PARTS AND FUNCTIONS OF A MAMMALIAN HEART 1. Pulmonary/Semilunar valve - prevents back !"# " b!""$ %nt" re!

a&%n' c(a)bers *. Tricuspid (Right AV valve) - past t(e %nner e$'e " t(e va!ve t(r+ t(e p+!)"nar, arter, %nstea$ " back t" t(e atr%+) -. Superior (anterior) vena cava $e"&,'enate$ b!""$ back t" t(e r%'(t atr%+) .. Right ventricle - 'enerates press+re t" p+)p $e"&,'enate$ b!""$ t" p+!)"nar, c%rc+!at%"n /. Myocardium - car$%ac )+sc!e0 a%$ %)p+!se c"n$+ct%"n a1 M,"'en%c - can 'enerate "#n %)p+!se b1 L"n' re ract"r, per%"$ - %ntera! bet#een * e&c%tat"r, %)p+!ses 2. Papillary Muscles - c"ntract as #ave " e&%ctat%"n sprea$s 3. Chordae tendinae - prevent back !"# " va!ves #(en ventr%c+!ar press+re r%ses 4. e!t Ventricle - 'enerates press+re t" "rce b!""$ %nt" t(e s,ste)%c c%rc+!at%"n 5. Aortic (semilunar) valve - prevents back !"# r") a"rta t" !e t ventr%c!e 16. Aorta - carr%es "&,'enate$ b!""$ r") t(e !e t ventr%c!e t" t(e s,ste)%c c%rc+!at%"n 7N"tes8 press+re b, !e t ventr%c!e 9 r%'(t ventr%c!e S,ste)%c c%rc+%t 9 p+!)"nar, c%rc+%t Press+re b, atr%a : ventr%c!es ;$%stnce r") atr%a t" ventr%c!es %s !ess t(an t(at r") eventr%c!es t" c%rc+!at"r,1 <"!+)e8 sa)e pass%n' t(r+ eac( s%$e C%rc+!at%n' <"!+)es = p+!)"nar, an$ s,ste)%c c%rc+%ts C"ntr"! " (eartbeat In%t%ate$ b, SA n"$e Intr%ns%c H.R. = 34 b>)%n E&tr%ns%c act"rs ;a ect HR1 <a'+es nerve =? HR Acce!erat"r>S,)p(atet%c nerve = @ HR

A$rena!%ne A T(,r"&%ne = @ HR Rest%n' HR " 36 b>)%n - va'a! t"ne CARDIAC CONDUCTION SBSEM SA n"$e %res ? Act%"n p"tent%a!s sprea$ t(r+ atr%a ? Atr%a c"ntracts A< N"$e %res ? %)p+!ses a!"n' c"n$+ct%n' %bers ? ventr%c!es c"ntract Abn"r)a! ECDs Tachycardia - HR 9 166 b>)%n "radycardia - ver, s!"# HR Ventricular !i#rillation +nc""r$%nate$ c"n-ventr%c!es ;n" b!""$ %nt" arter%es1 $eart #loc% - a%!+re " st%)+!at%"n t" ventr%c!es "!!"#%n' atr%a! c"ntract%"n ;b!"cke$ act%"n p"tent%a!1 CARDIAC OUTPUT - a)"+nt " b!""$ p+)pe$ "+t b, t(e (eart (eart per )%n+te 1. Stro%e Volume - v"!+)e " b!""$ p+)pe$ "+t b, a ventr%c!e #> eac( c"ntract%"n *. &actors a!!ecting venous return8 a1 C"ntract%"n " ske!eta! )+sc!es ;sE+eeFes ve%ns1 =@ ven"+s ret+rn b1 ? b!""$ v"!+)e = ? ven"+s ret+rn c1 D%!at%"n " b!""$ vesse!s = ? $1 P+!! " 'rav%t, ;ret+rn " b!""$ r") !"#er e&tre)%t%es %s $% %c+!t1 TBPES OF CIRCULATION 1. Pulmonary - r%'(t s%$e0 aerat%"n <ena cavas G RA G T<GR<GP<GPAGL+n'sGP+!)"nar, Cap%!!ar%es *. Systemic - !e t s%$e0 $%str%b+t%"n t" b"$, P+!)"nar, Cap%!!ar%esGP<GLAGH<GL<GA<G

A"rtaGT%ss+es F"r "t(er an%)a!s Animal Circulatory System F%s( * c(a)bers ;atr%+) A ventr%c!e1 p+)p %n ser%es0 P+!)"nar, A S,ste)%c C%rc+!at%"ns arenIt separate$ A)p(%b%an - c(a)bers ;* A J 1 <10 H!""$ r") !+n's G LA0 H!""$ r") b"$, G RA0 A!! b!""$ %nt" 1 < G p+!)"nar, A s,ste)%c c%rc+!at%"ns M"st Rept%!es Separat%"n " < %nt" t#" (a!ves Cr"c"$%!%ansK H%r$sK < %s c")p!ete!, Ma))a!s $ev%$e$0 Heart ;. c(a)bers1 #> p+!)"nar, c%rc+%t searate$ r") s,ste)%c c%rc+%t S+bs,ste)s 1.Coronary Ciculation- b!""$ t" (eart %tse! *.Renal Portal System - b!""$ r") k%$ne,s A p"ster%"r !%)b -.$epatic Portal System - r") st")ac(K sp!eenK pancreas A %ntenst%ne t(en t" !%ver ; %!trat%"n be "re '"%n' t" (eart1 FETAL CIRCULATION - b!""$ %s "&,'enate$ b, a c"+nterc+rrent s,ste) %n t(e p!acenta - eta! b!""$ passes t(r+ t(e cap%!!ar%es a!"n's%$e t("se c"ntan%n' )aterna! b!""$ - trans er (appens %n c+p!%ke str+ct+res MICROCOTBLEDONS O&,'enate$ eta! b!""$ ? S,ste)%c ve%ns ? Heart ? M%&t+re #> $e"&, b!""$ r") s,ste)%c

c%rc+!at%"n ? RA ? F"ra)en Ova!e A D+ct+s Arter%"s+s s(+n )"st " %t a#a, r") n+n +nct%"na! !+n's ? S,ste)%c Arter%es CONTROL OF HEART ;B"+ canIt c"ntr"! t(e (eart c"nsc%"+s!, LParan'L"ve1 '( Autonomic )ervous system a1 Parasymphatetic Fibers - ? HR0 %nnervat%"n %n car$%ac %n(%b%t"r, center %n )e$+!!a "b!"n'ata0 c"nve,e$ t(r+ va'+s nerve b1 Sympathetic - %nnervat%"n r") nerves %n )e$+!!a ;car$%ac acce!erat%n' center1 A +pper t(r"ac%c sp%na! c"r$0 reac( ),"car$%+) v%a severa!>acce!erat"r nerves0 s,)pat(et%c %bers re!ease n"ra$rena!%ne = @ HR A @ stren't( " ventr%c+!ar A atr%a! c"ntract%"n *. $ormonal in!luence - stress G t%ss+es " a$rena! )e$+!!a re!ease a$rena!%ne A n"ra$rena!%ne G 'enera! c%rc+!at%"n G @ HR -. Temperature - @ te)p = @ HR0 @ per)eab%!%t, " car$%ac )+sc!e ce!! p!as)a )e)branes t" %"ns = @ 'enerate$ r(,t()%c Act%"n p"tent%a!s Fever - @ HR 166 b>)%n e&cess H,p"t(er)%a - ? HR *( +lectrolyte "alance CJ ? HR0 ? stren't( " c"ntract%"ns CaJ E&cess8 spast%c c"ntract%"ns Re$+ce$8 ? HR NaJ E&cess8 ? car$%ac +nct%"n ;c")petes #> CaJ1 Re$+ce$8 car$%ac %br%!!at%"n ;@ (eart c"ntract%"n J +nc""r$%nate$ as(%"n - n" b!""$

HLOOD PRESSURE - "rce e&erte$ b, t(e b!""$ a'a%nst t(e #a!! ,( Se- and Age " b!""$ vesse!s A'e>Se& Heart Rate ;bp)1 - b!""$ )"ves beca+se " press+re A$+!t e)a!e 36-46 - press+re ca+se$ b, c"ntract%"n " (eart A$+!t )a!e 36 - (%'(est %n t#" )a%n arter%es In ant 1*6 - (%'( an$ !"# HP ca+se pr"b!e)s C(%!$ 33 - HP )eas+re$ %n t(e arter, s+pp!,%n' +pper ar) +s%n' a SPHBDMOMANOMETER HLOOD <ESSELS - s,st"!e>$%ast"!e - S,st"!%c press+re - press+re " b!""$ Arter%esGArter%"!eGCap%!!ar%esG<en+!esG<e%ns #(en %t !eaves ventr%c!es ;1*6 - t" keep t(e b!""$ !"#%n' %n 1D ))H'>116 ))H'1 - e&cept vap%!!ar%es A ven+!es8 - D%ast"!%c Press+re - press+re nee$e$ t" keep 1. En$"t(e!%+) ;Ep%t(e!%a!1 - T+n%ca %nt%)a arter%es "pen c"nstant!, even #> re!a&e$ *. M%$$!e M+sc+!ar - T+n%ca )e$%a ventr%c!es ;46 ))H'>36))H'1 -. O+ter CT !a,er - T+n%ca a$vent%t%a - H,pertens%"n - s%!ent k%!!er0 (%'( HP #(en Arteries . Veins . Capillaries ventr%c!es e&per%ence ver, str"n' Arterioles Venules c"ntract%"ns0 s,st"!%c press+re 9 1/6 "r (eart G cap%!!ar%es arter%"!es $%ast"!%c press+re 9 56 ))H' cap%!!ar%esG G ven+!es G branc( t" - Ma%nte$ t(r+8 b"$, ve%ns G cap%!!ar%es 1. )ervous system t(%cker (eart t(%n #a!!e$ - t(r+ )"$% ,%n' act%v%t, " vas")"t"r #a!!s t(en carr, $e"&, ;"ne ce!!1 centers %n t(e )e$+!!a ve%n b!""$ e&c(an'e a1 Pressor area - vas"c"nstr%ct%"n0 @ HP t"+'( A ;E&cept P<1 " n+tr%ents b1 Depressor area - vas"$%!at%"n0 ? HP !e&%b!e t(%nner A an$ 'ases - t(r+ recept"rs #%t(stan$ !ess e!ast%c $% +s%"n a1 Basoreceptors - atr%a! #a!! A car"t%e$ (%'( press+re t(en arter%es $r%ve CO* A arter%es0 s%'na!s t" vas")"t"r centers0 @ carr, )"re #aste HP G )essa'e t" bra%n G s%'na!s t" "&,'enate$ !e&%b!e ;? pr"$+cts r") (eart G ? HP b!""$ res%stance t" t%ss+es G b1 Chemoreceptors - car"t%$ arter%es at ;E&cept PA1 !"# " b!""$ cap%!!ar%es P+nct%"ns " %nterna! an$ car"t%$ arter%es0 !ar'est8 back t" (eart1 )"n%t"r O* an$ CO* c"ntent %n b!""$0 a"rta - #> va!vesMM %)p+!ses t" vasc+!ar centers0 ? O* !eve!s G st%)+!+s t" bra%n G )essa'e t" (eart G v%a press"r nerve G vas"c"nstr%ct%"n "asis Arteries Veins G @ HP T(%ckness T(%cker T(%nner *. /idneys - re'+!ate HP b, a)"+nt " !+%$ Pr"n"+nce$ T+n%ca Me$%a T+n%ca %n b!""$0 @ HP G k%$ne,s re)"ve #ater r") !a,er a$vent%t%a b!""$ G t"ta! a)"+nt " !+%$ %n s,ste) S(ape R"+n$er Irre'+!ar L+)en S)a!!er N%$er )otes0 RHCs O @ $%stance r") (eart =? Arter%a! b!""$ <a!ves O press+re A spee$ " !"# = ? n". O e!ast%c %bers = @ %n n". O s)""t( )+sc!e p+)pe$

