Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.

K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 1
 Software Life Cycle Models

The goal of Software Engineering is to provide

models and processes that lead to the
production of well-documented maintainable
software in a manner that is predictable.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 2
 Software Life Cycle Models

“The period of time that starts when a software product is conceived

and ends when the product is no longer available for use. The
software life cycle typically includes a requirement phase, design
phase, implementation phase, test phase, installation and check out
phase, operation and maintenance phase, and sometimes retirement
phase”.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 3
 Build & Fix Model

Product is constructed without

specifications or any attempt at
design
Build

Adhoc approach and not well Code
defined

Simple two phase model Fix

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 4
 Build & Fix Model

Suitable for small programming exercises of 100 or 200 lines

Unsatisfactory for software for any reasonable size

Code soon becomes unfixable & unenhanceable

No room for structured design

Maintenance is practically not possible

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 5
 Waterfall Model

Requirement This model is named “waterfall

Analysis & Specification
model” because its diagrammatic
representation resembles a cascade of
Design waterfalls.

Implementation
and unit testing

Integr ation and

system testing

Operation and
maintenance

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 6
 Waterfall Model

This model is easy to understand and reinforces

the notion of “define before design” and “design
before code”.

The model expects complete & accurate

requirements early in the process, which is
unrealistic

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 7
 Waterfall Model

Problems of waterfall model

i. It is difficult to define all requirements at the beginning of a
project

ii. This model is not suitable for accommodating any change

iii. A working version of the system is not seen until late in
the project’s life

iv. It does not scale up well to large projects.

v. Real projects are rarely sequential.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 8
 Incremental Process Models

They are effective in the situations where requirements are

defined precisely and there is no confusion about the
functionality of the final product.

After every cycle a useable product is given to the customer.

Popular particularly when we have to quickly deliver a limited

functionality system.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 9
 Iterative Enhancement Model

This model has the same phases as the waterfall model, but with
fewer restrictions. Generally the phases occur in the same order as
in the waterfall model, but they may be conducted in several cycles.
Useable product is released at the end of the each cycle, with each
release providing additional functionality.

 Customers and developers specify as many requirements as

possible and prepare a SRS document.

 Developers and customers then prioritize these requirements

 Developers implement the specified requirements in one or
more cycles of design, implementation and test based on the
defined priorities.
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 10
 Iterative Enhancement Model

Requirements
specification

Architectural
design

Detailed
design

Implementation
and unit testing

Integration
and testing

Operation and
Maintenance

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 11
 The Rapid Application Development (RAD) Model

o Developed by IBM in 1980

o User participation is essential

This is how the

The requirements The developers problem is
understood it in This is how the
specification was solved now
that way problem was
defined like this solved before.

This is how the program is This, in fact, is what the

That is the program after described by marketing customer wanted …
debugging department
Software Engineering (3 ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007
rd
12
The Rapid Application Development (RAD) Model

o Build a rapid prototype

o Give it to user for evaluation & obtain feedback
o Prototype is refined

With active participation of users

Requirements User Construction Cut over

Planning Description

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 13
The Rapid Application Development (RAD) Model

Not an appropriate model in the absence of user

participation.

Reusable components are required to reduce development

time.

Highly specialized & skilled developers are required and

such developers are not easily available.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 14
 Evolutionary Process Models

Evolutionary process model resembles iterative enhancement

model. The same phases as defined for the waterfall model occur
here in a cyclical fashion. This model differs from iterative
enhancement model in the sense that this does not require a
useable product at the end of each cycle. In evolutionary
development, requirements are implemented by category rather
than by priority.

This model is useful for projects using new technology that is not
well understood. This is also used for complex projects where all
functionality must be delivered at one time, but the requirements
are unstable or not well understood at the beginning.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 15
 Evolutionary Process Model

Concurr ent
activities

Initial
Specification
version

Outline Intermediate
Development
description versions

Final
Validation
version

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 16
 Prototyping Model

 The prototype may be a usable program but is not suitable as

the final software product.

 The code for the prototype is thrown away. However

experience gathered helps in developing the actual system.

