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Ihud,dj ilik g wkq.ukh fldg we;s m%fYhg jvd fjkia jQ m%fYhla
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Ih lreKq b.ekaf wkq.ukh l<hq;= bf.kq yd b.eka m%fY
inkaOfhka .=rejreka wNsu; wdlD;shlg fhduq lrk ,o uq;a w'fmd'i^W'fm<&
Ih ksfoaY yd .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y imdokfha .=rejrekag ;u wNsu;h
m ls%hdlsug;a m%Yia; ksoyila N=la;s ug;a bv m%ia:dj i,id ;sf' fuu
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Ihhkag wod< j imdokh lrk ,o .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y mYS,kh l< fyd;a YsIH
flakaSh" ksmqK;d mdol yd l%shdldrl fmrgq lr .;a bf.kqu yd b.ekau ms<sn|
meyeos,s woyila Tng ,efnkq we;' f .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%y uska bosm;a lrkq
,nk l%shdldrl W;aidy .kafka bf.kqu" b.ekau yd we.hSu tl u fosldjla u;g
f.k taughs' tfia u 5E wdlD;sh mok lr .kska o iyfhda.S bf.kq ^Co-operative
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fkdjk fia f phd .Kk mylg iSud lsug W;aidy ord ;sf' bf.kq M, jYfhka
ykajd we;s f phd ksmqK;d ugug jvd iqfYaI jk w;r Ih lreKq mok lr .;a
yelshd ;=klska o bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sfhka u;= lr .kakd fmd yelshd follska o
iuka; fjhs' Ih yelshd ;=k Ialr;d wkqms<sfj,ska fm< .iajd we;s w;r wvq ;rka
m<uq folj;a idlaId;a lr .ekSu i|yd mka;sfha iEu isiqjl= u bf.kq-b.eka
l%shdldrlf yoj; f,i ie,flk .fIKh fj; fhduqlr .ekSug .=re Nj;d lghq;=
l< hq;= wdldrh l%shdldrlf < fldgiska bosm;a lr ;sf' kshqla;slrKh ^Engagement& k jk tlS mshjfrka iEu l%shdldrlula u wdrN jqj o l%shdldrl ie,iq lsu
wdrN jkafka 5E wdlD;sfha fojk "E" wl=rg wod< .fIKfhka nj Tn wu;l fkdl<
hq;= h'
.fIKhg ^Exploration& u fmkajk Wmfoia wdoY l%shdldrlj, B< fldgihs'
.egf O me;sj,ska ;u lKavdhug ,efnk me;a; muKla .fIKfhka bf.kqug
fhduqjk isiqka" bf.kq-b.eka l%u rdYshla Tiafia wod< wka; fj; f.k hdu i|yd
.=rejrhd f Wmfoia fm< .iajhs' m%Yak Tiafia is lrkq ,nk uYkd;aul wOHhk
^Inquiry-based Learning& fyda l%shdfjka bf.kqug u mdok w;aoelS mdol bf.kqu ^Experiential Learning& fyda f;dard .ekSug fuys oS .=re Nj;dg ksoyi ;sf' by; lsk
wdldrfhka fyda isiqka ,nk oekqu mdol lr .kska Ihhg iqfYaIS jQ fyda Ihud,df
Ih lsysmhla yryd osfjk fyda .eg i|Su i|yd Tjqka fhduq lr .ekSu w'fmd'i'
^W'fm<& Ih .=re Nj;=kaf.a j.lSu fjhs'
fujka .eg mdol bf.kq-b.eka l%u ; h:d: mok lr f.k ie,iq lsu
w:j;a h' u;fNaohg ;=vq oS we;s ;;a;aj" Wml,ams; ;;a;aj" iudka;r woyia fuka u
m%d:l uQ,dY% f i|yd fhdod .ekSug Tng ksoyi ;sf' lsheu" f;dr;=re tla/ia lsu
yd l<ukdlrKh" m%;HflaIKh" kslaIKh" idlPd lsu" l,ams; f.dvkeSu yd
mlaId lsu" mqfrdal:k mlaId lsu" m%Yak yd ms<s;=re ilia lsu" iurEmKh" .eg
i|Su yd fi!kaohd;aul ldh wdosh .fIKh i|yd fhdod .; yels l%uYs,am lsysmhls'
hdka;%sl bf.kqula fia ie,flk lgmdv lsu jqj o fkdjeo.;a hehs wu;l lr oeug
fuys oS bv ;nd ke;'
isiqyq l=vd lKavdh jYfhka .fIKfha fhfo;s' .=re Nj;d i;= oekqu neyeka ,nkq
fjkqjg .=re iydh ,nd .kska oekqu yd wjfndaOh f.dvk;s' lKavdhf fiiq wh
iu woyia yqjudre lr .kska fidhd .;a oekqu je oshqKq lr;s' f ish,a, m%Yia:
ugka isjkafka isiqkag wjYH lsh jH yd fhojq imhd oSug .=re Nj;d bosm;a
jqjfyd;a h' tfia u <uqka bf.kSfuys fhfok uq ld,h mqrd u lKavdh w;r .ejfika
bf.kqu i|yd <uqkag iydh jqjfyd;a h' fun bf.kq m%fYhl oS wkdjrKh uQ,sl
jQj o" th ksoyia wkdjrKhla fkdjk nj;a ufmkajk wkdjrKhla ^guided discovery&
nj;a Tn f;are .; hq;= fjhs' .=re Nj;df.ka fuka u iu jhia lKavdhfuka o
fmdaIKh fjka fufia bf.k .kakd isiqkag ;h i|yd jeo.;a w;aoelS /ila u
,efnk nj wuq;=fjka lsj hq;= ke;'
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okakd fohska neyerg hka w;a u woyia bosm;a lsug jqj o isiqkag wjldY we;' iEu
l%shdldrlula u wjika jkafka .=rejrhd bosm;a lrk fl foaYkhlsks' ifm%aIK
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fidhd n,k Nd. l%uhl wjYH;dj lemS fmfka'
fuu bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sfha lemS ffmkk ,laIKhla jkafka l%shdldrlu mqrd u
osfjk fohdldr jQ o w:dka; jQ owe.hS ^Evaluation& l%shdj,shhs' kshqla;lrKh o .=re
wNsu;h mos fmr oekqu inkaO we.hSula i|yd fhdod .; yels h' tfia u .fIKh;a"
jrKh;a" ia;drKh;a ;=<ska we.hSu Yla;su;a lr .ekSu m%K .=re Nj;l=f.a j.lSu
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mod:fha oHq;a iajNdjh ;yjqre lsu i|yd wod< mlaIKd;aul f;dr;=re

ia;r lrhs'
WmmrudKq wxY=" iuia:dksl yd lsrKYS,;dj ms<sn| f;dr;=re bosm;a lrhs'
mrudKql wdlD;s ixikaokd;aul j uid n,hs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

mod:fha oHq;a iajNdjh ms<sn| idlaIH
msueoSu jeks l%u u`.ska O mod: u; ia;s oHq;a wdfrdamK we;s l<

yels u
ndysr oHq;a Odrdjla iemhSfuka h mod:hla fjk;a mod:hla njg

m;a l< yels u ^oHq;a fokh&

mod:j, is jk fjkia wdY%;
s j oHq;h ckkh u ^ir, fldaIh$h<s

fldaI&
WmmrudKql wxY= ms<sn| f;dr;=re iuyrla

a gdakh
bf,lafg%dakh fm%df
wxY=f ixfla;h

kshf
q g%dk
a h
n

9'107 10-31 1'6725 10-27 1'6742 10-27

wxY=f ialkaOh$kg

1
1840

wxY=f idfmalaI ialkaOh

1'602 10-19 1'602 10-19

wxY=f wdfrdamKh$C
wxY=f idfmalaI wfrdamKh

-1

+1

1
0
0

 iuia:dksl

tl u mrudKq l%udxlh we;a;d jQ o fjkia ialkaO l%udxl we;a;d jQ o

mrudKq tu uQ,jHfha iuia:dksl f,i ye|ska f'
kshqla,hsv

h ksYa; fm%dafgdak ixLHdjla yd ksYa; kshqfg%dak ixLHdjla iys;

mrudKqjla" whkhla" kHIahla fyda ixfhdackh jQ mrudKqjla kshqla,hsvhla
f,i ye|ska f'
kshqla,hsv j.h
1' iajdNdl j mj;akd ia:dhs kshqla,hsv
2' iajdNdl j mj;akd wia:dhs kshqla,hsv
3' lD;%su lsrKYS,s kshqla,hsv

lsrKYS,;dj

kHIafha ia:dhs;dj Wfoid wia:dhs kHIa iska fyda wxY= iska fyda lsrK
ksl=;a lsu lsrKYS,;dj f,i ye|ska f'
oHq;a fCIa;%h
lsrKYS,S m%Njh

;srh ,siSfuka lsrK

ykd .efka'

lsrK

lsrK

lsrK

mrudKqj ms<n
s | kHIal wdlD;sh bosm;aa lsug mok jQ .hs. iy udiavkaf.a

mlaIKh
fpkh lrk ,o
re n,anh

la; fmdmh

;=kS f,day ;yvqj

- wxY= m%Njh

N%uK m%;sma; ;srh

N%uK wkalaIh

f, wdjrKh

wm.ukh jQ

-lsrK
2

 .hs. iy udiavkaf.a mlaIKfha oS ,;a kslaIK meyeos,s lsu

mrudKq

kHIa

wxY=

wm.ukh
jq
wxY=

mrudKql wdlD;s
f;dika 'ma, mqu' wdlD;sh

bf,lafg%dak

Ok wdfrdams; f.da,h
rom' mrudKql wdlD;sh

kHIAh
bf,lafg%dak

 fnda wdlD;sh

fnda wdlD;sh wkqj yhsrcka mrudKqf kHIah

yd bf,lafg%dak mj;sk m<uq ljp y;r

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

ia;s oHq;h" oHq;a ridhksl fldaI iy oHq;a fokh wdoY lr

fmkafuka mdvu wrUkak'

mrudKqj ms<sn| f;dika" rom' yd fnda bosm;a l< wdlD;s ms<sn|
lKavdh.; j idlPd lsug i,iajkak'
tu wdlD;s ikaikaokd;aul j uiqug ,la lrka iuQy idlPdjla
fufyhjkak'

ksmqK;dj 1'0

( mod:fha iajNdjh ksKh lsu i|yd bf,lafg%dksl

ieleiau" bf,lafg%dksl wka;l%shd yd Yla;s yqjudre
fhdod .kshs'

ksmqK;d ugu 1'2

( mod:fha Yla;s yqjudre ksKh lrkq msKsi oHq;a pqnl

lsrKj, O;ajh Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 05 hs'

bf.kq M,

;rx.hl .=K ia;r flfrk rdYs k lr tajd w;r in|;d m%ldY lrhs'
oHq;a pqnl jKdj,sfha O mrdi ykajd tu mrdij,g wh;a lsrKj,

Nd; i|yd ksoiqka imhhs'

W; Wml%u Nd; lrka oDYH mrdih kslaIKh lr tys iajNdjh jd;d
lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

;rx. wdhuh

yd ixLHd;h jk
g oHq;a pqnl ;rx.hl m%f.h -

C=
oHq;a pqnl ;rx.hl Yla;sh E= h
fuys h hkq ksh;hls' th ma,dkala
ksh;h k f'
ma,dkala ksh;h } 6'624 10-34 J s

o
ks,a
fld<

fu u`.ska

ly
;e,s

ixLHd;h wdfrdayKh jk

ms<sfj<g oHq;a pqnl ;rx. fm<

.eiafuka ,efnk igyk oHq;a
pqnl jKdj,sh f'

r;=

oHq;a pqnl jKdj,sh

5

 oHq;a pqNl jKdj,sfha O mrdij,g wh;a lsrKj, m%fhdack

ffhda ;rx.
( rEmjdyskS" .=jka ,s udOH Tiafia ikaksfok
laIq ;rx.

wfOdarla; ;rx.

oDYH ;rx.
mdrcnq, ;rx.