ce!!s %n arter%es Atherosclerosis InP+r%es t" !%n%n' " arter%es ;ca+se$ b, @ HPK @ c("!ester"! !evesK s)"k%n'1 ? L%p%$s r") b!""$ ;c("!ester"!>LDL1 acc+)+!ate ? H+%!$+p " p!aE+e t(r+ )acr"p(a'es ; %!! +p #> c("!ester"!s>LDL1 A p!ate!ets ? T(%ckK att, patc(8 PLAQUE ? P!aE+e narr"#s arter, ? H%n$ers !"# " b!""$ ? C!"t )a, )"ve t"#ar$s t(e (eart>arter, ? H!"ck>c!"' ? Heart attack 1MP$AT2C S1ST+M

- L,)p(at%c ve%ns %n t(e c(est c"nta%n lymph nodes0 re'%"ns #> a %ne )es( t(at %!ters $ea$ ce!!s A "t(er !ar'e ra')ents r") t(e !,)p( H")e t" p(a'"c,t%c ce!!s A !,)p("c,tes C"nven%ent p!ace "r %))+n"c,tes M"n%t"r t(e p!as)a "r "re%'n ant%'ens N(ere %))+ne s,ste)s are !"ca!%Fe$ COMPONENTS 1. L,)p( - !+%$ *. <esse!s - !,)p(at%cs -. Str+ct+res A "r'ans - !,)p( n"$esK sp!eenK t(,)+s FUNCTIONS 1. Ret+rns e&cess t%ss+e !+%$ A pr"te%ns t" b!""$0 ba!ance *. Abs"rpt%"n " ats r") %ntest%ne v%a !,)p(at%c cap%!!ar%es>!actea!s -. S+rve%!!ance A $e ense - %!ter baccter%a A pr"$+c%n' $%sease- %'(t%n' !,)p("c,tes LBMPH FLUID - !"ss t%ss+e !+%$ G enters !,)p(at%c cap%!!ar G !,)p( '( Tissue &luid &ormation - t%ss+e !+%$ ;)a$e +p " #ater A $%ss"!ve$ s+bstances t(at !eave cap%!!ar%es t(r+ %!trat%"n A $% +s%"n1 F%!trat%"n ? S)a!!er pr"te%ns !eak r") b!""$ cap%!!ar%es ? T" t%ss+es ? N"t ret+rne$ t" b!""$ strea) ? @ "s)"t%c press+re #>%n t%ss+es

- sec"n$ar, c%rc+!at"r, s,ste)0 "ne #a, - n" p+)p0 !,)p( %s )"ve$ t(r+ vesse!s b, sE+eeF%n' " ske!eta! )+sc!es H!""$ !"#s t(r+ %ne cap%!!ar, be$s ? P!as)a !eaks "+t bet#een cap%!!ar, ce!! )e)branes ? T%ss+e ? F!+%$ #> "t(er s+bstances ;e.'. Pr"te%ns1 t(at (ave !eake$ c"!!ete$ %nt" a para!!e! s,ste) " ? L,)p(at%c cap%!!ar%es ? L,)p(at%c vesse!s ? T("rac%c $+cts %n t(e c(est ? ReP"%n b!""$

3( ymph &ormation and &unction @ "s)"t%c press+re %n t%ss+es ? %nter eres #> ret+rn " !+%$s t" b!""$strea) ? @ %nterst%t%a! press+re "rces s")e !+%$ t" !,)p(at%c cap%!!ar%es 4( ymph Movement - !,)p(at%c vesse!s>t%ss+es )a, be re)"ve$ "r $%st+rbe$0 c"n$%t%"n %nter eres #> t(e !"# " !,)p(8 e$e)a - (,$r"stat%c press+re " t%ss+e !+%$s $r%ve entr, " !,)p( t" !,)p(at%c cap%!!ar%es - "rces t(at )"ve b!""$ %n ve%ns are "rces t(at pr"per !,)p( t(r+ !,)p(at%c vesse!s8 a1 ske!eta! )+sc!e c"ntract%"n b1 Hreat(%n' )"ve)ents c1 C"ntract%"n " s)""t( )+sc!e %n t(e #a!!s " !,)p(at%c tr+nks LBMPHATIC <ESSELS L,)p(at%c cap%!!ar%es ? L,)p(at%c vesse!s ? L,)p(at%c D+cts ? ? T("rac%c D+ct R%'(t L,)p(at%c D+ct ? ? Le t S+bc!av%an <e%n R%'(t s+bc!av%an ve%n ? Denera! C%rc+!at%"n 1. ymphatic capillaries - t%n,K c!"se$-en$e$ t+bes0 e&ten$ %nt" %nterst%t%a! spaces0 rece%ve t%ss+e t(r+ t(%n %nner #a!!s0 !+%$ %ns%$e ;!,)p(1 *. ymphatic Vessels - #a!!s are t(%nner t(an ve%ns0 #> - !a,ers A se)%!+nar va!ves0 !ar'er vesse!s pass t(r+ !,)p( n"$es A )er'e G !,)p(at%c tr+nks -. ymphatic Trun%s . Collecting 5uct tr+nks $ra%n !,)p( r" t(e b"$,K P"%n "ne "

t#" c"!!ect%n' $+cts ;t("rac%c "r r%'(t !,)p(at%c10 t("rac%c ;!e t s+bc!av%an1K r%'(t !,)p(at%c ;r%'(t s+bc!av%an1 LBMPHOID ORDANS '( ymph )odes - s)a!!K bean-s(ape$ "r'an )a$e " "v"%$ "r r"+n$ )ass " !,)p(at%c t%ss+e - #> b!""$ vesse!sK nerves A e erent !,)p(at%c vesse!s attac(e$ t" (%!+) - #> a erent !,)p(at%v vesse!s enter%n' "n c"nve& s+r ace - c"vere$ #> %br"+s caps+!e CT t(at e&ten$s %ns%$e t(e n"$e A $%v%$es %t %nt" n"$+!es ;t"ns%!sK a$en"%$s>Pe,erIs patc(es1 - N"$+!es8 ("+se !,)p("c,tes A )acr"p(a'es A enc"+nter !,)p( - "r) c!+sters %n re'%"ns ;e.'. Dr"%n an$ ar)p%ts1 - +nct%"ns8 a1 macrophages and lymphocytes- %!ter !,)p( an$ re)"ve bacter%a A ce!!+!ar $ebr%s be "re !,)p( %s ret+rne$ t" b!""$ b1 centers " lymphocyte production0 %))+ne s+rve%!!ance *. Thymus - s" tK b%!"be$ "r'an !"cate$ a!"n' t(e trac(eaK be(%n$ stern+) %n t(e +pper t(r"c%c cav%t,0 s(r%nks %n s%Fe as pers"n a'es - s+rr"+n$e$ b, CT caps+!e t(at e&ten$s %ns%$e %t an$ $%v%$es %t %nt" !"b+!es ;c"nta%n !,)p("c,tes #(%c( )a, )at+re %nt" T ce!!s1 - secretes t(,)"s%n ;%n !+ence )at+rat%"n " T !,)p("c,tes1 -. Spleen - !ar'es !,)p(at%c "r'an ;bet#een st")ack A $%ap(ra')10 CT $%v%$es sp!een t" !"b+!es #(%c( c"nta%n8 a1 Red Pulp - c")p"nents " b!""$ b1 White Pulp - s%)%!ar t" !,)p(at%c n"$+!es ;!,)p("c,tes1 - F+nct%"ns8 a1 F%!ters A p+r% %es b!""$ ;re)"ves )%cr"bes an$ #"rn "+t RHCs1 b1 H!""$ reserv"%r c1 S%te "r er,t(r"p"%es%s ; eta!1