 The development of a prototype might involve extra cost, but

overall cost might turnout to be lower than that of an
equivalent system developed using the waterfall model.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 17
 Prototyping Model

• Linear model
• “Rapid”

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 18
 Spiral Model

Models do not deal with uncertainly which is inherent to software

projects.

Important software projects have failed because project risks were

neglected & nobody was prepared when something unforeseen
happened.

Barry Boehm recognized this and tired to incorporate the “project

risk” factor into a life cycle model.

The result is the spiral model, which was presented in 1986.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 19
 Spiral Model

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 20
 Spiral Model
The radial dimension of the model represents the cumulative costs.
Each path around the spiral is indicative of increased costs. The
angular dimension represents the progress made in completing each
cycle. Each loop of the spiral from X-axis clockwise through 360o
represents one phase. One phase is split roughly into four sectors of
major activities.
 Planning: Determination of objectives, alternatives &
constraints.
 Risk Analysis: Analyze alternatives and attempts to identify
and resolve the risks involved.
 Development: Product development and testing product.
 Assessment: Customer evaluation
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 21
 Spiral Model
 An important feature of the spiral model is that each phase is
completed with a review by the people concerned with the
project (designers and programmers)
 The advantage of this model is the wide range of options to
accommodate the good features of other life cycle models.
 It becomes equivalent to another life cycle model in
appropriate situations.
The spiral model has some difficulties that need to be resolved
before it can be a universally applied life cycle model. These
difficulties include lack of explicit process guidance in determining
objectives, constraints, alternatives; relying on risk assessment
expertise; and provides more flexibility than required for many
applications.
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 22
 The Unified Process

• Developed by I.Jacobson, G.Booch and J.Rumbaugh.

• Software engineering process with the goal of producing good

quality maintainable software within specified time and budget.

• Developed through a series of fixed length mini projects called

iterations.

• Maintained and enhanced by Rational Software Corporation and

thus referred to as Rational Unified Process (RUP).

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 23
 Phases of the Unified Process

Inception Elaboration Construction Transition

Time

Definition of Planning & Initial Release of

objectives architecture operational the Software
of the project for the project capability product

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 24
 Phases of the Unified Process
• Inception: defines scope of the project.
• Elaboration
- How do we plan & design the project?
- What resources are required?
- What type of architecture may be suitable?
• Construction: the objectives are translated in design &
architecture documents.
• Transition : involves many activities like delivering, training,
supporting, and maintaining the product.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 25
 Initial development & Evolution Cycles

V1
Inception Elaboration Construction Transition
Initial development Cycle
V2
Inception Elaboration Construction Transition
Evolution Cycle
V3
Inception Elaboration Construction Transition

Continue till the product is retired

V1=version1, V2 =version2, V3=version3

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 26
Iterations & Workflow of Unified Process

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 27
 Inception Phase

The inception phase has the following objectives:

 Gathering and analyzing the requirements.

 Planning and preparing a business case and evaluating
alternatives for risk management, scheduling resources etc.
 Estimating the overall cost and schedule for the project.
 Studying the feasibility and calculating profitability of the
project.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 28
 Outcomes of Inception Phase

Prototypes Project plan

Business Initial risk

Inception
model assessment
Initial business
Vision
Initial use Initial case
document
case model project
Glossary

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 29
 Elaboration Phase

The elaboration phase has the following objectives:

 Establishing architectural foundations.

 Design of use case model.
 Elaborating the process, infrastructure & development
environment.
 Selecting component.
 Demonstrating that architecture support the vision at
reasonable cost & within specified time.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 30
 Outcomes of Elaboration Phase

Development plan Revised risk

document
Preliminary An executable
Elaboration architectural
User manual
prototype
Architecture
Use case Description
model Supplementary document
Requirements
with non functional
requirement

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 31
 Construction Phase

The construction phase has the following objectives:

 Implementing the project.