X - lsrK
- lsrK

lghq;= i|yd fhfoa'

( laIq ;rx. Wkaj, l%shdld;ajh fu u`.ska is f'
jKdj,SlaI l%u uska flfrk Yaf,aIK
lghq;=j, oS fhfoa'
( fN!; ls;ail m%;sldr lghq;=j, oS fhfoa' ria:
md,l ix{d ksl=;a lsf oS yd jKdj,SlaI l%u
u`.ska flfrk Yaf,aIK lghq;=j, oS Nd; flf'
( oDIah" PdhdrEm Ys,amh fuu mrdifha ;rx. weiqka
is f' jK;sl Yaf,aIKfha oS fhfoa'
( Ic keiSug" uqo,a fkdagq wdosfha fhdod we;s ryiH
ixfla; lshug fhfoa' jKdj,SlaI Yaf,aIKj,
oS Nd; flf'
( X lsrK PdhdrEm .ekSu yd iaMl wdosfha jHqy
yeoEf oS Nd; flf'
( ms<sld i|yd m%;sldr lsf oS Nd; flf'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

m%siauhla wdOdrfhka iq wdf,dal lonhla fNaokh ug i,iajd ;srhla

u;g ,nd .kak' tys jK fNaokh we;s wdldrh kslaIKh lsu i|yd
isiqkag wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
oHq;a pqNl jKdj,sfha O mrdij,g wh;a lsrKj, Nd; fidhd n,d
mefKk f,i isiqkag mQjfhka oekq fokak'
tla tla mrdifha m%fhdack l=vd lKavdh ,jd iuia; mka;shg bosm;a
lrjkak'

ksmqK;dj 1'0

( mod:fha iajNdjh ksKh lsu i|yd bf,lafg%dksl

ieleiau" bf,lafg%dksl wka;l%shd yd Yla;s yqjudre
fhdod .kshs'

ksmqK;d ugu 1'3

( mrudKqj, bf,lafg%daksl Yla;s ug ms<sn| idlaIH

Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 08 hs'

bf.kq M,

wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s m%ia;dr weiqka mrudKqj, bf,lafg%dak m%Odk Yla;s

ugj, yd Wm ugj, meje;au ms<sn| j idlaIH bosm;a lrhs'

mrudKql yhsrcka jKdj,sfha fLd fY%aKs fnda wdlD;sh uska .=Kd;aul

j meyeos,s lrhs'
h mrudKqjl msys bf,lafg%dakhl wkkH;dj Bg wod< lafjdkag wxl
l=,lfhka ia;r jk nj m%ldY lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

ldnka" Tlaic
s ka yd fmdia*ria hk uq,jHj, wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s m%i;
a drh

fuu uQ,jHj, mj;sk ish u wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;Ska rEmfha fmkajd

we;' tu wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s .Kk mrudKqf we;s bf,lafg%dk

a .Kkg
iudk f' wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;sfha laIKsl je flfrys wjOdkh
fhduq l< g bf,lafg%dak ldKav jYfhka O Yla;s ugj, msysgd we;s
nj ;yjqre f'

 wjfYdaIK jKdj,sh
wdf,dal
lnh

isyska isre
iys; ;yvq

' '
' '
' '' '
' ''

m%i
s u
a h

ksheh

wika;;sl jKdj,sh

fudapk jKdj,sh
isyska isre
iys; ;yvq

m%i
s u
a h

W;af;a; wjia:df
mj;sk jdhq ksheosh

fLd jKdj,sh

,hsudka
fY%K
a h
s

400

l=656 nm

n=2

l=486 nm

n=5
n=4
n=3

l=434 nm

yhsrcka ys fudapk jKdj,sfha fLd we;s jk wkaou meyeos,s lsu

ndu
fY%K
a h
s

500

600
;rx. wdhduh$nm

n=1

700

 lafjdkag wxl
m%Odk lafjdkag wxlh ^n&

bf,lafg%dakh wh;a m%Odk Yla;s ugu fuuska ksrEmKh flf'

n = 1, 2, 3, ......

Woaos.xY lafjdkag wxlh ^l&

bf,lafg%dk
a h wh;a WmYla;s ugu (s, p, d, f, ...) fuu`.ska ksrEmKh flf'
l = 0, 1, 2, ...... ^n-1&

pqnl lafjdkag wxlh ^ml&

h WmYla;s ugul bf,lafg%dakh mj;akd ldlaIslh (ksoiqka (px, py, pz )

fuuska ksrEmKh flf'
ml= -l,(-l+1),....,0,.....,(l-1), l

neuq lafjdkag wxlh ^ms&

h ldlaIslhl msys bf,lafg%dakhl osYdk;sh ksrEmKh flf'

ms =

mrudKqjl uq,a Yla;s ug ;=fkys mj;sk bf,lafg%dak i|yd

n, l, ml yd ms hk lafjdkag wxl i;r fhfok wdldrh
m%Odk
Woao.
s xY
pqnl
neuq
ldlaIslj,
lafjdkag lafjdkag wxlh lafjdkag wxlh lafjdkag wxlh
we;s uq`M
wxlh
l
ml
ms
bf,lafg%dak
n
(0 isg n-l olajd) (-l isg +l olajd)
(+1/2, -1/2 )
.Kk

+ 1$2
- 1$2

+ 1$2
- 1$2

-1

+ 1$2
- 1$2

+ 1$2
- 1$2

+1

+ 1$2
- 1$2

+ 1$2
- 1$2

-1

+ 1$2
- 1$2

+ 1$2
- 1$2

+1

+ 1$2
- 1$2

-2

+ 1$2
- 1$2

-1

+ 1$2
- 1$2

+ 1$2
- 1$2

+1

+ 1$2
- 1$2

+2

+ 1$2
- 1$2

m%Odk Yla;s
ugug wh;a uq`M
bf,lafg%dak
.Kk

6
8
2

10

18

* mrudKqjl msys h bf,lafg%dakhl lafjdkag wxl l=,lh ,shd oelaug we;s

yelshd w'fmd'i'^W$fm<& Nd.fha oS uek n,kafka ke;' by; j.=j bosm;a
flfrkafka h bf,lafg%dakhla i|yd jk lafjdkag wxl l=,lh Bg wkkH
jk nj fmkajd oSu i|yd muKs'
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (
fok ,o uQ,jHhl wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s o;a; bj;a jk bf,lafg%dak

ixLHdjg tos j m%ia;dr .; lrjkak'

by; j.=j isiqka iu`. tl;=j f.dv kxjkak'
10

ksmqK;dj 1'0

( mod:fha iajNdjh ksKh lsu i|yd bf,lafg%dksl

ieleiau" bf,lafg%dksl wka;l%shd yd Yla;s yqjudre
fhdod .kshs'

ksmqK;d ugu 1'4

( mrudKqj, yd whkj, jHqyh yd .=K ksKh lrkq ms K s i

ta j dfha yq f ol,d jdhq u h mrudKq j , yd whkj, N+
wjia:df bf,lafg%dak kHdi Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 07 hs'

bf.kq M,

bf,lafg%dak msrSf rgdjg wod< uQ,Ou yd kS;s m%ldY lrhs'

mrudKql l%udxlh 1 isg 54 olajd jk uQ,jHj, jdhq wjia:df mj;sk

yqol,d mrudKqj, yd whkj, bf,lafg%dak kHdi iu; wdldrhg ,shd

olajhs'
Yla;s ugj, yd WmYla;s ugj, ia:dhS bf,lafg%dak kHdi ie,ls,a,g
.kska uQ,jHj, wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s yd m%:u whkSlrK Yla;s p,kh
meyeos,s lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

Wm Yla;s ugj, mej;sh yels Wmu bf,lafg%dak ixLHd
Wm Yla;s ugu

ldlaIsl ixLHd

mej;sh yels Wmu

bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj

10

14

bf,lafg%dak msf rgdjg wod< uQ,Ou yd kS;s

yqka kS;sh
iudk Yla;sfhka hq;a ldlaIslj, bf,lafg%dak mj;skqfha tajdfha neuq
iudka;r jk mos h' ke;fyd;a hq.au bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj Wmu jk mos
h'
mjq,S nysIaldr uQ,Ouh
fuu uQ,Oufhka lshefjkafka h ldlaIslhl bf,lafg%dak follg jvd
mej;sh fkdyels nj hs' ^ke;fyd;a mrudKqjl h bf,lafg%dakhla i|yd jk
lafjdkag wxl l=,lh thg u wkkH jk nj hs'&
f.dvkexf uQ,Ouh
ka lshefjkafka ldlaIslj,g bf,lafg%dak msu mjq,S nysIaldr uQ,Ouhg
wkqj hka ldlaIslj, Yla;s wdfrdayKh jk wkqms<sfj<g is jk nj hs'
11

 WmYla;s ugj, Yla;s wdfrdayKh jk wkqms<sfj<

m%:u whkSlrK Yla;h

s $kJ mol-1

mrudKql l%udxlh 1- 20 olajd uQ,jHj, m%:u whkSlrK Yla;s p,k m%ia;drh

mrudKql l%udxlh

12

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

wod< kshu yd uQ,Ou fhdod .kska mrudKql l%udxlh 1- 54 olajd uQ,jHj,ska

mjrk ,o lsysmhl bf,lafg%dak kHdi lKavdh jYfhka f.dvkxjkakg

fhduq lrkak'
mjrk ,o uQ,jHj, bf,lafg%dak kHdi ii|ka tajdfhka jvd;a ia:dhS
kHdi iys; uQ,jH ykd .ekSug i,iajkak'
wkqhd; whkSlrK Yla;s yd m%:u whkSlrK Yla;s p,k" bf,lafg%dak
kHdij, ia:dhs;dj weiqfrka .%y lsug fhduq lrkak'