- Sea!s- (ave a !ar'e sp!een0 b!""$ ava%!ab!e %n !"# press+re0 can $%ve A re)a%n +n$er#ater .. Tonsils - 'r"+ps " !ar'e !,)p(at%c n"$+!es0 "+n$ %n )+c"+s )e)brane " t(e "ra! A p(ar,n'ea! cav%t%es0 '+ar$ t(e c"))"n entrance t" $%'est%ve A resp%rat"r, tract 0 t,pes ;!"cat"%nK ep%t(e!%a! !%n%n'K cr,ptsK $e %n%t%ve part%a! caps+!e1 a1 Pa!at%ne b1 P(ar,n'ea! c1 L%n'+a! N"te8 E!ep(ant%t%s - !,)p( vesse!s bec")e b!"cke$ b, %!ar%a! #"r)s 2MM6)+ - +nct%"na! s,ste) S1ST+M

a1 First line of defense - nat+ra!>p(,s barr%er %. Sk%n A )+c+s )e)brane " resp%rat"r,K $%'est%ve A +r%nar, tract %%. O%! '!an$s - bacter%a %%%. C%!%ate$ ce!!s %n resp. Tract part%c!es %n t(e t(r"at %v. L,s"F,)e - tearsK sa!%va A )+c"+s ect%"ns v. St")ac( - !"# pH v%. Hacter%a %n %ntest%ne A va'%na prevent ba$ bacter%a r") %nva$%n' b1 Second line of defense %. P(a'"c,t%c A nat+ra! k%!!er ce!!s 1. Ne+tr"p(%!s - $a)a'e$ ce!!s ;c(e)"ta&%s10 enters %n ecte$ t%ss+e an$ $estr",s r") #%t(%n0 se! -$estr+ct *. M"n"c,tes - trans "r)e$ t" )acr"p(a'es "nce t(e, enter %n ect t%ss+e0 e ect%ve an$ !"n' !%ve$0 "+n$ %n !+n's ;a!ve"!ar1K !%ver ;8k+pp er1K k%$ne, ;)esan'%a!1K CT ;(%st"c,tes1K Sp!eenK !,)p( n"$es ; %&e$1 En'+! )%cr"be %n vac+"!e ? F+se$ #> !,s"s")es ? C%!! )%cr"be -. E"s%n"p(%!s - !ar'er paras%t%c %nva$ers0 re!ease $estr+ct%ve enF,)e tar'et%n' paras%teIs #a!!0 'ran+!"c,tes ;(%sta)%ne1 .. Nat+ra! C%!!er ce!!s spec% %c0 $"esnIt nee$ act%vt%"n " enF,)es0 $"esnIt attack )%cr"bes0 $estr", v%r+s%n ecte$>abn"r)a! ce!!s0 $"

COMPONENTS 1. I))+n"c,tes - !,)p("c,tes A )acr"p(a'es *. D%verse arra, " )"!ec+!es ;ant%b$"esK !,)p("k%nesK etc1 SIDNIFICANCE 1. Rec"'n%Fes "re%'n ant%'vens *. I))"b%!%FeK ne+tra!%FeK $estr", -. S("rtc")%n'8 )+st be pr%)e$ b, an %n%t%a! e&p"s+re t" ant%'en be "re %t %s capab!e " pr"tect%n' t(e b"$, ORIDIN - He)at"p"%et%c ste) ce!!s ;b"ne )arr"#1 1. +rythroid (#one marro7) - er,t(r"c,tes *. ymphoid (#one marro7) - nat+ra! k%!!er ce!!s0 H !,)p("c,tes0 t(,)+s ;T !,)p("c,tes1 4( Myeloid a1 )"n"c,te G )acr"p(a'e b1 M,e!"%$ pr"'en%t"r G )e'akar,"te c1 Has"p(%!sK ne+tr"p(%!sK e"s%n"p(%!sK )ast ce!!s ;prec+rs"r " (%sta)%ne1 CINDS 1. )on Speci!ic - $"esnIt $%st%n'+%s( bet#een $% k%n$s " pat("'ens

n"t p(a'"c,t"se b+t )"+nt an attack ;!,s%s1 )/ Cells Cytoto-ic /iller T cells N" recept"r A n"n N> recept"rs A spec% %c spec% %c Dran+!ate$ N"n'ran+!ate$ N"t t(,)+s T(,)+s-$epen$ent $epen$ent %%. L"ca!%Fe$ In !a))at"r, Resp"nse #(en t(ere %s $a)a'e t" t%ss+e>p(,. %nP+r,>entr, " )%cr""r'an%s)s0 %n !a))at%"n ;re$nessK pa%nK s#e!!%n'K (eat1 T%ss+e Da)a'e ? Re!ease bra$,k%n%n ;st%)+!ate )ast ce!!s1 b, cap%!!ar, t%ss+e ce!!s ? Nerve %)p+!ses t" !"ca! pa%n recept"r0 )ast ce!!s re!ease (%sta)%ne ? <as"$%!at%"n an$ @ per)eab%!%t, " cap%!!ar%es ;re$ness A !"ca! @ %n T1 ? Ne+tr"p(%!s an$ )acr"p(a'es )%'rate t" s%te " %nP+r,0 p(a'"c,t"s%s " )%cr"bes ? D%ape$es%s ;sE+eeFe t(r+ cap%!!ar, #a!!1 )otes0 P+s - acc+)+!at%"n " $ea$ ne+tr"p(%!s a!"n' #> t%ss+e ce!!sK bacter%a A !%v%n' NHCs Severe %n ect%"n8 !e+k"c,tes re!ease p,r"'ens ;@ te)p1 Fever %n(%b%ts 'r#"t( " )%cr""r'an%s)sK ac%!%t%ates p(a'"c,t"s%sK @ repa%r " t%ss+es Sept%c S("ck - @ everK ? HP b, bacter%a! %n ect%"n %%%. Ant%)%cr"b%a! Pr"te%ns 1K L,"s"F,)e - enF,)e present %n tearsK sa!%va A )+c"+s *. C")p!e)ent s,ste) - *6 ser+) pr"te%ns #(%c( G a casca$e " steps G

!,s%s " )%cr"bes Pr"te%n sea!s t(e %nva$er ? Pr"te%n attac(es t" %nva$er A p+nct+res ce!!)e)brane ? Pr"te%n attac(es t" %nva$er A attracts !e+k"c,te -. Inter er"ns - secrete$ b, v%r+s%n ecte$ ce!!s0 pr"tects ne%'(b"r%n' ce!!s0 b%n$s t" recept"rs " n"n%n ecte$ ce!!s an$ %n$+ce t(e) t" pr"$+ce s+bstances !ar'e E+ant%t%es %n rec")b%nant DNA tec(n"!"', *. Speci!ic 2mmunity - part%c+!ar ant%'en0 !,)p("c,tes ;appen$%& - )at+rat%"n s%te10 b"t( (ave ant%'en recept"rs t(at rec"'n%Fe spec% %c ant%'ens a1 B - lymphocytes - (+)"ra! %))+n%t,0 pr"$+ce$ %n b"ne )arr"#0 p!as)a ce!!s b1 T - lymphocytes - pr"$+ce$ %n t(,)+s0 ce!!-)e$%ate$ %))+n%t, ;ce!!s vs. Ant%'ens1 CHARACTERISTICS OF IMMUNE RESPONSE 2mmune Response - )"+nte$ b, t(e %))+ne s,ste) ;!,)p("c,tes1 a'a%nst pat("'ens "r ant%'ens 1. Antigen-specific - a'a%nst part%c+!ar ant%'ens "r "re%'n s+bstances *. Systemic - n"t restr%cte$ t" %n%t%a! %n ect%"n s%te -. emory - rec"'n%Fes A )"+nt en(ance$ attack "n perv%"+s!, enc"+ntere$ ant%'ens Antigen - "re%'n )"!ec+!e e!%c%ts a spec% %c resp"nse b, !,)p("c,te0 )"!ec+!es %n v%r+sesK bacter%aK +n'%K pr"t"F"aK "re'%n )"!ec+!e at t(e s+r ace " p"!!en>transp!ante$ t%ss+e ant%b"$, 'enerat"r0 (as a )"!ec+!ar s(ape0 st%)+!ates H ce!!s t" secrete ant%b"$%es t(at %nteract spec% %ca!!, #> %t.

CLONAL SELECTION - ant%'en- $r%ven c!"n%n' " L,)p("c,tes - H ce!! %s se!ecte$ b, an ant%'en t" pr"!% erate A $% erent%ate %nt" )e)"r, ce!!s ant%b"$, secret%n' ce!!s ;p!as)a ce!!s1 - eac( %n$%v%$+a! ce!! rec"'n%Fes "n!, "ne t,pe " ant%'en - se!ect%"n " !,)p("c,te b, "ne " t(e )%cr"beIs ant%'ens act%vates t(e !,)p("c,tes st%)+!at%n' %t t" $%v%$e an$ pr"$+ce t#" c!"es " ce!!s8 1. Plasma Cells - e ect"r ce!!s0 $er%vat%ve " H-ce!!s t(at secrete )"re ant%b"$%es t(at rec"'n%Fe ant%'en *. Memory Cells - re)e)bers ant%'en0 c!"ne " !"n'-!%ve$ !,)p("c,tes t(at re)a%ns %n t(e !,)p( n"$e +nt%! act%vate$ b, e&p"s+re t" t(e sa)e ant%'en t(at tr%''ere$ %ts "r)at%"n Ant%'en )"!ec+!es bn$ t" t(e ant%'en recept"r " "ne H ce!! ? Se!ecte$ H ce!! pr"!% erates0 c!"ne " %$ent%ta! ce!!s #> sa)e recept"rs "r t(e se!ect%n' ant%'en ? ? L"n'-!%ve$ S("rt-!%ve$ Memory cells Plasma Cells ;resp"n$, rap%$!, secrete ant%b"$, Up"n s+bseE+ent spec% %c t" t(e e&p"s+re t" ant%'en1 ant%'en IMMUNE RESPONSES ;P A S1 1. Primary 2mmune Response - %n%t%a! resp"nse t" ant%'en0 a ter a !a' " severa! $a,s0 se!ect%ve pr"!% erat%"n A $% erent%at%"n " !,)p("c,tes t(at "cc+rs t(e %rst t%)e t(e b"$, enc"+nters t(e ant%'en *. Secondary 2mmune Response - e!%c%te$ #(en an an%)a! enc"+nters t(e sa)e ant%'en t(e sec"n$ t%)e0 @ rap%$K @ )a'n%t+$eK @ $+rat%"n SELF FROM NON-SELF