 Minimizing development cost.
 Management and optimizing resources.
 Testing the product
 Assessing the product releases against acceptance criteria

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 32
 Outcomes of Construction Phase

Test Operational
Outline manuals
Documentation
Construction Test Suite
manuals
A description
Software of the
product User manuals current release

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 33
 Transition Phase

The transition phase has the following objectives:

 Starting of beta testing

 Analysis of user’s views.
 Training of users.
 Tuning activities including bug fixing and enhancements for
performance & usability
 Assessing the customer satisfaction.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 34
 Outcomes of Transition Phase

Transition

Product User feedback

release Beta test reports

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 35
 Selection of a Life Cycle Model

Selection of a model is based on:

a) Requirements

b) Development team

c) Users

d) Project type and associated risk

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 36
 Based On Characteristics Of Requirements

Requirements Waterfall Prototype Iterative Evolutionary Spiral RAD

enhancement development

Are requirements
easily understandable Yes No No No No Yes
and defined?

Do we change
requirements quite No Yes No No Yes No
often?

Can we define
requirements early Yes No Yes Yes No Yes
in the cycle?

Requirements are
indicating a complex No Yes Yes Yes Yes No
system to be built

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 37
 Based On Status Of Development Team

Development Waterfall Prototype Iterative Evolutionary Spiral RAD

team enhancement development

Less experience on
No Yes No No Yes No
similar projects?

Less domain
knowledge (new to Yes No Yes Yes Yes No
the technology)

Less experience on
tools to be used Yes No No No Yes No

Availability of
No No Yes Yes No Yes
training if required

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 38
 Based On User’
User’s Participation
Involvement Waterfall Prototype Iterative Evolutionary Spiral RAD
of Users enhancement development

User involvement
in all phases No Yes No No No Yes

Limited user
participation Yes No Yes Yes Yes No

User have no
previous experience No Yes Yes Yes Yes No
of participation in
similar projects

Users are experts

of problem domain No Yes Yes Yes No Yes

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 39
Based On Type Of Project With Associated Risk
Project type Waterfall Prototype Iterative Evolutionary Spiral RAD
and risk enhancement development

Project is the
enhancement of the No No Yes Yes No Yes
existing system
Funding is stable
for the project Yes Yes No No No Yes

High reliability
requirements No No Yes Yes Yes No

Tight project
No Yes Yes Yes Yes Yes
schedule
Use of reusable
components No Yes No No Yes Yes
Are resources
(time, money, No Yes No No Yes No
people etc.) scare?
Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 40
 Multiple Choice Questions
Note: Select most appropriate answer of the following questions:
2.1 Spiral Model was developed by
(a) Bev Littlewood (b) Berry Boehm
(c) Roger Pressman (d) Victor Basili
2.2 Which model is most popular for student’s small projects?
(a) Waterfall model (b) Spiral model
(c) Quick and fix model (d) Prototyping model
2.3 Which is not a software life cycle model?
(a) Waterfall model (b) Spiral model
(c) Prototyping model (d) Capability maturity model
2.4 Project risk factor is considered in
(a) Waterfall model (b) Prototyping model
(c) Spiral model (d) Iterative enhancement model
2.5 SDLC stands for
(a) Software design life cycle (b) Software development life cycle
(c) System development life cycle (d) System design life cycle

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 41
 Multiple Choice Questions
Note: Select most appropriate answer of the following questions:
2.6 Build and fix model has
(a) 3 phases (b) 1 phase
(c) 2 phases (d) 4 phases
2.7 SRS stands for
(a) Software requirements specification (b) Software requirements solution
(c) System requirements specification (d) none of the above
2.8 Waterfall model is not suitable for
(a) small projects (b) accommodating change
(c) complex projects (d) none of the above
2.9 RAD stands for
(a) Rapid application development (b) Relative application development
(c) Ready application development (d) Repeated application development
2.10 RAD model was proposed by
(a) Lucent Technologies (b) Motorola
(c) IBM (d) Microsoft