13

ksmqK;dj 1'0

( mod:fha iajNdjh ksKh lsu i|yd bf,lafg%dksl

ieleiau" bf,lafg%dksl wka;l%shd yd Yla;s yqjudre
fhdod .kshs'

ksmqK;d ugu 1'5

( mrudKqj, yd whkj, jHqyh yd .=K ksKh lrkq

msKsi tajdfha yqfol,d jdhquh mrudKqj, yd whkj,
N+ wjia:df bf,lafg%dak kHdi Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 07 hs'

bf.kq M,

bf,lafg%dak kHdi mok lr f.k wdj;s;d j.=j f.dvkxjhs'

uQ,jH s, p, d iy f f.dkq hgf;a j.SlrKh lrhs'
s, p iy d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jH iy 1 isg 18 olajd ldKavj,g wh;a uQ,jH

ykd .kshs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

15 jk msgqf oelaf'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

Yd, m%udKfha wdj;s;d j.=jla m%oYkh lr ldKav yd wdj; ms<sn| fmr

oekqu isysm;a lrkak'

s f.dkqjg" p f.dkqjg yd d f.dkqjg wh;a uQ,jH lsysmh ne.ska tajd wh;a

f.dkqj i|yka fkdlr isiq lKavdhj,g mjrkak'

tajdfha bf,lafg%dak kHdi ,shd wjika jYfhka bf,lafg%dak msreKq WmYla;s

ugu ykd .kakg fhduq lrkak'

wdj;s;d j.=f tu uQ,jHj,g ys ia:dkh mlaId lr ne,Sug i,iajkak'
uQ,jHhla wdj;s;d j.=f msys ldKavh" wdj;h yd f.dkqj iu tys

bf,lafg%dak kHdih olajk inkaO;d fy<s lr .ekSug isiq lKavdh

fhduq lrjkak'

14

1/I

ns1
2/II

ns2

10

11

12

ns2 np1

14/IV

ns2 np2 ns2 np3

ns2 np4

ns2 np5

15/V 16/VI 17/VII

13/III

ns2 np6

18/VIII

15

ksmqK;dj 1'0

( mod:fha iajNdjh ksKh lsu i|yd bf,lafg%dksl

ieleiau" bf,lafg%dksl wka;l%shd yd Yla;s yqjudre
fhdod .kshs'

ksmqK;d ugu 1'6

( mod:fha jHqyh yd .=K ksKh lrkq msKsi nyq mrudKql

moaO;sj, mj;akd m%d:l wka;l%shd Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 07 hs'

bf.kq M,

ixhqc;d nkaOkjdoh bosm;a lrhs'

mrudKqjl ldlaIsl w;sPdokh fuka ridhksl nkaOk iEfok nj m%ldY

lrhs'
nkaOkhg inkaO mrudKqj, oHq;a RK;d fjki wkqj tajd ksO%eh

iyixhqc nkaOk" O%eh iyixhqc nkaOk iy whksl nkaOk f,i fjka

lrhs'
odhl nkaOk iy f,dayl nkaOk we;s jk wdldrh meyeos,s lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

mrudKqfjys ixhqc;d ljpfha bf,lafg%dak nkaOk iEoSug iyNd.s f'
nyq mrudKql moaO;shl Yla;sh wju lr .ekSu i|yd mrudKq w;r mj;sk

wdlIKh ridhksl nkaOkhla f,i ykajhs'

nkaOk bf,lafg%dak hq.,a mrudKq folg u fmd jk mos ;nd .ekSfuka
iyixhqc nkaOk iEfoa'
iyixhqc nkaOkj,ska nekq wKq ;=< fyda whksl moaO;s ;=< fyda mj;akd
wdlIK m%d:l wka; l%shd f,i ye|skah yel'
wKqjl mj;sk nkaOkhl oS bf,lafg%dak ;ud foig wdlIKh lr .ekSf
yelshdj uQ,jHfhka uQ,jHhg fjkia f' m%udKd;aul j m%ldY l< fuu
yelshdj uQ,jHhl oHq;a RK;dj f,i ye|ska f'
oHq;a RK;dj O mudKhkag wkqj m%ldY lr we;' fmda,ska mudKhg
wkqj O uQ,jH i|yd oHq;a RK;d w.h my; j.=f oelaf'
fmda,ska mudKh wkqj uQ,jHj, oHq;a RK;d w.hhka
H
2.1
Li
1.0

Be
1.5

B
1.0

C
2.5

N
3.0

O
3.5

F
4.0

Na
0.9

Mg
1.2

Al
1.5

Si
1.8

P
2.1

S
2.5

Cl
3.0

K
0.8

Ca
1.0

Ga
1.6

Ge
1.8

As
2.0

Se
2.4

Br
2.8

Rb
0.8

Sr
1.0

In
1.7

Sn
1.8

Sb
1.9

Te
2.1

I
2.5

Cs
0.7

Ba
0.9

Tl
1.8

Pb
1.9

Bi
1.9

Po
2.0

At
2.2

16

 fmda,ska mudKhg wkqj tla tla uQ,jH i|yd ksYa; oHq;a RK;d w.hla

m%ldY lr we;s uq;a h uQ,jH mrudKqjl oHq;a RK;dj tu mrudKqf

mirh ^uqyqlrKh" wdfrdamKh" TlaislrK wxlh& u; fjkia f'
ksoiqka (

yd

hk m%fNaoj,os N ys oHq;a RK;dj

f,i p,kh f'

tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,la mj;sk mrudKql ldlaIslhla fjk;a mrudKqjl

ixhqc;d ljpfha ysia ldlaIslhla iu`. w;sPdokfhka nkaOkhla iEosh yels

h' fu f,i iEfok nkaOkh odhl nkaOkh f,i ykajkq ,ef' fuys oS
tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,h fokq ,nk m%fNaoh odhl ldKavh f,i o nkaOkh
iEoSu i|yd bf,lafg%dak ,nd .kakd m%fNaoh m%;s.%dyl ldKavh f,i o
ykajkq ,ef'
+

ksoiqka (

fyda

oHq;a RK;d fjki wl mrudKq hq.,hla w;r nkaOkhla we;s f oS tla

mrudKqjl ixhqc;d bf,lafg%dak fjk;a mrudKqjlg ,nd oS we;s jk Ok yd

RK whk w;r yg .kakd ia;s oHq;a wdlIKh whksl nkaOkhla f,i
ye|ska f'
>k wjia:df mj;sk fidah laf,darhs ie,l+ g whk" ia;s oHq;a
f,i wdlIKh ksYa; rgdjlg weis mj;S t neka whksl ixfhda.hla
>k wjia:df mj;sk g whkj,g ip,kh f yelshdj ke;' wxY= msys
ia:dkj, u isg lmkh u muKla is f' f wkqj whksl iaMlhla
oHq;h ikakhkh fkd lrhs'
j wjia:df mj;sk fidah laf,darhs ie,l+ g whk fjka j mj;S'
whksl ixfhda.hla j wjia:df mj;sk g whkj,g ip,kh f yelshdj
mj;sk neka oHq;h ikakhkh lrhs'
f,day mrudKqj, ixhqc;d ljpfha bf,lafg%dak mrudKqjg ,sys,a j ne|S we;'
t neka f,day mrudKqj, ixhqc;d ljpfha bf,lafg%dak uqod yka Ok
whk f,i mej;Sug keUqrejla we;' ta wkqj f,day mrudKqj,ska ksoyia jk
bf,lafg%dak u`.ska we;s jk bf,lafg%dak c,dYfha .s,S mj;sk Ok whkj,ska
iuka; moaO;shla we;s f' Ok whk iy bf,lafg%dak c,dYh ia;s oHq;a
jYfhka wdlIKh f,dayl nkaOk iEfoa'

bf,lafg%dak c,dYh

ksoyia bf,lafg%dak mj;sk neka f,day oHq;h ikakhkh lrhs'

17

 f,day whkfha ;ru l=vd jk g" f,day whkfha wdfrdamKh Yd, jk g

yd f,dayl nkaOkhg odhl lrk bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj je jk g m%n,

f,dayl nkaOk we;s f'
f,dayl nkaOk m%n, jk g f,dayfha jdxlh by< hhs'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

O m%d:l wka; l%shdj,g ksoiqka jk wKq yd whksl moaO;s iuQyh ne.ska

isiq lKavdhj,g ,nd oS tajd ms<sn|

j my; i|yka oE idlPd lsug fhduq lrkak'
m%d:l wka; l%shd yg f.k we;s wdldrh
oHq;a RK;d fjki wkqj m%d:l wka; l%shdj, iajNdjh yd fmkakq
lrk .=Kdx.

18

ksmqK;dj 1'0

( mod:fha iajNdjh ksKh lsu i|yd bf,lafg%dksl

ieleiau" bf,lafg%dksl wka;l%shd yd Yla;s yqjudre fhdod
.ksh's

ksmqK;dj ugu 1'7

( mod:fha jHqyh yd .=K ksKh lrkq msKsi iyixhqc

wKqj," O%eh iyixhqc wKqj, yd ir, whk ldKavj,
yev Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 07 hs'

bf.kq M,

iq,n j yuq jk yd Wmu jYfhka mrudKq oyhla olajd wvx.= iyixhqc

wKqj, yd whk ldKavj, ,qia jHqy w|shs'
ixhqc;d ljp bf,lafg%dak hq., lIK jdoh fhdod .kska iyixhqc
wKqj, yd whk ldKavj, uOH mrudKqj jgd tu bf,lafg%dak hq.,a osYdk;
jk wkaou yd wKqf$whkfha cHd;sl yevh mqfrdal:kh lrhs'
W; WodyrK weiqfrka sp, sp2 yd sp3 uqy
q lrKh we;s jk wkaou ia;r lrhs'
fok ,o wKqjlg fyda whk ldKavhlg fyda mej;sh yels ish u im%hqla;
jHqy we| tajdfha ia:dhS;dj ixikaokd;aul uiqug ,la lrhs'
im%hqla; jHqy wdOdrfhka im%hqla; uqyq jHqyfha mj;sk nkaOkj, os. yd
m%n,;dj ms<sn| ms<s.; yels u; m%ldY lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

iyixhqc wKqjl fyda whk ldKavhl fyda mj;akd iyixhqc nkaOk ia

;s;a ixfla;j,ska t k yjqf,a ;nd .kakd bf,lafg%dk

a hq.,a fl fLdjlska
ke;fyd;a ;s;a hq.,lska ^fyda ;s;a - l;sr hq.,lska& o tla tla mrudKqj u;
msys tlir hq.,a ;s;a hq.,aj,ska fyda l;sr hq.,aj,ska o olajkq ,nk jHqyhla
ia jHqyh f,i ye|skf
a ' ia jHqyfha olajkq ,nkafka ixhqc;d bf,lafg%dk
a
muKs'
ksoiqk ( c, wKqj i,luq'