1. L,)p("c,tes - #> recept"rs spec% %c "r )"!ec+!es a!rea$, present %n t(e b"$, ;n"n +nct%"na!1 - $estr",e$ v%a ap"pt"s%s>ce!! $eat( - NATIRA8 !,)p("c,tes t(at react t" "re%'n )"!ec+!es0 - capac%t, t" $%st%n'+%s( se! r") n"nse! c"ntr%n+es t" $eve!"p a)"n' !,)p("c,tes even as ce!!s )%'rate t" !,)p(at%c "r'ans *. Sel!-tolerance - n" )at+re !,)p("c,tes react a'a%nst ce!! c")p"nents -. Auto-immune disease - se! -t"!erance a%!e$ ;e.'. M+!t%p!e sc!er"s%s1 .. Ma8or $istocompati#ility Comple(MHC1 - !ar'e set " ce!!-s+r ace ant%'ens enc"$e$ b, a a)%!, " 'enes0 "re%'n MHC )arkers tr%''er T ce!!s resp"nses0 pe"p!e (ave $% erent sets " MHC ;+n%E+e10 b"$,Is rePect%n" " t%ss+e 'ra ts %s $+e t" MHCs a1 C!ass I MHC - present %n a!! n+c!eate$ ce!!s b1 C!ass II MHC - "n!, %n spec%a!%Fe$ t,pes ;e.'. Macr"p(a'esK b ce!!sK act%vate$ T ce!!s A %nter%"r ce!!s " t(e t(,)+s - ce!!s t(at b%n$ t" MHCs a1 C,t"t"&%c T ce!!s - #>ant%'en recept"rs t(at b%n$ #> MHC I H1 He!per T ce!!s - recept"rs t(at b%n$ t" pept%$es $%sb!a,e$ b, c!ass II MHCs CENTRAL ROLE OF THE HELPER TCELL Ant%'en-present%n' ce!! ;APC1 en'+! s bacter%+) ? Transp"rts ra')ent " bacter%+) t" ce!! s+r ace ? C!ass II MHC ? A spec% %c TH ce!!s %s act%vate$0 b%n$s t" t(e MHC ant%'en c")p!e& ? CD. A Inter!+k%n-1 en(ances act%vat%"n

? Act%vate$ TH pr"!% erates '%v%n' r%se t" %$ent%ca! ce!!s ? Ce!!s secrete c,t"k%nes ? F+rt(er st%)+!ate t(e T( ce!!s0 act%vate H ce!!s an$ Tc ce!!s CELL MEDIATED RESPONSE 1. Cytoto-ic T cell- k%!!s %n ecte$ ce!!s A cancer ce!!s *. Antigen Presenting Cell (APC))acr"p(a'es A H ce!!s t(at present $e're$at%"n pr"$+cts ;pept%$e re)nants1 t" (e!per T ce!!s -. Suppressor T cell- re'+!ate %))+ne resp"nse0 s+ppress $evIt " (e!per T ce!!0 %n(%b%ts H ce!! an$ T ce!! .. Memory T cell - c!"ne " !"n' !%ve$ H "r T !,)p("c,tes0 )"b%!%Fe$ ;Sec"n$ar, I.R.1 Macr"p(a'e en'+! s pat("'en ? Ant%'en ra')ent "n ce!! s+r ace8 MHC c!ass I )"!ec+!e ? Tc ce!! act%vate$ b, b%n$%n' t" MHC ? CD4 " Tc ce!! A %nter!e+k%n * r") (e!per T ce!!s en(ance act%vat%"n ? Act%vate$ Tc ce!!s $%sc(ar'e per "r%n )"!ec+!es ? P"res are create$ %n t(e )e)brane " ce!! ? Nater an$ %"ns !"# %nt" t(e %n ecte$ ce!! ? Ce!! !,ses HUMORAL IMMUNE RESPONSE I))+n"'!"b+!%ns 1. 2gMs (pentamer) - %rst c%rc+!at%n' ant%b"$%es t" appear %n resp"nse t" %n%t%a! e&p"s+re0 %n$%cates c+rrent %n ect%"n0 t"" !ar'e t" cr"ss p!acenta

*. 2g9 (monomer) - )"st ab+n$ant0 cr"sses p!acenta0 cr"sses #a!!s " b!""$ vesse!s0 enters t%ss+e !+%$s0 pass%ve %))+n%t, "n et+s0 a'a%nst bacter%a an$ v%r+ses -. 2gA (dimer) - pr"$+ce$8 ce!!s b, ce!!s %n )+c"+s )e)branes0 prevents attac()ent " c%r+ses an$ bacter%a t" ep%t(e!%a! s+r aces0 sa!%vaK persp%rat%"n A tears0 %rst )%!k .. 2g5 (monomer) - s+r aces " H ce!!s0 ant%'en recept"rs t(at (e!p %n%t%ate t(e $% erentat%"n " H ce!!s %nt" p!as)a an$ )e)"r, ce!!s /. 2g+ (monomer) - !ar'er t(an I'D0 represent "n!, a s)a!! ract%"n " t(e ant%b"$%es0 attac( t" )ast ce!!s A bas"p(%!s0 re!eases (%sta)%ne A "t(er c(e)%ca!s ANTIHODB MEDIATED DISPOSAL OF ANTIDEN ;Ops"n%Fat%"n1 1. )eutrali:ation - ant%b"$%es c"ver t"&%c s%tes " ant%'en%c a'ents0 b!"cks v%ra! b%n$%n' s%tes0 c"ats bacter%a *. Agglutination - )+!t%p!e ant%'en%c a'ents are b"+n$ t"'et(er %nt" a c!+)p b, ant%b"$%es0 a''!+t%nat%"n " ant%'en-bear%n' part%c!es -. Precipitation - c")p!e& " ant%'enant"b"$, bec")es %ns"!+b!e an$ prec%p%tates .. ysis (complement) - p"tent ant%b"$%es are capab!e " $%rect!, attack%n' )e)branes0 ca+ses r+pt+re " ce!!s0 act%vat%"n " c")p!e)ent N"tes8 Ls 1-- en(ances )acr"p(a'e L . !ea$s t" ce!! !,s%s IN<ERTEHRATE SIMPLE IMMUNE SBSTEMS 1. Sp"n'es - ce!!s " $% sp"n'es s"rt an$ rea''re'ateK e&c!+$%n' t(e ce!!s " t(e "t(er *. Insects - HEMOLIN ;(e)"!,)p( pr"te%n1 b%n$s t" )%cr"be an$ ass%ts %n $%sp"sa!0 $" n"t e&(%b%t $%vers%t, -. Ec(%n"$er)s - COELOMOCBTES ;a)eb"%$ ce!!s1 t(at p(a'"c,t"se "re%'n )atter0 pr"$+ce %nter!+k%n-10 en'+! ant%'en .. Eart(#"r) - )e)"r, a'a%nst t%ss+e 'ra ts

IMMUNITB AND HEALTH AND DISEASE 1. Active $umoral 2mmunity - $eve!"ps "!!"#%n' e&p"s+re t" ant%'en0 b"$, pr"$+ces "#n ant%b"$, a1 !atural - act+a! bacter%a! "r v%ra! %n ect%"ns b1 Artificial - vacc%nes ;c"nta%n $ea$>#eakene$ pat("'ens #> ant%'en%c $eter)%nants t" st%)+!ate %))+ne resp"nse1 +se$ t" %n$+ce act%ve %))+n%t,0 %))+n%Fat%"n *. Passive $umoral 2mmunity - ant%b"$%es are s+pp!%e$ b, an %))+ne (+)an "r an%)a! $"n"r ;e.'.K )"t(er an$ et+s1 HLOOD TRANSFUSION A TISSUE TRANSPLANTATION 1. Ant%b"$%es vs. N"nse! b!""$ t,pes ;I'Ms1 e&%st %n t(e b"$,. Inc")pat%b!e b!""$ %s k%!!e$ b, ant%b"$, A c")p!e)ent )e$%ate$ !,s%s *. R( act"r creates $% %c+!t%es #(en R()"t(er carr%es s+ccess%ve R(J et+ses. Pre'nanc, " 1st R(J bab,K )")Is %))+ne s,ste) $eve!"pes ant%-R( ;I'D1 #(%c( can cr"ss p!acenta an$ attack RHCs " s+bseE+ent R(J et+s1 Er,t(r"b!ast"es%s Feta!%s - (e)"!,t%c $%sease -. @ s+cess %n "r'an>t%ss+e transp!antat%"n $"n"r an$ rec%p%ent MHC t%ss+e t,pes are c")pat%b!e0 %))+n"s+ppress%ve $r+'s prevent rePect%"n0 b"ne )arr"# transp!antat%"n - 'ra t vs. H"st react%"n AHNORMAL IMMUNE FUNCTION 1. Allergic Reactions - a!!er'en ;e.'. P"!!en1 tr%''ers (%sta)%ne re!ease r") )ast ce!!s A!!er'%es - (,persens%t%ve ;e&a''erate$1 resp"nses t" certa%n envtI! ant%'ens8 a!!er'ens Anap(,!act%c s("ck - ac+te a!!er'%c resp"nse0 !% e-t(reaten%n' react%"n t" %n'este$ a!!er'en0 ca+ses #%$esprea$ )ast ce!! $e'ran+!at%"n G abr+pt $%!at%"n

" per%p(era! b!""$ vesse!s G ? HP G $eat( F%rst e&p"s+re t" a!!er'en ? H ce!!s $eve!"p %nt" p!as)a ce!!s ? Secrete I'E ant%b"$%es "r a!!er'en ? Ant%b"$%es b%n$ b, ta%!s t" )ast ce!! ? *n$ e&p"s+re - a!!er'en b%n$s t" I'E a!rea$, "n )ast ce!!s ? Tr%''er $e'ran+!at%"n ? Ce!!+!ar 'ran+!es ;ves%c!es1 re!ease (%sta)%ne ? A!!er'%c react%"n *. Autoimmune 5isease - %))+ne s,ste) !"ses t"!erance t" se! a1 Systemic "upus #rythematous ant%b"$%es vs. A!! s"rts " se! )"!ec+!es0 sk%n ras(esK everK art(r%t%sK k%$ne, )a! +nct%"n b1 Rheumatoid arthritis - %n !a))at%"n " cart%!a'e an$ b"ne " P"%nts c1 $nsulin- dependent diabetes - beta ce!!s " pancreas8 tar'ets " a+t"ant%b"$%es $1 ultiple sclerosis - T ce!!s %n %!trate t(e CNS A $estr", ),e!%n -. 2mmunode!iciency 5iseases - c"+!$ be %nb"rn>acE+%re$ a1 Se%ere Combined $mmunodeficiency - b"t( branc(es " %))+ne s,ste) a%! t" +nct%"n b1 &odg'in(s disease - cancers t(at s+ppress %))+ne s,ste)0 $a)a'e !,)p(at%c s,ste) c1 Ac)uired $mmune Deficiency Syndrome - ca+se$ b, HI< v%r+s .. A25S - 'p1*6 " AIDS v%r+s attack CD.0 )arke$ b, !"#er (e!per T ce!! !eve!s A "pp"rt+n%st%c $%seasesK %n ect%"ns an$ cancers N"te8