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 42
 Multiple Choice Questions
Note: Select most appropriate answer of the following questions:
2.11 If requirements are easily understandable and defined,which model is best suited?
(a) Waterfall model (b) Prototyping model
(c) Spiral model (d) None of the above
2.12 If requirements are frequently changing, which model is to be selected?
(a) Waterfall model (b) Prototyping model
(c) RAD model (d) Iterative enhancement model
2.13 If user participation is available, which model is to be chosen?
(a) Waterfall model (b) Iterative enhancement model
(c) Spiral model (d) RAD model
2.14 If limited user participation is available, which model is to be selected?
(a) Waterfall model (b) Spiral model
(c) Iterative enhancement model (d) any of the above
2.15 If project is the enhancement of existing system, which model is best suited?
(a) Waterfall model (b) Prototyping model
(c) Iterative enhancement model (d) Spiral model

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 43
 Multiple Choice Questions
Note: Select most appropriate answer of the following questions:
2.16 Which one is the most important feature of spiral model?
(a) Quality management (b) Risk management
(c) Performance management (d) Efficiency management
2.17 Most suitable model for new technology that is not well understood is:
(a) Waterfall model (b) RAD model
(c) Iterative enhancement model (d) Evolutionary development model
2.18 Statistically, the maximum percentage of errors belong to the following phase of
SDLC
(a) Coding (b) Design
(c) Specifications (d) Installation and maintenance
2.19 Which phase is not available in software life cycle?
(a) Coding (b) Testing
(c) Maintenance (d) Abstraction
2.20 The development is supposed to proceed linearly through the phase in
(a) Spiral model (b) Waterfall model
(c) Prototyping model (d) None of the above

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 44
 Multiple Choice Questions
Note: Select most appropriate answer of the following questions:
2.21 Unified process is maintained by
(a) Infosys (b) Rational software corporation
(c) SUN Microsystems (d) None of the above
2.22 Unified process is
(a) Iterative (b) Incremental
(c) Evolutionary (d) All of the above
2.23 Who is not in the team of Unified process development?
(a) I.Jacobson (b) G.Booch
(c) B.Boehm (d) J.Rumbaugh
2.24 How many phases are in the unified process?
(a) 4 (b) 5
(c) 2 (d) None of the above
2.25 The outcome of construction phased can be treated as:
(a) Product release (b) Beta release
(c) Alpha release (d) All of the above

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 45
 Exercises
2.1 What do you understand by the term Software Development Life Cycle
(SDLC)? Why is it important to adhere to a life cycle model while
developing a large software product?
2.2 What is software life cycle? Discuss the generic waterfall model.
2.3 List the advantages of using waterfall model instead of adhoc build and
fix model.
2.4 Discuss the prototyping model. What is the effect of designing a
prototype on the overall cost of the project?
2.5 What are the advantages of developing the prototype of a system?
2.6 Describe the type of situations where iterative enhancement model might
lead to difficulties.
2.7 Compare iterative enhancement model and evolutionary process model.

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 46
 Exercises
2.8 Sketch a neat diagram of spiral model of software life cycle.
2.9 Compare the waterfall model and the spiral model of software
development.
2.10 As we move outward along with process flow path of the spiral model,
what can we say about software that is being developed or maintained.
2.11 How does “project risk” factor effect the spiral model of software
development.
2.12 List the advantages and disadvantages of involving a software engineer
throughout the software development planning process.
2.13 Explain the spiral model of software development. What are the
limitations of such a model?
2.14 Describe the rapid application development (RAD) model.Discuss each
phase in detail.
2.15 What are the characteristics to be considered for the selection of the life
cycle model?

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 47
 Exercises
2.16 What is the role of user participation in the selection of a life cycle
model?.
2.17 Why do we feel that characteristics of requirements play a very
significant role in the selection of a life cycle model?
2.18 Write short note on “status of development team” for the selection of a
life cycle model?.
2.19 Discuss the selection process parameters for a life cycle model.
2.20 What is unified process? Explain various phases along with the outcome
of each phase.
2.21 Describe the unified process work products after each phase of unified
process.
2.22 What are the advantages of iterative approach over sequential approach?
Why is unified process called as iterative or incremental?

Software Engineering (3rd ed.), By K.K Aggarwal & Yogesh Singh, Copyright © New Age International Publishers, 2007 48