Tlaisckaj, ia ixfla;h

c, wKqf ia ;s;a l;sr jHqyh H

yhsv%ckaj, ia ixfla;h

O H

H O H

c, wKqf ia jHqyh

ia jHqyhla u`.ska wKqjl mrudKq inkaO mj;sk wdldrh ms<sn|j;a

ixhqc;d ljpj, mj;sk bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj ms<sn|j;a nkaOkj, iajNdjh

ms<sn|j;a f;dr;=re ,ef' kuq;a yev ms<sn| f;dr;=re ia jHqyfhka m%ldY
fkdf' wKqjl uOH mrudKqj jgd msys nkaOk bf,lafg%dak hq.,a .Kk
19

yd tlir hq.,a .Kk ia jHqyfhka ,nd f.k ixhqc;d ljp bf,lafg%dak

hq.,a lIK jdoh ^VSEPRT& fhdod .kska wKqj, yev mqfrdal:kh l< yel'

fh

;%swdk;s oa msrvdldr

;,Sh ;%sfldaKdldr

wIag;,Sh

p;=ia;,Sh

uOH mrudKqj jgd ;sfnk bf,lafg%dak hq.,a .Kk wkqj

tajd wjldYfha osYdk; jk wdldrh
bf,lafg%dak hq.,
tl;=j nkaOk tlir

hq.,a ilia jk
wkaou

wKqf yevh

fh

fh

;,Sh ;%sfldaKdldr
;,Sh ;%sfldaKdldr

fldaKsl

p;=ia;,Sh

;%sfldaKdldr
p;=ia;,Sh

msrvh

fldaKsl

20

bf,lafg%dak hq.,
tl;=j nkaOk tlir

hq.,a ilia jk
wkaou

wKqf yevh

;%swdk;s oa msrvh

iS-fida

5
;%sfldaKdldr

T - yevh

oa msrh

fh

wIag;,Sh

wIag;,Sh

iup;=ri%dldr
msrAh

;,Sh
iup;=ri%dldr

tl u wKqjla fyda whk ldKavhla i|yd bf,lafg%dak ieleiqf fjkial

u; muKla fjkia jk ,qia jHqy folla fyda je .Kkla mj;sk wjia:d
yuqf' h wKqjla i|yd jk t jeks jHqy im%hqla; jHqy f,i ye|ska f' wKqf
ienE jHqyh ka tllaj;a fkd jk w;r th im%hqla; jHqy uqyq fuka iEfok
jvd;a ia:dhs fjkia jHqyhls'

O3 ys im%hqla; uqyqu

O3 i|yd jk im%hqla; jHqy

im%hqla; uqyq jHqyfha O - O nkaOk" os.ska iudk jk w;r tu os. O - O

talnkaOk os.g jvd wvqf' O } O oa;aj nkaOk os.g jvd je f'

21

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

my; i|yka wKqj,$whkj, ia jHqy we| cHd;sl yev ksKh lsug

Wmfoia fokak' ^fjk;a W; ksoiqka o bosm;a lsu l< hq;= h'&

BeCl2, BF3, CH4, NH3, H2O, PCl3, NH4+, SF6, SF4, ClF3, XeF2, IF5, XeF4

NO 3- , CO 32- , SO 2-4 ,
my; wKqj,$whkj, uOH mrudKqf uqy
q lrKh ksKh lsug i,iajkak'
BeCl2, BF3, CH4, NH3, H2O, C2H2, C2H4 , NH4+ ^fjk;a W; ksoiqka o bosm;a

lsu l< hq;= h'&

my; m%fNaoj, im%hqla; jHqy we| im%hqla; uqyqu we|Sug Wmfoia fokak'
O3,

N2O ^fjk;a W; ksoiqka o bosm;a lsu l< hq;= h'&

22

ksmqK;dj 1'8

( mod:fha iajNdjh ksKh lsu i|yd bf,lafg%dksl

ieleiau" bf,lafg%dksl wka;l%shd yd Yla;s yqjudre
fhdod .kshs'

ksmK
q ;d ugu

( mod:fha jHqyh yd .=K ksKh lrkq msKsi O moaO;s

;=< mj;sk oa;Shsl wka;l%shd Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 07 hs'

bf.kq M,

O%elrKh" oaO%ej >QKh yd O%ejKYS,;dj hk ixl,am W; WodyrK f.k

yer olajka ia;r lrhs'

Ih ksfoaYhg we;=<;a oa;Shsl wka;l%shd j. W; ksoiqka f.kyer

olajka ia;r lrhs'

h jHhl mj;akd oa;Shsl wka;l%shdj, iajNdjh yd tu jHfha fN!;sl
.=K w;r inkaO;d biau;= lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

tlsfkl yd ridhksl j nkaOkh mj;akd mrudKq folla w;r oHq;a

RK;d fjki fya;= fldg f.k fyda fjk;a ndysr n,mEula fya;=fjka fyda
nkaOkhg inkaO mrudKqj, bf,lafg%dak j,d wiu;sl j jHdma; u
O%elrKh f,i ykajhs'
ksoiqka (

fujeks oaO%ejhl tla wdfrdamK flaka hl mj;akd wdfrdamKfha;a tu mrudKq

w;r nkaOk osf.ys;a .=K;

s h nkaOkfha oaO%ej >QKh k f' nyq mrudKql
wKqj, oaO%ej >QKh tla tla nkaOkh inkaOfhka ie,lsh yels h' tajdfha
im%hqla;h wKqf oaO%ej >QKh f,i ie,fla'
ish u N - H nkaOkj, oaO%ej >QKj,
im%hl
q ;
a h u`.k
s a NH3 wKqf oaO%ej >QKh
,ef'

iuyr iu;sl wKq i|yd oaO%ej >QKh Y+kH f'

ksoiqka (
Cl

Be+

Cl

23

 O%ejKYS,;dj

mmQK whksl ixfhda.hla ie,l+ g tajdfha ix>gl jk legdhk yd

wekdhk i >k f.da, jYfhka mj;sk nj ie,fla' kuq;a whksl ixfhda.h
iuka; jk legdhkfha yd wekdhkfha iajNdjh wkqj wekdhkfha
bf,lafg%dak j,dj legdhkh fj;g wdlIKh u fya;=fjka wekdhkfha
bf,lafg%dak j,df lD;s;d we;s f'
kso (

mQK whksl nkaOkh

O%elrKhla fkdue;

lD;s u

O%ejKYS,;dj je u

h m%udKhlg iyixhqc
,laIK fmkakq lsu
O%ejKYS,;dj by< kxjk idOl
legdhkh (
m%udKfhka l=vd u
wekdhkh (

ksoiqka (

by< wdfrdamKhlska hqla; u

m%udKfhka Yd, u
by< wdfrdamKhlska hqla; u

AgF, AgCl, AgBr iy AgI j, whksl .=K my; mos p,kh f'
AgF > AgCl > AgBr > AgI

wekdhkh Yd, u fya;=fjka O%ejKYS,;dj je jk w;r ta

wkqj iyixhqc ,laIK h muKlg fmkakq lsu fuhg fya;=j
MO + CO2
hs' MCO3
CO32- ldKavh O2- yd CO2 f,i |S hdug M2+ whkfha
O%ejKYS,;dj n,mdhs ,ef' II ldKavfha legdhkj, O%ejKYS,;dj
Be>Mg>Ca f,i p,kh f' tu ksid fo jk ldKavfha
ldnfkagj, ;dm fhdack WIaK;aj BeCO3< MgCO3< CaCO3
f,i p,kh f'

O oa;shsl wka;l%shd i|yd ksoiqka

oaO%ej - oaO%ej wka;l%shd

yhsrcka nkaOk
yhsrcka nkaOk hkq oHq;a RK mrudKqjlg ^X& iyixhqc j ne|S mj;sk

yhsrcka mrudKqjla" tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,a tlla fyda lsysmhla iys;

oHq;a RK mrudKqjla ^Y& iu`. we;s lr .kakd fYaI ia;s oHq;a
wka;l%shdjls'
24

H+///////////////Y

X yd Y hkq F, O, N, Cl hkd oS jvd oHq;a RK mrudKq jk wjia:dj, oS

yhsrcka nkaOk jvd;a m%n, f' ^yhsrcka nkaOk m%n,;dj F>O>N>Cl

f,i wvq f' fuh FONCl kS;sh f,i ye|skaf'& X ydY hk ia:dk by;
i|yka uQ,jH mrudKqj,g wu;r j fjk;a mrudKq iska w;alr .kakd
iuyr fYaI wjia:dj, oS m%n, yhsv%cka nkaOk yg .kakd kuq;a fuu Ih
ksfoaYh ;=< t jeks wjia:d wjOdrKh fkd flf'

yhsvc
% ka nkaOk

;dmdxlh$ 0C

c, wKq w;r mj;akd yhsv%cka nkaOk

wdj;s;d j.=f msys wdj;h

15" 16 yd 17 ldKavj, yhsrhsvj, ;dmdxl p,kh

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

15" 16 yd 17 ldKavj, yhsv%hsvj, ;dmdxl p,k m%ia;drh m%oYkh lr tu

p,khg fya;= h yels lreKq uikak'

ir, wKq lsym
s h ne.ska isiq lKavdhj,g bosm;a lr tajdfha oaO%ej >QKhla
mej;Su$fkdmej;Su yd oaO%ej >QKfha m%n,;d ms<sn| idlPd lsug
i,iajkak'
iqiq wKql$whksl moaO;s lKavdhj,g mjrd tajdfha mej;sh yels oa;Shsl
wka;l%shdj, iajNdjh yd ta wkqj ys jk .=K ms<sn| idlPd lsug fhduq
lrkak'
25

^ fuh E5 wdlD;shg wkqj ie,iq l< fhda; l%shdldrluls&

ksmK
q ;dj

1'0

( .=K yd jHqyh weiqrska mod:fha iajNdjh .%y lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 1'9

( cd,j, ieleiau mok lr .kska tajdfha .=K uYkh

lrhs'
l%shdldrlu
1'9 ( cd, ieleiau weiqka mod:fha .=K uiuq'
ld,fo
( 07 hs
.=Kd;aul fhojq
( weuqKqu 1'9'1g we;=<;a cd,dldr jHqyh oelafjk mska;+rh
weuqKqu 1'9'2g we;=<;a lKavdh .fIK Wmfoia m;%sldf
msgm;a myla
weuqKu
q 1'9'3g we;=<;a "cd, O;ajh" ,smf
s hys msgm;a myla
uhs lvodis yd meiag,a
bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sh (
mshjr 1'9'1
( cd,fha mska;+rh mka;shg m%oYkh lrkak'
my; i|yka .eg mka;shg bosm;a lrkak'
cd,h hkafkka woyia jkafka l=ula o@
cd,j, olakg ,efnk fmd ,laIK fudkjd o@
cd, ieliqu iys; mod: mj;S o@
cd, ieliq iys; mod: f.dv keS we;s ne|S fl n
o@
my; i|yka lreKq u;= lrka idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
;ekq tall l%uj;a rgdjlg tlsfkl inkaO fuka
ksudKh jQjla cd,hla fyj;a oe,sila f,i ye|skah
yels nj
u;a rgdjlska hq;= u yd kej; kej; fhfok uQ,sl
tallhlska ksudKh mej;Su oe,sij
a , fmd ,laIKhla
nj
oe,sia wdldrfha jHQy iys; O mod: iajNdjfha mj;sk
nj
mrudKq fyda wKq fyda whk fyda l%uj;a rgdjlg ilia
jQ cd, ieliq iys; mod: mj;sk nj
cd,uh mod:j, ;ekq tallh wkqj tajd my; mos
j. l< yels nj
iu mrudKql cd,
Iu mrudKql cd,
ksO%eh wKql cd,
O%eh wKql cd,
whksl cd,
cd,uh mod:j, ;ekq tallfha iajNdjh wkqj cd,h
f.dvkeSf oS we;s lr .kakd ne|S O jk nj
cd,h f.dv keSf oS we;s lr .kakd ne|Sj, iajNdjh"
cd,fha fN!;sl .=K flfrys n,mdk nj
^ks;a;= 15 hs&
26

mshjr 1'9'2

mshjr 1'9'3

mka;sh lKavdh mylg fnokak'