 Ce!!-)e$%ate$ - T-!,)p("c,tes $estr", H+)"ra! ;Ant%b"$,-)e$%ate$1 - b!,)p("c,tes secrete ant%b"$%es t" $estr", Ant%b"$,- H%n'e ;a$P+st)ent " p"s%t%"n " st%ck, en$s10 Free en$ - )arker s%'na! t(at a!erts p(a'"c,tes Act%ve %))+n%t, - b"$, )akes "#n ant%b"$%es0 pass%ve - s+pp!, " pre "r)e$ ant%b"$%es EOCRETORB SBSTEM

SIDNIFICANCE 1. +-cretion - r%$$%n' t(e b"$, #> #aste res+!t%n' r") )etab"!%s) ;n%tr"'en"+s #aste !%ke +reaK a))"n%a an$ +r%c ac%$ an$ "t(ers !%ke e&cess #aterK 'asesK "r'an%c )ater%a!s an$ sa!ts1 Pr"te%ns ? A)%n" Ac%$s ? A))"n%a ; %s(es1 N+c!e%c Ac%$s ? N%tr"'en"+s #astes

? -NH* A)%n" 'r"+ps ? ? Urea Ur%c Ac%$ ;)a))a!s1 ;b%r$s1

r") %nterst%t%a! !+%$0 "s)"re'+!at%"n .. 2nsects - )a!p(%'%an t+b+!es0 "s)"re'+!at%"n A re)"va! " n%tr"'en"+s #astes0 "+tp"cket%n' bet#een )%$'+t A (%n$'+t0 "pens %nt" !+)en " t(e DI trat0 '+t #ater A s+bstances are reabs"rbe$0 +re%c ac%$ passes "+t " '+t /. Collem#olas . Springtails a1 Fat b"$%es - "r'an%c #astes b1 E&"ske!et"n - )ater%a!s $ep"s%te$ %n %t are e!%)%nate$ #(en an%)a! )"!ts 2. Spiders - c"&a! '!an$s0 !""r " t(e cep(a!"t("ra& e)pt, b, $+cts 3. Crustaceans - 'reen '!an$s0 re)"ve "r'an%c #astes r") b!""$ A b"$, !+%$s 4. A=uatic Arthropods . mollus%s nep(r"st")e "pen%n' t" c"e!") A nep(r%$%"p"re 5. +arth7orm - )etanep(r%$%a0 e&cret"r, an$ "s)"re'+!at%"n0 "pen at b"t( en$s0 eac( se')ent (as a nep(r%$%+) #(%c( $ra%ns !+%$ t(r+ a a1 Nep(r"st")e - r") t(e t(e c"e!e) " an"t(er se')ent b1 H!a$$er- t+b+!ar en!ar'e)ent "r st"ra'e c1 Nep(r%$%"p"re - "pen%n' t" "+ts%$e <ERTEHRATE EOCRETORB 1. Pronephros - %rst t" appear %n e)br,"0 +nct%"na! %n !arvae0 trans%ent *. Mesonephros - )%$$!e part0 +nct%"na! k%$ne, " %s(es an$ a)p(%b%ans0 e)br,"n%c k%$ne, ;rept%!esK b%r$sK )a))a!s1 -. Metanephros - !ast t" $eve!"p0 n" nep(r"st")es0 )an, '!")er+!%0 !ast t" appear0 +nct%"na! k%$ne, ;repK b%r$sK )a))a!s1 URETER 1. A)p(%b%ansK Rept%!es AH%r$s- * +reters $%sc(ar'e %nt" c!"aca t" #(%c( +r%nar, b!a$$er c"nnects *. Ma))a!s - +reters c"nnect t" b!a$$er0 )e$%an $+ct ;+ret(ra1 $%sc(ar'e t" e&ter%"r pass%n' t(r+ pen%s Ur"'en%ta! S,ste)- %nterre!ate$ e&cret"r,

*. ;smoregulation - pr"cess " re'+!at%n' #ater A sa!t c"ntent0 )a%nta%n p(,s%"c(e)%ca! ba!ance ;appr"pr%ate b"$, c(e)1 a1 Os)"!ar%t, - $epen$s "n c"ncentrat%"n " )%nera! %"ns EOCRETORB SBSTEMS %nvertebrates 1. Proto:oans - A)"eba0 )ar%ne spec%es ;Ce!! )e)brane10 res(#ater ;c"ntract%!e vac+"!e1 *. Sponges . Cnidarians - $% +s%"n t(r+ p%nac"$er) -. &lat7orms< Roti!ers . Ri##on7orms!a)e ce!! s,ste) ;pr"t"n"p(r%$%a10 e&cret"r, t+b+!e !acks %nterna! "pen%n'0 branc(%n' t+b+!e !ea$%n' t" "+ts%$e " b"$, ;nep(r%$%"p"re10 $ra%ns )ater%a!s $%rect!,

an$ repr"$+ct%ve s,ste)s " vertebrates HUMAN URINARB SBSTEM 1. /idneys - bean s(ape$0 re$$%s( br"#n0 retr"per%t"nea!!, !"cate$ *. 3 6reters - +r%ne r") k%$ne, t" b!a$$er -. "ladder - st"res +r%ne Sp(%ncter )+sc!e ;prevent back !"#1 .. 6rethra - e&%t " +r%ne0 t(r+ pen%s ;)a!e10 ventra! t" va'%na! "pen%n' ; e)a!e1 NEPHRON 1. Renal Corpuscle/Malphigian "ody%!trat%"n " b!""$ a1 H"#)anIs Caps+!e - s%n'!e !a,er " !attene$ ce!!s rest%n' "n base)ent )e)brane0 "r)s $%sten$e$K b!%n$ en$ " rena! t+b+!e b1 D!")er+!+s - t%'(t!, c"%!e$ net#"rk " anast")"s%n' cap%!!ar%es0 %nveste$ b, a !a,er " ep%t(e!%a! ce!!s8 p"$"c,tes8 part " %!trat%"n )e)brane0 p!as)aG'!")er+!+sGH.C.Grena! t+b+!e %. A erent arter%"!e - s+pp!%es '!")er+!+s %%. E erent arter%"!e - $ra%ns '!")er+!+s0 r%se t" vasa reta #(%c( ret+rn t" 'en. C%rc. Reabs"rbe$ )"!ec+!es0 branc(es "+t t"8 per%t+b+!ar cap%!!ar%es ;PCT an$ DCT1 A vasa recta ;!""p " (en!e1 *. Renal Tu#ule - reabs"rpt%"n " %)p"rtant s+bstances0 secret%"n " "t(er )ater%a!s0 !%ne$ b, a s%n'!e !a,er " ep%t(e!%a! ce!!s a1 PCT - !"n'er t(an DCT0 s%)p!e c"!+)nar t" c+b"%$a!0 )%cr"v%!!% "r reabs"rpt%"n0 #> )%t"c("n$r%a ac%$"p(%!%c c,t"p!as)0 REAHSORPTION b1 L""p " Hen!e c1 DCT $1 CT R+&ta'!")er+!ar apparat+s - Mac+!a

$ense ce!!s " DCT A RD ce!!s " a erent arter%"!e PHBSIOLODB OF HUMAN URINARB SBTEM 1. &iltration - HP "rces !+%$ r") b!""$ t" '!")er+!+s t" !+)en " H"#)anIs Caps+!e ;e.'. NaterK '!+c"seK a)%n" ac%$sK sa!tsK +reaK +r%c ac%$sK creat%n%ne1 *. Rea#sorption - F%!trate %n rena! t+b+!e G %nterst%t%a! !+%$ G Per%t+b+!ar cap%!!ar%es #(%c( s+rr"+n$ c"nv+!+te$ t+b+!esG b!""$ s,ste) ;e.'. NaterK !+c"seK a)%n" ac%$sK sa!ts1 -. Secretion - act%ve transp"rt0 b!""$ t" DCT0 H!""$ s,ste) G Per%t+b+!ar cap%!!ar%es G %nterst%t%a! !+%$ G F%!trate %n rena! t+b+!e0 ;e.'.K +r%c ac%$K creat%n%neK HJK NH.JK pen%c%!!%n1 .. Rea#sorption (>ater) - !""p " nep(r"n A c"!!ect%n' $+ct0 b, "s)"s%s "!!"#%n' act%ve reabs"rpt%"n " NaJ /. +-cretion - +r%ne "r)at%"n ;NaterK sa!tsK +reaK +r%c ac%$K a))"n%+)K creat%n%ne1 COUNTERCURRENT MULTIPLIER EFFECT - %nv"!ves !""p " (en!e an$ c"!!ect%n' $+cts - c"+nter-c+rrent8 "pp"s%te $%rect%"ns " !+%$ )"ve)ent %n t#" !%)bs " t(e !""p " Hen!e - )+!t%p!%cat%"n8 @ "s)"t%c c"ncentrat%"n %n t(e )e$+!!a G %"n e&c(an'e bet#een * !%)bs " !""p " (en!e F%!trate r") '!")er+!+s t(r+ $escen$%n' !""p " Hen!e ? Nater passes "+t " $escen$%n' ar) b, "s)"s%s ? C"ncentratate$ %!trate ;266-1*661 !e t be(%n$ ? C"ncentrate$ %!trate t(r+ ascen$%n' ar)K n+tr%ents pass %nt" s+rr"+n$%n' t%ss+e ;carr%e$ a#a, b, b!""$ vesse!s1 ? Act%ve Transp"rt c(anne!s8 p+)p "+t NaC! %n +pper re'%"n0 +rea %s !e t be(%n$ %n t(e %!trate0

