backward.
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Changes in thoracic and abdominal pressure that occur with breathing also assist in the return of blood. Varicose veins develop when the valves of veins become weak. Hemorrhoids (piles) are due to varicose veins in the rectum. Phlebitis is inflammation of a vein and can lead to a blood clot and possible death if the clot is dislodged and is carried to a pulmonary vessel.
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Blood
Blood separates into two main parts: plasma and formed elements. Plasma accounts for 55% and formed elements 45% of blood volume. Plasma contains mostly water (9092%) and plasma proteins (78%), but it also contains nutrients and wastes. Albumin is a large plasma protein that transports bilirubin; globulins are plasma proteins that transport lipoproteins.
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Composition of blood

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The Red Blood Cells

Red blood cells (erythrocytes or RBCs) are made in the red bone marrow of the skull, ribs, vertebrae, and the ends of long bones. Normally there are 4 to 6 million RBCs per mm3 of whole blood. Red blood cells contain the pigment hemoglobin for oxygen transport; hemogobin contains heme, a complex iron-containing group that transports oxygen in the blood.
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Physiology of red blood cells

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The air pollutant carbon monoxide combines more readily with hemoglobin than does oxygen, resulting in oxygen deprivation and possible death. Red blood cells lack a nucleus and have a 120 day life span. When worn out, the red blood cells are dismantled in the liver and spleen.
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Iron is reused by the red bone marrow where stem cells continually produce more red blood cells; the remainder of the heme portion undergoes chemical degradation and is excreted as bile pigments into the bile. Lack of enough hemoglobin results in anemia. The kidneys produce the hormone erythropoietin to increase blood cell production when oxygen levels are low.
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The White Blood Cells

White blood cells (leukocytes) have nuclei, are fewer in number than RBCs, with 5,000 10,000 cells per mm3, and defend against disease. Leukocytes are divided into granular and agranular based on appearance. Granular leukocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, and basophils) contain enzymes and proteins that defend the body against microbes.
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The aganular leukocytes (monocytes and lymphocytes) have a spherical or kidney-shaped nucleus. Monocytes can differentiate into macrophages that phagocytize microbes and stimulate other cells to defend the body. Lymphocytes are involved in immunity. An excessive number of white blood cells may indicate an infection or leukemia; HIV infection drastically reduces the number of lymphocytes.
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Macrophage engulfing bacteria

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The Platelets and Blood Clotting

Red bone marrow produces large cells called megakaryocytes that fragment into platelets at a rate of 200 billion per day; blood contains 150,000300,000 platelets per mm3. Twelve clotting factors in the blood help platelets form blood clots. The liver produces fibrinogen and prothrombin, two plasma proteins involved in the clotting process.
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Blood Clotting
Injured tissues release a clotting factor called prothrombin activator, which converts prothrombin into thrombin. Thrombin, in turn, acts as an enzyme and converts fibrinogen into insoluble threads of fibrin. These conversions require the presence of calcium ions (Ca2+). Trapped red blood cells make a clot appear red.
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Blood clotting

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Hemophilia
Hemophilia is an inherited clotting disorder due to a deficiency in a clotting factor. Bumps and falls cause bleeding in the joints; cartilage degeneration and resorption of bone can follow. The most frequent cause of death is bleeding into the brain with accompanying neurological damage.
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Bone Marrow Stem Cells

A stem cell is capable of dividing into new cells that differentiate into particular cell types. Bone marrow is multipotent, able to continually give rise to particular types of blood cells. The skin and brain also have stem cells, and mesenchymal stem cells give rise to connective tissues including heart muscle.
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Blood cell formation in red bone marrow

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Capillary Exchange
At the arteriole end of a capillary, water moves out of the blood due to the force of blood pressure. At the venule end, water moves into the blood due to osmotic pressure of the blood. Substances that leave the blood contribute to tissue fluid, the fluid between the bodys cells.
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In the midsection of the capillary, nutrients diffuse out and wastes diffuse into the blood. Since plasma proteins are too large to readily pass out of the capillary, tissue fluid tends to contain all components of plasma except it has lesser amounts of protein. Excess tissue fluid is returned to the blood stream as lymph in lymphatic vessels.
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Capillary exchange

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Lymphatic capillaries

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Cardiovascular Disorders
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) is the leading cause of death in Western countries. Modern research efforts have improved diagnosis, treatment, and prevention. Major cardiovascular disorders include atherosclerosis, stroke, heart attack, aneurysm, and hypertension.
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Atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis is due to a build-up of fatty material (plaque), mainly cholesterol, under the inner lining of arteries. The plaque can cause a thrombus (blood clot) to form. The thrombus can dislodge as an embolus and lead to thromboembolism.
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Stroke, Heart Attack, and Aneurysm

A cerebrovascular accident, or stroke, results when an embolus lodges in a cerebral blood vessel or a cerebral blood vessel bursts; a portion of the brain dies due to lack of oxygen. A myocardial infarction, or heart attack, occurs when a portion of heart muscle dies due to lack of oxygen.
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Partial blockage of a coronary artery causes angina pectoris, or chest pain. An aneurysm is a ballooning of a blood vessel, usually in the abdominal aorta or arteries leading to the brain. Death results if the aneurysm is in a large vessel and the vessel bursts. Atherosclerosis and hypertension weaken blood vessels over time, increasing the risk of aneurysm.
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Coronary Bypass Operations

A coronary bypass operation involves removing a segment of another blood vessel and replacing a clogged coronary artery. It may be possible to replace this surgery with gene therapy that stimulates new blood vessels to grow where the heart needs more blood flow.
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Coronary bypass operation

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Clearing Clogged Arteries

Angioplasty uses a long tube threaded through an arm or leg vessel to the point where the coronary artery is blocked; inflating the tube forces the vessel open. Small metal stents are expanded inside the artery to keep it open. Stents are coated with heparin to prevent blood clotting and with chemicals to prevent arterial closing.
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Angioplasty

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Dissolving Blood Clots

Medical treatments for dissolving blood clots include use of t-PA (tissue plasminogen activator) that converts plasminogen into plasmin, an enzyme that dissolves blood clots, but can cause brain bleeding. Aspirin reduces the stickiness of platelets and reduces clot formation and lowers the risk of heart attack.
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Heart Transplants and Artificial Hearts

Heart transplants are routinely performed but immunosuppressive drugs must be taken thereafter. There is a shortage of human organ donors. Work is currently underway to improve self-contained artificial hearts, and muscle cell transplants may someday be useful.
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Hypertension
About 20% of Americans suffer from hypertension (high blood pressure). Hypertension is present when systolic pressure is 140 or greater or diastolic pressure is 90 or greater; diastolic pressure is emphasized when medical treatment is considered. A genetic predisposition for hypertension occurs in those who have a gene that codes for angiotensinogen, a powerful vasoconstrictor.
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Chapter Summary
Specialized vessels deliver blood from heart to capillaries, where exchange of substances takes place; another series of vessels delivers blood from capillaries back to heart. The human heart is a double pump: the right side pumps blood to the lungs, and the left side pumps blood to the rest of body.
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Pulmonary arteries transport blood low in oxygen to lungs; pulmonary veins return blood high in oxygen to the heart. Systemic circulation transports blood from the left ventricle of the heart to the body and then returns it to the right atrium of the heart. Blood is composed of cells and a fluid containing proteins and various other molecules and ions.
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Blood clotting is a series of reactions; a clot forms when fibrin threads entrap red blood cells. Nutrients pass from blood and tissue fluid across capillary walls to cells; wastes move the opposite direction. The cardiovascular system is efficient but it is still subject to degenerative disorders.
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