Wmfoia m;%sld" lsh jH" uhs lvodis yd meiag,a
lKavdhj,g imhkak'
ldh mjrd" lKavdh" .fIKfhys fhdojkak'
iuia; lKavdh bm;a lsula i|yd iQodk lrjkak'
^ks;a;= 60 hs&
( lKavdh wkdjrK mka;shg bm;a lrjkak'
m%:u ia;drKh i|yd bm;a l< lKavdhj,g u wjia:dj
fokak'
fiiq lKavdhj, ixjOkd;aul fhdackd uikak'
my; lreKq u;= lrka iudf,dapkhl fhfokak'
iucd;Sh mrudKqj,ska f.dvkeS we;s oshuka;s yd ksrka
oe,sia iu mrudKql cd, i|yd ksoiqka jk nj
Iucd;S h mrudKq j ,s k a f.dvkeS we;s is , s l ka
vfhdlaihs Iu mrudKql cd, i|yd ksoiqkla jk
nj
ksO%eh whka wKqj,ska f.dvkeS we;s whka iaMl
ksO%eh wKql cd, i|yd ksoiqkla jk nj
O%eh wKqj,ska f.dvkeS we;s whsia O%eh wKql cd,hla
i|yd ksoiqka jk nj
fidah whk yd laf,darhs whkj,ska ie,;a
fidah laf,darhs whksl cd, i|yd ksoiqkla jk
nj
iucd;Sh yd Iucd;Sh mrudKql oe,sia ksudKh
we;af;a mrudKq tlsfkl iyixhqc j ne|Sfuka nj
ksO%eh wKql cd, f.dvkeS we;af;a fm%a; oaO%ej fm%a; oaO%ej w;r we;s lr .kakd wdlIK n, uska
ksO%eh wKq tlsfkl ne|Sfuka nj
O%eh wKql cd, f.dvkeS we;af;a iar oaO%ej-iar
oaO%ej w;r we;s lr .kakd wdlIK n, uska O%eh
wKq tlsfkl ne|Sfuka nj
whks l cd, f.dvkeS we;a f ;a Okdfrda m s ; yd
RKdfrdams; whk w;r we;s lr .kq ,nk m%n, ia;s
oHq;a wdlIK uska whk tlsfkl ne|Sfuka nj
iucd;Sh yd Iucd;Sh mrudKql cd, f.dvkeS we;af;a
m%n, iyixhqc nkaOkj,ska neka tu oe,siaj,ska
ksudKh jQ jH by< oe njlska o by< jdxl$
;dmdxlj,ska o hq;= nj
mrudKql cd, ;=< mj;sk iyixhqc nkaOk jvd;a m%n,
neka djK .; ug keUqrejla fkdue;s nj
ip, bf,lafg%dak fkdue;s mrudKql cd, oHq;h
ikakhkh fkdlrk nj

27

 n, jeka v'jd,aia n,j,ska tlsfkl neKq wKqj,ska

iuka; ksO%eh wKql cd, iys; jH oe nka wvq
w;r wfkl=;a cd,j,ska ksudKh jQ jHj,g idfmalaI
j my< jdxl$;dmdxlj,ska hqla; nj
ksO%eh wKqj,ska ksudKh we;s neka ksO%eh
wKql cd,j,ska ks; jH ksO%eh djl ;=< osh jk
w;r ip, bf,la f g% d a k fkdue;s neka oHq ; h
ikakhkh fkd lrk nj
iar oaO%ej-iar oaO%ej wdlIK n,j,ska ^fyda
yhsrcka nkaOkj,ska& neKq wKqj,ska iuka; O%eh
wKql cd,j,ska ks; jH ksO%eh wKql cd,j,ska
ks; jHj,g idfmalaI j by< oe njlska yd by<
jdxl$;dmdxlj,ska hq;= nj
O%eh wKql cd,j,ska ks; jH O%eh djl ;=<
djHug
je
keUqrejla
olajk
w;r
ip,kbf,lafg%dak fkdue;s ksid oHq;h ikakhkh
fkd lrk nj
m%n, ia;s oHq;a wdlIKj,ska neKq whksl cd,j,ska
ks; jH by< jdxl$;dmdxl fmkajk w;r oe
nka o by< jk nj
whksl cd,j,ska hqla; jH O%eh djl ;=< osh ug
keUqrejla olajk nj
whksl cd,j,ska iuka; jHj, o ip, bf,lafg%dak
fkdue;s neka >k wjia:df oS oHq;h ikakhk
fkdlrk nj
whksl cd,j,ska iuka; jH ,Sk l< g yd djK
.; l< g ip, whk mj;sk ksid oHq;h ikakhkh
lrk nj
^ks;a;= 45 hs&
;lafiare yd we.ehS ksKdhl (

cd, ieleiau wkqj mod: j.SlrKh lrhs'

fok ,o mod:hl cd, ieliau wkqj fmkakq l< yels fN!;sl .=K mqfrdal:kh
lrhs'

tlsfklg fjkia cd, ieliq iys; mod:j, fN!;sl .=K ikaikaokh lrhs'

jHqyh wkqj fmkakq l< yels .=K mqfrdal:kh lrhs'

ixlaIsma; j bosm;a l< f;dr;=re ia;drKh lrhs'

weuqKqu 1'9'1

cd,hl rEm igyk

28

weuqKqu 1'9'2

lKavdh .fIKh i|yd Wmfoia

cd, ieleiau weiqka mod:fha .=K uiuq"
my; i|yka cd, j. w;ka Tn lKavdhug mejfrk cd, j.h ms<sn| wjOdkh
fhduq lrkak'
iu mrudKql cd,
Iu mrudKql cd,
ksO%eh wKql cd,
O%eh wKql cd,
whksl cd,
,smsh lshjd" Tng mjrk ,o cd, j.hg ksoiqka jk mod: ykd .kak'
tu mod:j, jHqyh ms<sn| idlPd lrkak'
tu mod:j, jHqyh wkqj cd,h f.dvkexf oS we;s lr .kakd nkaOkj,
iajNdjh ;SrKh lrkak'
cd,fha iajNdjh wkqj wod< mod:j, my; i|yka fN!;sl .=K ms<sn| j we.hSula
lrkak'
jdxl$;dmdxl
oHq;a ikakdhl iajNdjh
oe nj
djH;dj
Tng wod< cd, ieleiafuka hqla; ixfhda.j, by; i|yka .=K wfkl=;a cd, ieliq
iys; ixfhda.j, tu .=K iu ii|kak'
Tf wkdjrK ksudKYS,S j mka;shg bosm;a lsug iQodk jkak'
weuqKqu 1'9'3
cd, O;ajh uid n,uq'
mrudKq" wKq fyda whk uska ks; cd, wdldrfha jHQy iys; mod: iajNdl j
mj;S' fjd w;=ka mrudKql cd, f.dv keS we;af;a mrudKq w;r we;s lr .kq ,nk
iyixhqc nkaOkj,sks' wKql cd, ksudKh jkqfha wKq w;r we;s lr .kq ,nk wka;
wKql nkaOk fyj;a oa;Shsl wka;l%shd usks' whksl cd, ksudKh jkqfha m%;sreoaO
wdfrdamK iys; whk w;r we;s lr .kakd ia;s oHq;a wdlIK usks'
O wdldrfha cd, ieliq lsysmhla my; ia;r flf'
mrudKql cd,
mrudKql cd, iuyrla tl u j.fha mrudKqj,ska ksudKh we;s w;r ;j;a
iuyrla j. foll fyda je .Kkl mrudKqj,ska ks; h' tl u j.fha mrudKqj,ska
ks; cd, iumrudKql cd, f,iska ye|ska f' ldnkaj, nyqrEmS wdldr jk oshuka;s
yd ksrka f i|yd ksoiqka f' tlsfklg fjkia mrudKq inkaO ks; cd, Iu
mrudKql cd, f,i ye|skafjk w;r is,sld ^SiO2& f i|yd ksoiqkla f'
oshuka;s ksudKh ;sfnkafka sp3 uqyqlrKhg ,la jQ ldnka mrudKq tlsfkl
iyixhqc j ne|Sfuks' ieu ldnka mrudKqjla u fjk;a ldnka mrudKq y;rla iu tal
iyixhqc nkaOkj,ska ne|S mj;sk wdldrhg fuu oe,sia ilia we;' oe,sia jHQyh ;=<
29

tla tla ldnka mrudKqj jgd msy

s wfkla mrudKq uOH mrudKqj flaka lr.;a p;=i;
a ,hl
YSI u; msysgk wdldrhg ilia mj;S' fuh ;%sudk fhdaO oe,sia jHqyhls' fuh
iyixhqc fhdaO wKqjla f,i o ie,lsh yels h' iajNdl jH w;ka oe nka by< u
jHh oshuka;s f'

rEmh 1'9'1 oshuka;sj, cd, ieleiau

ksrka ksudKh ;sfnkafka sp2 uqyqlrKhg ,la jQ ldnka mrudKq tlsfkl
iyixhqc j ne|Sfuks' ieu ldnka mrudKqjla u fjk;a ldnka mrudKq ;=kla iu tal
iyixhqc nkaOkj,ska ne|S mj;sk wdldrhg oe,si ilia we;' oe,sia jHQyh ;=< tla tla
ldnka mrudKqj jgd msys wfkla ldnka mrudKq ;=k uOH mrudKqj flaka lr.;a ;,Sh
;%sfldaKhl YSI u; msysgk wdldrhg ilia we;' fuh oaudk fhdaO oe,sia jHQyhls'
ksrkaj, ieu ldnka mrudKqjla u i;= uqyqlrKh fkdjQ p ldlaIslhla mj;sk w;r tys
tla hq.au bf,lafg%dakhla o we;' kquqyq p ldlaIslh oaudk oe,sfia ;,hg ,nl j
msysghs' t neka oaudk ldnka ia:r w;r wdlIK we;s lsug fuu hq.au bf,lafg%dak
ork p ldlaIsl Wmld f'

rEmh 1'9'2 ksrkaj, cd, ieleiau

is,sld hkq tlsfklg fjkia mrudKq j. follska ks; Iu mrudKql oe,silska
iuka; jHhls' ieu is,slka mrudKqjla u Tlaiscka mrudKq y;rla iu o iEu
Tlaiscka mrudKqjla u is,slka mrudKq folla iu o iyixhqc j neKq oe,sia jHQyhlska
is,sld iuka; f'

rEmh 1'9'3 is,sldj, cd, ieleiau

30

wKql cd,
wKql cd, iuyrla iumrudKql wKqj,ska ksudKh mj;sk w;r ;j;a iuyrla
Iu mrudKql wKqj,ska ksudKh we;' oe,si ks; wKqf O%eh iajNdjh i,lka
tajd ksO%eh wKql cd, yd O%eh wKql cd, f,i j. l< yel'
whka iaMl iumrudKql ksO%eh wKql cd,hla i|yd ksoiqkla f' whka wKqj
Yd, wKqjls' t neka O fya;+ka u; whka wKq ;djld,sl j fm%a; oaO%ej we;s lr
.kshs' t jeks fm%a; oaO%ej-fm%a; oaO%ej w;r we;s lr .kakd wdlIK uska whka
oe,si ksudKh we;'

rEmh 1'9'3 - I2 oe,si

c, wKqj O%eh wKqjls' whsia iaMl O%eh wKql cd,hla i|yd losu ksoiqkls' c,
wKqf O _ H nkaOkj, mj;akd iar oaO%ej fya;=fjka whsia iaMlh ;=< H2O wKq
wka; wKql yhsv%cka nkaOkj,ska ne|S mj;S'

rEmh 1'9'3 whsia iaMl

whks l cd,
fndfyda whksl ixfhda. iaMlrEmS jHqyhla iys; >k jH f,i iajNdl j mj;S' fuu
iaMl oe,si ksudKh ;sfnkafka whksl ixfhda.fha wka;.; m%;sreoaO wdfrdamK
iys; whk wjldYfha ksYa; rgdjlg weys ilia fuks' tu m%;sreoaO wdfrdamK iys;
whk w;r mj;skqfha ia;s oHq;a wdlIK hhs' fidah laf,darhs whksl oe,silg
losu ksoiqkls' fidah laf,darhs oe,si ksudKh we;af;a iEu Na+ whkhla jgd u
Cl- whk yhla o" iEu Cl- whkhla jgdu Na+ whk yhla o mj;sk wdldrhg ilia fuks'

rEmh 1'9'6

NaCl iaMl oe,si

Na+
31

Cl-

ksmqK;dj 2'0

( ridhksl .Kkh ksje/os j is lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 2'1