ascen$%n' !""p8 n%tr"'en"+s #astes A HJ e&crete$ %nt" +r%ne ? T+b+!e e)pt%es %nt" CT passes back t(r+ t%sse! c"ncentrate$ +rea %n %!trate $% +ses %nt" t%ss+e ? @ +rea c"ncentrat%"n0 @ #ater t" pass "+t#ar$ r") %!trate t(r+ "s)"s%s! %!trate !e t8 sa!tsK n+tr%ent0 re)"ve$ #ater8 +r%ne PHBSIOLODICAL MECHANISMS FOR CONTROLLIND URINARB OUTPUT - k%$ne, (as t(e ab%!%t, t" a$P+st b"t( v"!+)e A "s)"!ar%t, " +r%ne - ("r)"nes re'+!ate #ater reabs"rpt%"n b, CTs H%'( b!""$ "s)"!ar%t, %s sense$ b, (,p"t(a!a)%c "s)"recept"rs ? P%t+%tar, '!an$ re!eases ADH ;Ant%-$%e+ret%c ("r)"ne "r vas"pres%n1 ? @ per)eab%!%t, " CT ? Nater reabs"rpt%"n ? L"#er H!""$ "s)"!ar%t, - $%+res%s - pr"$+ct%"n " v"!+)%n"+s +r%ne ;teaK a!c"("!K c" ee1 ROLE OF HUMAN HEMODBNAMICS Mec(an"recept"rs ;sens%t%ve t" press+re c(an'es1 %n a erent arter%"!e ? Ren%n pr"$+ct%"n ? Act%vates An'%"ntens%n II ? ? <as"c"nstr%ct%"n A$rena! '!an$ st%)+!at%"n ? ? ? NaJ "r ? HP Act%vate A!$"ster"ne ? @ NaJ reabs"rpt%"n0@ b!""$ NaJ ?

RDA Ren%n-An'%"tens%n-A!$"ster"ne S,ste) - c"ntr"!s b!""$ NaJ !eve!s A HP Atr%a! Natr%+ret%c Fact"r - secrete$ b, atr%a! ),"c,tes10 ? HP0 %nc NaJ secret%"n A e&cret%"n0 "pp"s%n' RAAS0 ? re!ease " ren%n r") RD ce!!s0 ? A!$"ster"ne re!ease OSMOREDULATION IN AQUATIC FISH 1. Mar%ne F%s( - (,pert"n%c envIt0 !"ses #ater b, "s)"s%s an$ 'a%ns sa!t b, $% +s%"n0 a1 Dr%nk%n' !ar'e a)"+nts " sea #ater b1 P+)p%n' NaC! "+t v%a C! ce!!s %n '%!!s>sk%n c1 D%sp"sa! " e&cess CaJ*K M'J* an$ SO.-* %"ns t(r+ k%$ne,s $1 Scant, +r%ne *. Fres(#ater %s( - (,per"s)"t%c t" s+rr"+n$%n'0 'a%ns #ater b, "s)"s%s an$ !"ses sa!t b, $% +s%"n a1 Eat%n' p!ants A an%)a!s #> sa!t c"ntent b1 P+)p%n' NaC! %n v%a C! ce!!s c1 E&cret%n' c"p%+s an$ $%!+te +r%ne OSMOREDULATION IN TERRESTRIAL ORDANISMS Lan$ an%)a!s- $ess%cat%"n a1 $r%nk%n' A eat%n' ""$ #> (%'( #ater b1 Nerv"+s an$ ("r)"na! c"ntr"! " s#e#at%n' c1 He(av%"ra! a$aptat%"ns $1 Nater-c"nserv%n' e&cret"r, "r'ans ENDOCRINE SBSTEM CELL SIDNALIND 1. Cell communication - $"ne v%a s%'na! trans$+ct%"n )ec(an%s) *. Signal transduction mechanism e&"'en"+s )"!ec+!e %s rece%ve$ b, a ce!! A c"nverte$ ;trans$+ct%"n1 %nt" a resp"nse SIDNAL TRANSDUCTION PATHNAB 1. Reception - !"ck A ke, (,p"t(es%s0 !%'an$ )"!ec+!es are rec"'n%Fe$ b, "n!, "ne recept"r pr"te%n b"+n$ #>%n a ce!! )e)brane *. Transduction - c"n "r)at%"n c(an'e %n

recept"r0 res+!t r") %nteract%"n #> "t(er %ntrace!!+!ar )"!ec+!es0 res+!t %n )+!t%p!e c"n "r)at%"n>str+ct+ra! c(an'es %n "t(er ce!!+!ar pr"te%ns -. Response - ce!!+!ar act%v%t, ;e.'.K enF,)e cata!,s%s>rearran'e)ent " c,t"ske!et"nK spec% %c 'ene act%v%t,1 TBPES OF SIDNALIND 1. Paracrine ( ocal) - c(e). Messen'ers are tar'ete$ t" spec% %c recept"rs a1 Dr"#t( act"r pr"te%ns - ce!! $%v%s%"n an$ 'r"#t( b1 Ne+r"trans)%tters - s,napses t" "t(er ne+r"ns *.+ndocrine (distant) - spec%a!%Fe$ ce!!s re!ease )"!ec+es %nt" b!""$ vesse!s0 ("r)"nes )"ve t" $%stant tar'et ce!!s -. Cell to cell - s%'na!%n' %s $%rect ;E.'. Dap P+nct%"n - car$%ac )+sc!e c"ntract%"n0 p!as)"$es)ata- transp"rt %"ns1 Nerv"+s A En$"cr%ne C"ntr"! Feat+re En$"cr%ne S,ste) F+nct%"n In !+ences act%v%t%es " ce!!s b, )eans " ("r)"nes>c( e)%ca! )essen'ers C"ntr"! b, re'+!at"r, ee$back !""ps E ect"r A!! t%ss+es E ect"r ce!!s Tar'et ce!!s t(r"+'("+t t(e b"$, C(e)%ca! H"r)"ne )essen'ers Ce!!s t(at D!an$+!ar secrete ep%t(e!%a!>ne+ c(e)%ca! r"secret"r, Nerv"+s S,ste) Re'+!at%"n " e ect"rs "r (")e"stas%s

)essen'er D%stance trave!!e$ L"cat%"n " recept"r Re'+!at"r, e ects

L"n'c%rc+!at"r, b!""$ P!as)a )e)brane> #>%n t(e ce!! S!"# t" appear0 !"n' !ast%n'

S("rt s,napse P!as)a )e)brane Rap%$!,0 s("rt !%ve$

FUNCTIONS 1. Repr"$+ct%ve *. Dr"#t( A Deve!"p)ent -. M"b%!%Fat%"n " b"$, $e enses .. Ma%ntenance " e!ectr"!,teK #aterK an$ n+tr%ent ba!ance " t(e b!""$ /. Ce!!+!ar )etab"!%s) HORMONES - c(e)%ca! )essen'ers secrete$ b, en$"cr%ne '!an$sK transp"rte$ %n t(e c%rc+!at%"n t" tar'et ce!!s #(ere t(e, re'+!ate )etab"!%c pr"cesses - Target cell - ("+ses spec% %c recept"r "r a part%c+!ar ("r)"ne - TBPES8 1. Ster"%$ ;estr"'enK test"ster"neK a!$"ster"neK c"rt%s"!K ec$,s"ne1 *. P"!,pept%$e H"r)"nes ;ADHK "&,t"c%nK %ns+!%nK '!+ca'"nK ACTH1 -. D!,c"pr"te%ns ;FSHK LHK TSH1 .. I"$%ne- c"nta%n%n' a)%n" ac%$s - t(,r"%$ ("r)"ne MECHANISM OF HORMONE ACTION 1. Ster"%$ H"r)"ne - re'+!at%"n " 'ene e&press%"n H%n$%n' " ster"%$ ("r)"ne t" recept"r ? Trans!"cat%"n " ster"%$ recept"r c")p!e& t" n+c!e+s ? H%n$%n' " c")p!e& t" DNA re'+!at"r, s%te ? H"r)"ne resp"ns%ve e!e)ents Transcr%pt%"n ?

M+sc!e an$ '!an$+!ar P"sts,napt%c ce!!s ;)+sc!e AD!an$+!ar1 Ne+r"trans)% tter ne+r"ns

Trans!at%"n *. Pr"te%n H"r)"ne Pr"te%n ("r)"nes b%n$ t" a spec% %c recept"r pr"te%n %n t(e p!ast)a )e)brane ? H"r)"ne recept"r c")pe& act%vates D pr"te%n ? H%n$s t" DTP ? P"rt%"n " c")p!e& sp!%ts " an$ act%vates a$en,!ate c,c!ase ? N(%c( acts "n ATP t" pr"+ce ? cAMP ? n$ * )essen'er act%vates enF,)e casca$e ? EnF,)e act%vat%"nK ce!!+!ar sect%"n>per)eab%!%t, c(an'es H"r)"ne a)p!% %cat%"n - eac( act%vate$ c")p"nent can t+rn "n )an, $% . Tar'et )"!ec+!es0 act%vat"n casca$e Invertebrate En$"cr%ne S,ste) 1. H,$ra- ("r)"ne st%)+!ates 'r"#t( an$ b+$$%n' ;ase&+a!1 an$ prevents se&+a! repr"$+ct%"n *. Anne!%$s - (")r"ne st%)+!ates e'' pr"$+ct%"n0 %n(%b%ts b"$, 'r"#t( -. M"!!+sks - st%)+!ate !a,%n' " ne+r"n ba' ce!!s ;t("+san$s " e''s1 .. Insect DevIt - ne+r"secret"r, ;nerve ce!!s>ne+r"ns pr"$+ce1 /. M"!t%n' " Cr+staceans O "r'an-s%n+s '!an$ c")p!e& ;e,esta!k1 ? M"!t-%n(%b%t%n' ("r)"ne ? In(%b%ts B-"r'an ;ep%t(e!%a! %n t(e (ea$1 ? M"!t st%)+!at%n' H"r)"ne ? Ec$,s"ne HBPOTHALAMO-PITUITARB AOIS 1. H,p"t(a!a)"-anter%"r p%t+%tar,- anter%"r

p%t+%tar, ;a$en"(,p"p(,s%s1 pr"$+ce pept%$e ("r)"nes an$ secrete t(e)0 ("r)"ne re!ease c"ntr"!!e$ b, (,p"t(a!a)+s0 ne+r"secret"r, ce!!s %n (,p"t(a!a)+s secrete re!eas%n' act"rs t" %n(%b%t "r st%)+!ate spec% %c ("r)"nes--9 act%vates secret%"n r") $% en$"cr%ne "r'ans *. H,p"t(a!a)"-P"ster%"r P%t+%tar, A&%sNe+r"secret"r, ce!!s %n (p"t(a!a)+s s,nt(es%Fe "&,t"c%n A ant%$%+ret%c ("r)"ne0 st"re$ %n p"ster%"r p%t+%tar,0 p%t+%tar, '!an$ re!eases ("r)"nes %nt" b!""$ #(ere t(e, c%rc+!ate an$ b%n$ t" tar'et ce!!s %n t(e k%$ne, an$ )arr, '!an$s an$ +ter+s A$ren"(,p"p(,s%s Ne+r"(,p"p(,s%s H,p"t(a!a)%c an$ ADH Ne+r"secreter, ce!!s O&,t"c%n Dr"#t( H"r)"ne A$ren"c"rt%c"tr"p%c H"r)"ne T(,r"%$ St%)+!at%n' H"r)"ne D"n$"t"tr"p%c H"r)"nes ;FSH ALH1 Me!an"c,te St%)+!at%n' H"r)"ne ;MSH1 Pr"!act%n ;PRL1 FEEDHACC 1. Positive - ? !eve! " ("r)"ne = @ resp"nse *. )egative - a!)"st a!! ("r)"nes0 re$+ct%"n %n c"ncentrat%"n st%)+!ates a$$tI! secret%"n A @ %n c"ncentrat%"n %n(%b%ts secret%"n HBPOTHALAMUS - re'+!ates b"$, te)pK breat(%n'K (+n'er A t(%rst0 %nterna! envIt - Master S#t%c(b"ar$ - re'+!ates t#"-!"be$ P%t+%tar, '!an$ b, re!eas%n' t(e re!eas%n' "r re!ease-%n(%b%t%n' ("r)"nes - !%nks nerv"+s t" en$"cr%ne - )eurosecretory cells - pr"$+ce ("r)"nes e%t(er st"re$ %n t(e P%t. D!an$ "r re'+!ate t(e

P%t.Is act%v%t, - c"nt%n+"+s!, c(eck%n' c"n$%t%"ns %ns%$e t(e b"$, - (,p"t(a!a)+s J p%t+%tar, '!an$ = pr%)ar, re'+!at"rs " en$"cr%ne s,ste) PITUITARB DLAND 1. Posterior - * ("r)"nes pr"$+ce$ b,>re!ease$ r") (,p"t(a!a)+s a1 A5$ or Vasopression - c"!!ect%n' t+b+!e " ce!!s " k%$ne,s t" "r) )"re c"ncentrate$ +r%neK c"nserv%n' #aterK k%$ne,s pr"$+ce +r%ne #%t( @ s"!+te c"ncentrat%"n b1 ;-ytocin - c"ntract%"ns " +ter+s $+r%n' !ab"r0 re!ease " )%!k *. Anterior - )aster '!an$ a1 )eurosecretory cells %n (,p"t(a!a)+s - pr"$+ce A secrete re!eas%n' ("r)"nes t(at st%)+!ate en$"cr%ne ce!!s " t(e Ant. P%t. L"be t" pr"$+ce an$ secrete ("r)"nes b1 Ot(er (,p"t(a!a)%c ce!!s - Re!ease%n(%b%t%n' H"r)"nes ;t(ere %s at !ease "ne re!eas%n' ("r)"ne "r eac( anter%"r p%t+%tar, ("r)"ne1 THRBOID DLAND - T(,r"%$ St%)+!at%n' H"r)"ne - re'+!ates t(,r"%$ '!an$ - ? t(,r"&%n = ? ce!!+!ar resp%rat%"n rate - D"%ter - s#e!!%n' " t(,r"%$ '!an$ as a res+!t " I* $e %ec%enc, 1. C"!!"%$ '"%ter - en!ar'e)ent " '"%ter *. En$e)%c '"%ter- $e %c%ent %n %"$%ne0 - Cret%n%s) - $#ar %s) an$ )enta! retar$at%"n - Pr"$+ces; reE+%res %"$%ne18 1. Thyro-in . Triiodothyronine - )etab"!%c act%v%t%es0 HR0 HP0 H"$, te)p0 carb"(,$rate +sa'e "ver at +sa'e *. Calcitonin - C-ce!!s0 %n(%b%ts re!ease " Ca*J r") b"nes>re'+!ates Ca !eve! %n b!""$ PARATHBROID DLANDS - pr"$+ces parat(,r"%$ ("r)"ne - re'+!ates CaJ !eve! %n b!""$ b, %nc reabs"rpt%"n " Ca

%n k%$ne,s A %nc +ptake " ca!c%+) r") $%'est%ve s,ste)0 %)p"rtant %n pr")"t%n' pr"per nerve a)$ )+sc!e +nct%"n A b"ne str+ct+re - Tetan, - v%"!ent )+sc+!ar spas)s ca+se$ b, a $r"p %n t(e !eve! " CaJ %n t(e b!""$ ADRENAL DLANDS ;c"rte& A )e$+!!a1 - "n t"p t(e k%$ne, 1. ;uter - Adrenal Corte-t - 46S " )ass0 resp"n$s t" A$ren"c"rt%c"tr"p%c H"r)"ne ;ACTH1 secrete$ b, Ant. P%t. D!an$0 pr"$+ces a1 C"rt%c"ster"%$s0 b1 A!$"ster"ne - re'+!ate reabs"rpt%"n " NaJ an$ e&cret%"n " CJ b, k%$ne,s ;#ater an$ sa!t ba!ance10 c1 C"rt%s"! - a ects carb"(,$rateK pr"te%nK A at )etab"!%s) - D%seases a1 A$$%s"nIs $%sease - ? #e%'(t !"ss ? HP #eakness b1 C+s(%n' S,n$r")e - "bes%t,K %nc b!""$ s+'ar !eve!sK (%'( HPK #eaken%n' b"nes0 treat)ent8 ? sect%"n " (,peract%ve ("r)"ne *. Adrenal Medulla - %nner p"rt%"n8 part " s,)pat(et%c nerv"+s s,ste)0 %'(t "r !%'(t ("r)"nes are nerve %)p+!ses ") t(e SNS %n t(e secret%"n " 8 a1 A$rena!%ne - p"#er +!0 46S t"ta! secet%"ns0 @ HRK HPK b!""$ s+pp!, t" ske!eta! )+sc!esK c"nvers%"n " '!,c"'en t" '!+c"seK rate " )etab"!%s) b1 N"ra$rena!%ne - st%)+!ates HRK @ rate A stren't( " (eartbeat DONADS - "var%es an$ testes - 'a)ete-pr"$+c%n' "r'ans0 'r"+p " ster"%$ se& ("r)"nes #(%c( re'+!ate b"$, c(an'es %n p+bert, - Ant. P%t. D!an$ --9 L+te%n%F%n' HOr)"ne A F"!!%c!e- St%)+!at%n' ("r)"ne ;FSH1--9 secret%"n " se& ("r)"nes r") '"na$s - "var%es8 1. Estr"'ens - $evIt " "va A p(,s. c(aracter%st%cs

*. Pr"'ester"ne - +ters "r t(e arr%va! " $eve!"p%n' e)br,"0 )en+str+a! c,c!e - testes8 1. A$r"'ens - )a!e se& ("r)"ne0 reE+%re$ "r n"r)a! sper) pr"$+ct%"n *. Test"ster"ne - an an$r"'en t(at re'+!ates )a!e sec"n$ar, se& c(aracter%st%cs PANCREAS - e&"cr%ne an$ en$"cr%ne - %s!ets " Lan'er(ans- beta ce!!s8 %ns+!%n ;+se '!+c"se t" '!,c"'en1 an$ a!p(a ce!!s8 '!+ca'"n ;'!,c"'en t" '!+c"se0 @ '!+c"se !eve!s %n b!""$1 - t(ese re'+!ate t(e )etab"!%s) " b!""$ '!+c"se ;anta'"n%st%c1 - D%abetes )e!!%t+s- +n$ersecret%"n " %ns+!%n 1. T,pe 1 "r R+ven%!e "nset - !%tt!e "r n" %ns+!%n pr"$+ct%"n ;%nb"rn1 *. T,pe II "r a$+!t "nset - a ter a'e .6K n"r)a! a)"+nts " %ns+!%n pr"$+ce$ b+t %ns+!%n recept"r %s $e ect%ve. -. H,p"'!,ce)%a - e&cess %ns+!%nK !"# b!""$ s+'ar0 '!+c"se %s st"re$ rat(er t(an $e!%vere$ t" ce!!s .. H,per'!,ce)%a - !"# %ns+!%n "r (%'( b!""$ s+'ar THBMUS DLAND - beaneat( stern+) - c"ns%sts " T ce!!s - t(,)"s%n - st%)+!ates>act%vates T ce!!s PINEAL DLAND - near base " bra%n - secretes )e!at"n%n8 re'+!ates s!eep DIDESTI<E ORDANS - en$"cr%ne ce!!s %n st")ac( !%n%n' secrete 'astr%n8 st%)+!ates st")ac( ce!!s t" re!ease $%'est%ve enF,)es an$ HC! - s)a!! %ntest%ne8 secret%n8 re!ease $%'est%ve !+%$s r") pancreas an$ b%!e r") !%ver REPRODUCTI<E SBSTEM REPRODUCTION - pr"cess %n #(%c( ne# %n$%v%$+a!s are pr"$+ce$ r") parent %n$%v%$+a!s