( wKq yd mrudKq inkaO fN!;sl rdYs fhdod .kska

ridhksl iQ;% f.dv kxjhs'

ld,fo

( 08 hs'

bf.kq M,

fN!;sl rdYs m%ldY lsrSu i|yd wod< Wmi. iys; uQ,sl SI tall yd jHq;m
a kak

SI tall Nd; lrhs'

ksjeros j kq .ekSf oS yd .Kkfha oS ^tl;= lsf oS" wvq lsf oS" .=K
lsf oS yd fnoSf oS & id:ldxl ksjeros j yiqrejhs'
m%;sY; ixhq;s okakd g wkqNl iq;%h o" wkqNl iQ;%h yd idfmalaI wKql
ialkaOh okakd g wKql iQ;%h o ksKh lrhs'
>gkd .=K yd ;a;s .=K WodyrK iys; j ia;r lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

wka; cd;sl tall l%uh - SI

wka; cd;sl tall l%uh ^Systeme International d' Unite's - SI & wkqj uQ, rdYs
y;la iy tajdg tall y;la iu; lr f.k we;'
rdYsh

tallh

tallfha ixfla;h

os.
ialkaOh
ld,h
;dm.;sl WIaK;ajh
oHq;a Odrdj
jH m%udKh
oSma; ;Sj%;dj

grh
lsf,da.a?uh
;;amrh
fl,akh
wemshrh
ujq,h
lekafv,dj

m
kg
s
K
A
mol
cd

SI jHq;amkak tall
jHq;m
a kak fN!;sl rdYshl SI tallh tu fN!;sl rdYsfha w: oelau wdY%fhka
,nd .; yels h' th ,sf oS uQ,sl rdYSka fjka fldg oelaug tla tla uQ,sl
rdYsfha ixfla; w;r ysoeila ;nkq ,ef' we;e jHq;amkak rdYs i|yd Nd;
lrk fYaI k we;' kuq;a tajd o SI uQ, tall weiqfrka m%ldY l< yels h'
fYaI k fkdue;s jHq;amkak tall lSmhla my; j.=f oela f'
rdYsh

w: oelau$ilrKh

SI tallh

j.M,h
mudj

os. m<,
os. m<, Wi

m2
m3

m%f.h

ia:dmkh
ld,h
32

m s-1

;ajrKh

m%f.h fjki
ld,h

m s-2

>k;ajh

ialkaOh
mrsudj

kg m-3

ialkaOh m%f.h

.uH;dj

kg m s-1

fYaI k iys; SI tall

rdYsh

SI tallfha
fYaI ku

ixfla;h

w: oelau
^ilrKh&
ialkaOh;ajrKh

wkH SI tall
weiqfrka
m%ldYh

uQ,sl tall
weiqfrka
m%ldYh

n,h

ksgkh

mSvkh

meial,h

Pa

ldhh

cQ,h

Yla;h
s

cQ,h

ixLHd;h

y'ih

Hz

lmk .Kk
ld,h

s -1

oHq;a
wdfrdamKh

l+f,dauh

Odrdjld,h

As

oHq;a Njh

fjda,g
a h

ldhh
wdfrdamK

J C-1

kg m2 s-3 A-1

oHq;a
m%;f
s rdaOh

uh

Njh
Odrdj

V A-1

kg m2 s-2 A-1

oHq;a Od;dj

*ervh

wdfrdamKh
Njh

C V-1

n,h
j.M,h
n,hia:dmkh

33

kg m s-2
N m-2

kg m-1 s-2

Nm

kg m2 s-2

.=Kk idOlh

Wmi.fha ku

1018
1015
1012
109
106
103
102
101
10-1
10-2
10-3
10-6
10-9
10-12
10-15
10-18

tlaid
fmgd
fgrd
.s.d
fu.d
lsf,da
fylafgd
fvld
fvis
fikas
,s
uhsfl%da
kefkda
msflda
f*fgda
wefgda

ixfla;h
exa
peta
tera
giga
mega
kilo
hecto
deca
deci
centi
milli
micro
nano
pico
femto
atto

E
P
T
G
M
k
h
da
d
c
m

n
p
f
a

hlsis fN!;sl rdYshl w.h Wmi.h iu. ,sf oS tu Wmi.hg wod< ixfla;h SI
ixfla;hg bosfhka ysoeila fkd;nd ,sh hq;= h'
WodyrK (

;;amrfhka

1
=110-3 s =1 ms
1000

grfhka

1
=110-2 m=1 c m
100

gr

1000 = 1103 m = 1 km

kE u fN!;sl rdYshla my; oelafjk mos bosm;a l< yel'

fN!;sl rdYsh } ixLHd;aul w.h tallh
ksoiqka ( os. } 5 cm
id:dxl

.Kka lsu iy uekSu w;r fjkila we;' .Kka lsu ksYa;j u l< yels w;r
uekSu wdikak w.h m%ldY lsula f' m%ldY lrk ,o lsish fN!;sl rdYshl
ixLHd;aul w.fhys wvx.= jk w:j;a wxl .Kk id:dxl f,i ykajhs'
ksoiqka (
mEkl os. O kq WmlrKj,ska uek my; mos m%ldY
fika gr fldgia muKla igyka fldajlska uekSu
gr fldajlska uekSu
jksh le,smrhlska uekSu
34

l< yels h'

18 cm
18'1 cm
18'12 cm

f wkqj kq WmlrKhlska uek m%ldY lrk w.hla wdikak w.hla i ksYa; w.hla
fkd jk nj meyeos,s f'
by; oS m<uq kqu id:dxl follska o fo jk kqu id:dxl ;=klska o f; jk kqu
id:ldxl 4 lska o m%ldY lr we;s nj i,lkq ,ef'
ixLHd tl;= lsf oS" wvq lsf oS" .=K lsf oS yd fnoSf oS id:dxl ksjeros j yeisru
wjYH h'
ksoiqka (
^I&

13 .8
1 .005
123 .2846 +
0 .023
138 .1126

fuys oS je u fodaIhla we;af;a uq,ska u i|yka ixLHd f h' tu ksid ms<s;=r 138'1 f,i
.kq ,ef' wvq lsf oS o" fuu l%uh u wkq.ukh flf'
^II&

2.451.478

= 0.01078

335.6

fuys olajd we;s ixLHdj, id:dxl .Kk 3 iy 4 f' ms<s;=r wvq u id:dxl .Kkg
^id:ldxl 3& jeghsh hq;= f' ta wkqj ms<s;=r bosm;a l< hq;af;a 0'0108 jYfhks'
;a;s .=K ^ Extensive Properties & (
moaO;sfha m%udKh u; r|d mj;sk .=K ;a;s .=K f'
ksoiqka( mudj" tka;e,amsh
>gkd .=K ^ Intensive Properties &
moaO;sfha m%udKh u; r|d fkd mj;sk .=K >gkd .=K f'
ksoiqka ( WIaK;ajh" idkaKh
m%;sY; ixhq;sh (
ksoiqka ( KMnO4 158.04 g j, K, 39.10 g o, Mn, 59.94 g o O, 64.00 g o wka;.; f'
K j, ialkaO m%;sY;h

Mn j, ialkaO m%;sY;h

O j, ialkaO m%;sY;h

39.10

100 = 24.74 %

158.04
54.94

100 = 34.76 %

158.04
64.00

100 = 40.50 %

158.04

wdkqNl iQ;%h ( ixfhda.hl ixhq;sh yd tl`. jk mos jQ ta ta mrudKq ixLHd w;r ir,
u mQK ixLHd;aul wkqmd;h fmkakq lrk iQ;%h tys wkqNl iQ;%h
k f'
ksoiqka ( fnkaiSkaj, wkqNl iQ;%h CH f'
wKql iQ;%h (
ixfhda.hl wKqjl we;s ta ta uQ,jH mrudKq ixLHdj kshu jYfhka
fmkakq lrk iQ;%h wKql iQ;%h f' ixfhda.hl idfmalaI wKql
ialkaOh yd idfmalaI wdkqNl iQ;% ialkaOh w;r wkqmd;h mQK
ixLHdjla f'
ksoiqka ( fnkaiSkaj, wKql iQ;%h C6H6 f'
35

idfmalaI wKql ialkaOh

}n
idfmalaI wdkqNl iQ;% ialkaOh
wKql iQ;%h } ^wdkqNl iQ;%h&n

ksoiqk (
ldnksl ixfhda.hl ialkaOh wkqj C- 48.12 % la o H - 8.32 % la o N- 21.20 % la o wvx.= f'
b;sh Tlaiscka f'
^I& ixfhda.fha wdkqNl iq;%h ksKh lrkak'
^II& idfmalaI wKql ialkaOh 155 k ixfhda.fha wKql iQ;%h ksKh lrkak'
H = 1.01, C = 12.00, N = 14.00, O = 16.00
= 48.12+ 8.32+21.20 = 77.64%
= 100 - 77.64
= 22.36%

iy N ialkaO m%;sY;j, tl;=j

t neka O ys ialkaO m%;sY;h

C, H

ixfhda.h 100 g ie,lSfuka

C

ialkaO wkqmd;h
ujq, wkqmd;h

ujq, w;r ir,

wkqmd;h

48'12
48'12
12'00
4'01
4'01
1'40

( 8'32 (
( 8'32 (
1'01
( 8'32 (
( 8'32 (
1'40

21'20
21'20
14'00
1'51
1'51
1'40

( 22'36
( 22'36
16'00
( 1'40
( 1'40
1'40

^l=vd u ixLHdfjka fnoSfuka&

2'9 ( 5'9
ujq, w;r ir,
mQK ixLHd;aul
wkqmd;h

( 6

( 1

( 1'1
(

wdkqNl iQ;%h C3H6NO

idfmalaI wdkqNl iQ;% ialkaOh
ixfhda.fha idfmalaI wKql ialkaOh
tu ksid n

= 3(C) + 6(H) + 1(N) + 1(O)