MODES OF REPRODUCTION 1. Ase-ual (6niparental)- s%n'!e parent b+$sK ra')ents "r $%v%$es t" '%ve r%se t" " spr%n'0 c!"ne0 n" +s%"n " n+c!e% a1 H%nar, F%ss%"n - b"$, " parent $%v%$e$ %nt" * b1 M+!t%p!e F%ss%"n - parent ce!! '%ves r%se t" severa! " spr%nt ce!!s s%)+!tane"+s!, ;v%a sc(%F"'"n,sp!%tt%n' %nt" severa! c")p"nents>sp"r"'"n,- "r)at%"n " sp"res 1 c1 H+$$%n' - $%v%s%"n " parent "r'an%s) ;%nterna! vs. E&terna!1 $1 Fra')entat%"n ;P!as)"t"),1 - parent ce!! sp"ntane"+s!, sp!%ts +p %nt" * "r )"re ra')entsK "r)s t(e )%ss%n' parts *. Se-ual Reproduction ("iparental) repr"$+ct%ve "r'ans nee$e$ "r +s%"n " 'a)etes a1 C"nP+'at%"n - te)p"rar, +n%"n " * %n$%v%$+a!s t" e&c(an'e 'a)et%c n+c!e% ;e.'. Cr"ss ert%!%Fat%"n1 b1 C"p+!at%"n ;Fert%!%Fat%"n1 - +s%"n " sper) an$ e'' n+c!e% %. E&terna! - aE+at%c %%. Interna! - sper) %nt" b"$, " t(e e)a!e 1. Sper)at"p"re - p"cket " enc!"se$ sper) *. Sper)at(eca - +n%E+e "r'an attac(e$ t" va'%na #(ere sper) %s c"!!ecte$ -. Inter)%ttent "r'ans - pen%s A$vanta'es Ase&+a! Rap%$%t,0 s%)p!%c%t,0 ec"n"), Se&+a! Denet%c varat%"n0 " spr%n' are capab!e " s+rv%va! t(an parents ReE+%res )"re t%)e

D%sa$vanta'e s

Cann"t ev"!ve an$

c"pe an$ e "rt REPRODUCTI<E <ARIATIONS 1. Parthogenesis - v%r'%n "r%'%ns0 $evIt " an e'' %nt" a en# %n$%v%$+a! #>" ert%!%Fat%"n *. Polyem#ryony - ert"!%Fat%"n " a s%n'!e e'' b, severa! t" )an, sper)s $+e t" n"n +nct%"na! F,'"te -. Metagenesis - a!ternat%"n " se&+a! an$ ase&+a! 'enerat%"n .. $ermaphroditism - an%)a! p"ssesses b"t( )a!e an$ e)a!e0 se! - ert%!%Fat%"n /. Arti!icial insemination - sper)s are $ep"s%te$ %n t(e e)a!e str+ct+re b, c(e)%ca! )eans HUMAN MALE REPRODUCTI<E 1. Testes - !eaves ab$")en * )"s be "re b%rt(0 Cr,pt"c(%$%s) - testes $"es n"t $escen$0 "r pr"$+ct%"n " )a!e 'a)etes an$ secret%"n " )a!e se& ("r)"ne0 Se)%n% er"+s t+b+!es - str+ct+re +n%t " testes a1 Sper)at"'en%c Ser%es Sper)at"'"n%a ? Sper)at"c,tes ? Sper)at%$s ? Sper)at"F"a b1 N"nsper)at"'en%c ser%es - sert"!%0 !e,$%' *. S,ste) " $+cts a1 Se)%n% er"+s T+b+!e b1 Rete testes- net"#rk " $e!%vate t+b+!es %n t(e (%!+) " test%c!e c1 E erent $+ct+!es - rete test%s #> %n%t%a! sect%"n " ep%$%$,)%s $1 Ep%$%$,)%s - c"nnect%n' e erent $+cts r") t(e rear " eac( test%c!e t" vas $e erens0 sper) )at+rat%"n ;)"t%!%t, an$ ert%!%Fat%"n capac%t,1 e1 D+ct+s $e erens - $+ct #(ere se)en %s carr%e$ r") ep%$%$+)%s t" ePac+!at"r, $+ct 1 EPac+!at"r, $+ct - +n%"n " vas $e erens #> $+ct " t(e se)%na!

ves%c!e N"te8 Parts " sper) Acr"s")e - enc!"se$ !,s"s")e #> (,$r"!,t%c enF,)es ;(,a!+r"n%$ase A pr"te%nases1 N+c!e+s - #> (ap!"%$ n+)ber " c(r")"s")es Centr%"!e - pr"$+ce )%cr"t+b+!es #(%c( e!"n'ate0 "r)%n' a&%a! %!a)ent " !a'e!!+) M%t"c("n$r%a - s+rr"+n$%n' !a'e!!+)0 t" re!ease ATP reE+%re$ "r c"ntract%"n " %!a)ents F!a'e!!+) - 5J* arran'e)ent0 )"ve)ent -. D!an$s a1 Se)%na! ves%c!e - )e)bran"+s p"+c(es p"ster%"r t" b!a$$er near base0 secretes a!ka!%ne n+tr%entc"nta%n%n' !+%$ ; r+ct"seK %br%n"'enK v%ta)%n C1 - FRUCTOSE- ener', s"+rce- 26S " se)en b1 Pr"state D!an$ - secretes t(%n a!ka!%ne an$ )%!k, !+%$ c"nta%n%n' %rb%n"!,s%n an$ c%tr%c ac%$0 a!ka!%n%t, ne+tra!%Fes ac%$%t, " va'%na0 *6S c1 H+!b"+ret(ra! '!an$ - ne+tra!%Fe ac%$%c envIt " #a!! " +ret(ra t" prevent sper) $eat(0 !+br%cates +ret(ra "r passa'e " se)en Se)en - pr"$+ct " ePac+!at%"n c"ns%st%n' " sper)at"F"a an$ se)%na! !+%$ .. Pen%s - )a!e "r'an " c"p+!at%"n0 !"n'%t+$%na! erect%!e t%ss+es a1 C"rp"ra Cavern"sa Pen%s b1 C"rp"ra Cavern"sa Uret(ra c1 D!ans Pen%s - e&pans%"n " !"#er p"rt%"n " pen%s c"nta%n%n' sens"r, "r'ans an$ +ret(ra! "r% %ce0 c"vere$ b, prep+ce ; "resk%n1 Ma!e se&+a! resp"nse 1. Erect%"n *. L+br%cat%"n - '!an$s secrete )+c+s -. E)%ss%"n A EPac+!at%"n - c+!)%nat%"n

 Ma!e Fert%!%t, 1. Ra$%at%"n E ects *. Te)perat+re E ects - - C ?t(an b"$, te)p -. Sper) C"+nt - avera'e8 .66 M>ePac+!ate0 nee$ (,a!+r"n%$ase .. Sper) <%ab%!%t, - --. $a,s /. Sper) P"+rne, takes- -6 )%ns t" - (rs FEMALE REPRODUCTI<E SBSTEM FCNS8 1. Pr"$+ct%"n " e)a!e 'a)etes t(r+ ""'enes%s *. Recept%"n " t(e )a!e 'a)etes -. S+%tab!e envIt "r ert%!%Fat%"n .. EnvIt "r $evIt " et+s /. E&p+!s%"n " t(e $evIt " t(e e&terna! envIt 2. N+tr%t%"n " ne#b"rn COMPONENTS 1. E&terna! Or'ans a1 <+!va %. M"ns p+b%s - c+s%"n !%ke e!evat%"n " at c"vere$ b, p+b%c (ar% %%. Lab%a MaP"ra - r"+n$e$ "!$s " a$%p"se #> "ver!,%n' sk%n %%%. Lab%a M%n"ra - )e$%a! t" L.M. b1 <est%b+!e - c!e t bet#een !ab%a )%n"ra %. H,)en - t(%n "!$ " vasc+!ar%Fe$ )+c+s )e)brane %%. <a'%na! Or% %ce - bart("!%nIs '!an$ e!ab"rate )+c+s secret%"n %%%. Uret(ra! Or% %ce - SkeeneIs '!an$ %v. C!%t"r%s - %)pt %n se&+a! e&c%tat%"n0 (")"!"' " '!ans pen%s *. Interna! Or'ans a1 <a'%na - cana!0 #a!! (as )+sc!e !a,er capab!e " c"nstr%ct%"n an$ en"r)"+s $%!at%"n b1 Uter+s - %)p!antat%"n " ert%!%Fe$ e''0 eta! $eve!"p)ent c1 Fa!!"p%an T+be - s%te " ert%!%Fat%"n $1 Ovar%es - s%te "r ""'enes%s -. Hreasts - access"r, a1 N%pp!e - )a))ar, pap%!!a

b1 Are"!a - c%rc+!at area " p%')ente$ sk%n0 sebace"+s '!an$ c1 Lact% er"+s $+cts- $ra%ns eac( !"be O<ARIAN CBCLE - %n resp"nse t" p%t+%tar, '"na$"tr"p%ns ;FSH an$ LF1 - Uter%ne ;Menstr+a! c,c!e1 %n resp"ne t" estr"'en an$ pr"'ester"ne 1. Da, /-1-- estr"'en *. Da, 1.- "v+!at%"n -. Da, 1/-*4 pr"'ester"ne .. Da, 1-/ )enstr+a! FSH enc"+ra'es "!!%c!e DevIt A pr")"tes secret%"n " estr"'en b, "!!%c!e ce!!s ? Estr"'en %n(%b%ts FSH re!ease b+t @ LH re!ease ? LH +ps+r'e r+pt+res "!!%c!e ;re!ease e''1 ? C"rp+s !+te+) %s !e t be(%n$ ? Secretes pr"'ester"ne ;pr"'estat%"na! p(ase1 ? Estr"'en t" +etr+s --9 t(%cken%n' " +ter%ne )+c"sa ;estr"'en%c p(ase1 ? PR"'ester"ne )akes +ter%ne )+c"sa )"re '!an$+!ar an$ vas+!ar%Fe$ N"te8 P!acenta 1. Harr%er - !%)%ts trans er s"!+tes an$ b!""$ c")p"nents *. I))+ne pr"tect%"n - pr"tect%ve )"!ec+!es -. S%te " e&c(an'e - " s"!+tes bet#een )aterna! an$ eta! c%rc+!at%"n0 O* trans er .. En$"cr%ne +nct%"n Fe)a!e Se&+a! Resp"nse 1. St%)+!at%"n an$ L+br%cat%"n ;bart("!%nIs '!an$1 *. Erect%"n -. Per%sta!t%c c"ntract%"n " +ter+s ;"r'as)1

ESTRUS CBCLE 1. Per%"$ " a$vert%Fe$ ert%!%t, %n )a))a!s *. In (eat -. Uter+s reabs"rbe$ en$")etr%+) #(en n" ert%!%Fat%"n "cc+rs0 b!""$ resrbe$ - e)a!e %s #%!!%n' t" )ate0 re!ease " p(er")"nes