= 3(12) + 6(1) + 1(14) + 1(16)
= 72
= 155
= 155/72
= 2.15

n hkq mQK ixLHdjla jk neka n } 2

tu ksid wKql iQ;%h = (C3H6NO)n
= (C3H6NO)2
= C 6H 12N 2O 2

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

fN!;sl rdYs hkq l=ula oe hs ykajd fokak' kq jYfhka ,nd .kakd" w:

olajk ,o" .Kka lr ,nd .kakd yd w.h mjrk ,o fN!;sl rdYs jYfhka
tajd ia;r lrkak'
O .Ks; luj, oS id:dxl yiqrejk wdldrh W; ir, WodyrK weiqka
myod fokak'
m%;sY; ixhq;s ,nd oS we;s fgl ixfhda.j, wdkqNl iQ;% yd wKql iQ;%
ksjeros j ,nd .ekSug fhduq lrkak'
36

ksmqK;dj 2'0

( ridhksl .Kkh ksje/os j is lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 2'2

( Y%Kj, ixhq;s O wdldrj,ska m%ldY lrhs'

ld,fo

( 04 hs'

bf.kq M,

ixhq;sh hkak w: olajhs'

ialkaO Nd.h" mud Nd.h yd ujq, Nd.h w: olajhs'
ialkaO Nd." mud Nd. yd ujq, Nd. wdY%s; .eg i|hs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

Y%Khl ixhq;sh Nd.hla f,i m%ldY l< yels h'
A yd B Y%Khl oS

A j, ialkaO Nd.h }

A ialkaOh
A ialkaOh + B ialkaOh

ksoiqk ( Zn, Mg yd Cu wvx.= Y% f,dayhl 5'00 g ialkaOhl Mg 1'00 g wvx.=

f k
1.00 g
1
Mg ialkaOh Nd.h } 5.00 g }
5
A yd B

Y%Khl oS
A j, mud Nd.h }

A mudj
A yd B Y%Kfha uq`M mudj

ksoiqk ( t;fkda,a 20.00 cm3 mudjlg uq`M mudj 100.00 cm3 jk f;la c,h
tl;= lrkq ,ef'
t;fkda,ays mud Nd.h }
A yd B Y%Khl oS

A ujq, .Kk
A ujq, Nd.h } uq`M ujq, .Kk

KCl ujq, 5la NaCl ujq, 3la Y% we;s moaO;shl

KCl ys ujq, Nd.h }
fldgia ,shkhlska fldgia .Kkla (ppm) f,i m%ldYs; ixhq;h
s } Nd.h106
fldgia ,shkhlska fldgia .Kkla (ppb) f,i m%ldYs; ixhq;sh } Nd.h109
ksoiqk (

h djKhl 20'000 g la ;=< A k djHh 0'020 g la wvx.= f'

^I&

A djHfha ialkaO Nd.h }

37

^II& djKfha A ixhq;sh fldgia ishhlg fldgia .Kkla

^III& djKfha A ixhq;sh fldgia odylg fldgia .Kkla

(pph) f,i

(ppt) f,i

^IV& djKfha A ixhq;sh fldgia ,shkhlg fldgia .Kkla

(ppm) f,i

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

moaO;sj, wvx.= oE ms<sn| m%udKd;aul f;dr;=re O wdldrj,ska isiq

lKavdhj,g bosm;a lrkak'

ialkaO Nd.h" mud Nd.h fyda ujq, Nd.h W; mos fhdod f.k tu moaO;sj,

ixhq;s m%ldY lsug fhduq lrjkak'

pph, ppt, ppm wdosh W; mos f;dard .kska ixhq;sh m%ldY lsug fhduq
lrkak'

38

ksmqK;dj 2'0

( ridhksl .Kkh ksje/os j is lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 2'3

( wod< ksh; fhdod .kska ridhksl .Kkh lsj, fhfohs'

ld,fo

( 07 hs'

bf.kq M,

wej.dfrda ksh;h ^L&" jdhq ksh;h ^R& yd *erf ksh;h ^F& w.h yd tall

iys;j m%ldY lrhs'

wej.dfrda ksh;h" jdhq ksh;h iy *erf ksh;h inkaO .Kkhkaa is
lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

wej.dfrda ksh;h ^L&

hk ilrKh u`.ska fokq ,ef'

fuys N - wxY= ixLHdj
n - jH ^ujq,& m%udKh
wej.dfrda ksh;h ^L& } 6'0221023 mol-1
jdhq ksh;h ^R&
jdhq ms<sn| yeoEf oS jdhq ksh;h ^R& yuq f'
h jdhq ksheoshla i,luq' jdhqf mSvkh P, mudj V, jdhq m%udKh ujq, n yd

jdhqf ksrfmalaI WIaK;ajh T jk g

PV = nRT
jdhq ksh;h R = 8.314 J K-1 mol-1
*erf ksh;h ^F&
fm%dafgdakfha ujq,sl wdfrdamKh f,i *erf ksh;h w: oelaf'
F = eL
L - wej.dfrda ksh;h
e - bf,lafg%dakfha wdfrdamKh
*erf ksh;h F = 96485 C mol-1

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

isiqka lKavdhj,g fnod wej.dfrda ksh;h" idj;% jdhq ksh;h yd merf

ksh;h ms<sn| f;dr;=re idlPd lsug fhduq lrjkak'

tajd wdY%s; ir, .eg bosm;a lrka isiqkag wNHdi lsug i,iajkak'

39

ksmqK;dj 2

( ridhksl .Kkh lsj, fhfohs'

ksmqK;dj ugu 2'4

( ;=,s; ridhksl ilrK wdYs%; .Kkh lsj, fhfohs'

ld,fo

( 08 hs'

bf.kq M,

ialkaO iy wdfrdamK ixia;s:sh ie,ls,a,g .kska" ridhksl ilrKhl

;=,s;;dj mlaId lrhs'

fidais l%uh" .Ks;uh l%uh ^ix.=Kl ieie|Sf l%uh& iy TlaislrK$
TlaisyrK yd wO m%;sl%shd weiqka ilrK ;=,kh lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

ridhksl ilrKhla u.ska m%udKd;aul f;dr;=re ,nd.ekSu i|yd th ;=<s;

h hq;= h'
fidais l%uh (Inspection Method)
m%;sls%hl iy m%;sM,j, tla tla mrudKq ixLHd ;=,kh lsfuka ilrKh
;=,kh lsu fidais l%uh f,i yekah yel' fuu l%ufha m%;sls%hdj,
M,j, wvx.= jk uQ,jH fjka fjka jYfhka ;=,kh lrkq ,ef' m<uq j
wju mrudKq .Kkla wvx.= jk uQ, jH i,ld n,k w;r tl u uQ,jH
mrudKqj,ska iuka; wKq ^ksoiqka - Cl2, O2) wjidk mshjf i,ld n,kq
,ef'
ksoiqka (- C5H10(g) + 15/2O2 (g)
5CO2(g) + 5H2O (l)
tlsfklg fjkia uQ,jH ;=kla by; ilrKfha i|yka ix>glj,
oelaf'
C tl m%;sls%hlhl yd M,hl wvx.= f'
H tl m%;sl%shl yd M,hl wvx.= f'
O tl m%;sls%hl yd M, foll wvx.= f'
C
H
O

;=,kh
;=,kh
;=,kh

15/2

C5H10(g) + O2 (g)
C5H10(g) + O2 (g)
C5H10(g) + 15/2O2 (g)

5CO2(g) + H2O (l)

5CO2(g) + 5H2O (l)
5CO2(g) + 5H2O (l)

hkak 15 hk mQK ixLHdjg mj;kh lsu i|yd 2 ka .=K l< hq;=

h'
10CO2(g) + 10H2O (l)
;=,s; ilrK 2C5H10(g) + 15O2 (g)
.Ks;uh l%uh
m%;l
s h
%s l yd M, okakd g ix.=Kl ieief l%uh u.ska ilrK ;=,kh
lsrSu .Ks;uh l%uh f,i oelah yel'
ksoiqk ( a Cu + b HNO3
c Cu(NO3)2 + d NO + e H2O
ix.=Kl ieie g
Cu mrudKq ie,l+ g
H mrudKq ie,l+ g
N mrudKq ie,l+ g
O mrudKq ie,l+ g

a=c
b = 2e
b = 2c + d
3b = 6c + d + e

40

k c = 1
wdfoaY l< g
a=1

b = 2 + d ...... (1)
3b = 6 + d +e .....(2)
b = 2e w.h ms<sfj<ska
2e = 2 + d
6e = 6 + d + e
2e - d = 2 ...... (3)
5e - d = 6 ...... (4)
(4) - (3) ka ;
3e = 4
e = 4/3

^1& iy ^2& g wdfoaY l< g

b = 2 x 4/3 = 8/3
d = b - 2 = 8/3 - 2 = 2/3

ix.=Kl wdfoaY l< g

Cu +

8
3

HNO3

Cu (NO3)2 +

NO +

H2O

3 ka .=K l< g
3Cu + 8HNO3

3Cu (NO3)2 + 2NO + 4H2O

TlaislrK$TlaisyrK wO m%;sls%hd weiqfrka m%;sl%shd ;=,kh lsu

ksoiqka ( - Cu ;kql HNO3 iu`. m%;sls%hd lr Cu(NO3)2 " NO iy H2O idohs'

42

wO m%;l
s h
%s d weiqka ;=,;
s ilrK
f.dvkexf whk jYfhka ie,lSu
3
myiqf'
TlaisyrK wO m%;sls%hdj
NO3(+5)

NO
(+2)

mshjr 1 - TlaislrK wxl weiqfrka bf,lafg%dak yqjudrej ;=,kh lsu

mshjr 2 - wdfrdamK ;=,kh - ^wd,sl udOHfha wdfrdamK ;=,kh lsug H+Nd;d
l< yel'&
mshjr 3 - ialkaO ;=,kh $mrudKq ;=,kh
(1)
TlaislrK wO m%;sls%hdj
Cu Cu2+
by; whqkau ;=,kh l< g
Cu Cu2+ + 2e...... (2)
ilrK ;=,kh i|yd TlaisyrKfha oS ,nd.;a bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj yd
TlaislrKfha oS bj;a jQ bf,lafg%dak ixLHdj ;=,kh l< hq;= h'
41

(1) 2 + (2) 3

fhda; bf.kq b.eka ls%hdldr (

p- f.dkqj yd d- f.dkqj wdYs%; b.eka ldhhfha yuq jk ilrK
;=,kh i|yd bm;a lrkak'
isiqkag fidais l%uh" .Ks;uh l%uh yd TlaislrK- TlaisyrK l%uh wdYs%; j
ilrK ;=,kh lsu i|yd lKavdh mejreula fokak'

42

ksmqK;dj 2'0

( ridhksl .Kkh ksje/os j is lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 2'5

( O tall weiqka m%ldYs; ixhq;s w;r in|;d u;= lrhs'

ld,fo

( 08 hs'

bf.kq M,

ujq,$mud weiqka m%ldYs; ixhq;sh idkaKh jYfhka ykajhs'

ialkaO$mud" ujq,$ialkaO yd ujq,$mud weiqka m%ldYs; ixhq;s w;r in|;d

u;= lrhs'
ixhq;sh ialkaO$mud" ujq,$mud yd ujq,$ialkaO weiqka .Kkh lr m%ldY
lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

ixhq;sh m%ldY l< yels O wdldr we;' tajd k

ialkaO Nd.h
mud Nd.h
ujq, Nd.h
ialkaO$mud
ujq,$mud
ujq,$ialkaO
ujq,$mud weiqfrka m%ldYs; ixhq
 ;sh idkaKh f,i ykajkq ,ef'
b;d l=vd m%udKj,ska wvx.= ix>glj, ixhq;h
s ppm fyda ppb u`.ska fndfydag
m%ldY lrkq ,ef'
ppm } ialkaO Nd.h 106 yd ppb } ialkaO Nd.h 109 f,i o
ppm } mrsud Nd.h 106 yd ppb } mrsud Nd.h 109f,i bosrsm;a l< yels h'
c,fha >k;ajh
} 1000 g dm-3 f'
;kql c,Sh djKhl >k;ajh 1000 g dm-3 f,i ie,lsh yels h' t neka
djK 1 dm3 ialkaOh } 1 kg } 1000 g } 1000000 mg
t jeks gl ialkaO$mud wkqmd;hla jqj o ppm f,i m%ldY l< yels h'
ialkaO Nd.hla f,i
1ppm hkq fldgia 1000000 mg l fldgia 1 mg wvx.= f hkakhs' t neka
;kql djK i|yd
1ppm = 1 mg kg -1 = 1 mg dm-3
= 1 g g -1
= 1 g cm-3
ksoiqk ( djKhl Fe3+ ixhq;sh 1'5 ppm f,i m%ldY lr we;' tu ixhq;sh
>k fvis grhg ujq,j,ska m%ldY lrkak'
1'5 ppm = 1'5 mg dm-3

43

 wdfrdamK >k;ajh

f,i w: oelaf'

wdfrdamK >k;ajh

ksoiqk (
djKhl Fe3+ whk idkaKh 1 mol dm-3 f' djKfha + wdfrdamK >k;ajh
fidhkak'
+ wdfrdamK >k;ajh

mudj fjkqjg ialkaOh fhdod we;s g

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

ixhq;s fiug wod< .eg lKavdhj,g bosm;a lr tajd .Kkh lsu

Wmfoia fokak'

44

ksmqK;dj 3'0

( mod:fha m%Odk wjia:dj, yeis uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 3'1

( mod:j,g wdfKsl ,dlaIKsl ia;r lsu i|yd mod:fha

m%Odk wjia:d ;=fkys wxY= ieliS we;s wdldrh fhdod .kshs'

ld,fo

( 03 hs'

bf.kq M,

mod:fha m%Odk wjia:d jk >k" j yd jdhqj, wxY= ieleiau ia;r lrhs'

wxY= ieleiau weiqka >k" j yd jdhqj, mudj" >k;ajh" yevh iy imSvH;dj

hk .=K ixikaokh lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

>k

jdhq

mrsudj

ksY
a ; hs'

ksY
a ; hs'

wka;.; nfka
mudj w;alr .kshs'

yevh

ksY
a ; hs'

wka;.; nfka
yev w;alr .ksh's
kuq;a nfka uq`M
mudj mqrd jHdma;
fkdf'

wka;.; nfka
uq`M mudj w;alr
.ksh's

imSvkhg ,la
lsf yelshdj

imSvkh
l< fkd yels h'

imSvkh
l< fkd yels h'

Yd, jYfhka
imSvkhg ,la
l< yels h'

>k;ajh

by< w.hla .ksh's

by< w.hla .ksh's

my< w.hla .ksh's

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

W; ksoiqka weiqfrka mod:fha wika;;sl iajNdjh ms<sn| idlaIH u;=

lrkak'
>k" j yd jdhqj, wxY= ieleiau ia;r lr oS ta weiqka mudj" yevh

imSvkhg ,la lsf yelshdj yd idfmalaI >k;ajh hk .=K iei|Sug

isiqka fhduq lrkak'
W; ir, l%shdldrl lsysmhla wdoYkh lsfuka mod:fha wika;;sl
iajNdjh ms<sn| idlaIH u;= lrkak'
>k" j yd jdhq mod:j, wxY= ieleiau ms<sn| isiqkaf.a fmr oekqu isysm;a
lrkak'
ta weiqfrka >k" j yd jdhqj, yevh" mudj" imSvkhg ,la lsf yelshdj
yd idfmalaI >k;aj ms<sn| ixikaokh lsu isiqkag mjrkak'

45

ksmK
q ;dj 3

( mod:fha m%Odk wjia:dj, yeis uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 3'2

( ;d;al jdhqj, yeis rgd ia;r lsu i|yd mmQK jdhq

ms<sn| wdlD;sh fhdod .kshs'

ld,fo

( 08 hs'

bf.kq M,

mrsmQK jdhq ilrKh m%ldY lr tys mo ykajhs'

mmQK jdhq ilrKh weiqfrka fndhs,"a pd,aia yd wej.dfrda kshu jHq;m
a kak

lrhs'
jdhqjl ujq,sl mudj mCIKd;aul j ksKh lr jd;d lrhs'
mmQK jdhq ilrKh wdY%s; .eg i|hs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

jdhqjl WIaK;ajh" mSvkh" mudj yd jH ^ujq,& m%udKh hk idOl jdhqf

yeisu flfrys n,mdhs' jdhqjla ms<sn| by; i|yka rdYs y;r we;=<;a
inkaO;djla f,i mmqK jdhq ilrKh yekah yels h'
idj;% jdhq ksh;h

PV = nRT

R = 8.314 J K-1 mol-1

mmQK jdhq ilrKh weiqfrka fndhs,a kshuh jHq;amkak lsu'

PV = nRT
ksh; WIaK;ajhl ksh; jdhq ialkaOhla i|yd nT .=Ks;h ksh; f'
R ksh; ksid nRT= k ksh;hls'
fyda

PV = k (fyda

tk ksh; WIaK;ajhl mj;sk ksh; jdhq ialkaOhl mSvkh" jdhqf

mudjg m%;sf,dau j iudkqmd;sl f' ^fndhs,a kshuh&
mmQK jdhq ilrKh weiqfrka pd,aia kshuh jHq;amkak lsu'

ksh; jdhq ialkaOhl mSvkh ksh; g

ksh;hls'

^fyda V = kT fyda V T &

tk ksh; mSsvkhla hgf;a mj;sk ksh; jdhq ialkaOhl mudj" jdhqf
ksrfmalaI WIaK;ajhg wkqf,dau j iudkqmd;sl f' ^pd,aia kshuh&
46

 mmQK jdhq ilrKh weiqfrka wej.dfrda kshuh jHq;amkak lsu'

fuys N yd L hkq ms<sfj,ska jdhq wKq .Kk yd wej.dfrda ksh;h f'

tlu WIaK;ajfha yd mSvkfha mj;sk A yd B jdhQkaf.a iudk mud i|yd
by; inkaO fhfuka

tk tlu WIaK;ajfha yd mSvkfha mj;sk O jdhQkaf.a iudk mud ;=<

iudk wKq .Kkla wka;.; f' ^wej.dfrda kshuh&

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

iu; WIaK;ajfha oS yd mSvkfha oS mmQK jdhq ujq,hla inkaOfhka

f;dr;=re wdfoaY lr jdhq ksh;fha w.h ,nd .ekSug isiqka fhduq lrjkak'
fndhs,a" pd,aia yd wej.dfrda kshu i|yka lr tajd mmQK jdhq ilrKh
weiqfrka jHq;amkak lsug fhduq lrjkak'

47

ksmqK;dj 3'0

( mod:fha m%Odk wjia:dj, yeis uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 3'3

( ;d;a;al jdhqj, yeisrSu ia;r lrkq msKsi jdhq

ms<sn|

wKql pd,l jdoh fhdod .kshs'

ld,fo

( 04 hs'

bf.kq M,

wKql pd,l jdofha Wml,amk i|yka lrhs'

wKql pd,l ilrKh m%ldY lr tys mo ykajhs'
uelaiafj,a-fnda,iaudka jl% uska jdhq ms<sn| j bosm;a lr we;s f;dr;=re

ia;r lrhs'
jdhqf.da,Sh ixhq;sh flfrys fhda. m%f.fha jeo.;alu ia;r lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

wKql pd,l jdofha Wml,amk (
jdhqjl wKq wLKav wyUq p,s;hl fhfoka mj;S'
wyUq p,s;fha fhfok wKq tlsfkl .ef'
wKq tlsfkl .e fmd,d mekSf oS moaO;sfha iuia; pd,l Yla;sh ksh;

j mj;S'
jdhq mSvkh we;s jkafka jdhq wKq wka;.; nfka ;a;s u; .eu
fya;=fjks'
wKql pd,l ilrKh

P=
V=
m=
N=

mSvkh
jdhqf mudj
jdhq wxY=jl$wKqjl ialkaOh
uq`M jdhq wxY=$wKq ixLHdj

= j. uOHkH m%f.h
tla tla jdhq wxY=j, m%f. ms<sfj<ska c1, c2, ......, cN

j. uOHkHh uQ, m%f.h }

uOHkHh m%f.h }
fhda. m%f.h

kE u jia;=jla mD .=re;ajdlIKfhka imQKfhka u oS wNHdjldYhg

m%IaG u i|yd mD mDIaGfhka m%lafIamKh h hq;= wju m%f.h tys
fhda. m%f.h f,i ykajkq ,ef' jdhq wxY=jl uOHkH m%f.h mDfha
fhda. m%f.h blaujd .sh g th mD jdhqf.da,fhka bj;a hhs'
48

 yhsrcka" yS,sh jeks ieye,a jdhqj, uOHkH m%f.h" mDfha fhda.

m%f.h blaujd hk neka tajd mD jdhqf.da,fhka bj;a j f.dia we;'

h j.hl wKq fjk;a j.hl wKq wka;.; wjldYhla mqrd jHdma; u

irKh f,i ye|skaf'

ksoiqka ( .kaOhlska hq;a jHhla ldurhl ;enQ g tu >kaOh ldurh mqrd
tldldr j jHdma; jk f;la irKh u is f'
irKh f YS>%;dj - >k < j < jdhq
O jdhq fjkia YS>%;dj,ska irKh jk nj mlaIKd;aul j fidhd f.k
we;' wefudakshd iy yhsv%laf,dala wKq jd;h ;=<ska irKh wefudaksh
laf,darhs ksmou my; wegjqu u`.ska wdoYkh l< yels h' idfmalaI wKql
ialkaOh wvq wefudakshd wKqj, irK YS>%;dj yhsrckalaf,darhs wKqj,g
jvd je nj ka meyeos,s f'

yhsrlaf,dala
w,h

idka wefudakshd
djKh

irKh YS>%;dj flfrys n,mdk idOl

h Yla;shlska hq;a
wKq Nd.h

j. M,h" idkaK wkql%uKh iy WIaK;ajh muKla i|yka lsu m%udKj;a

h'
jdhqjl uOHk m%f.h WIaK;ajh iu`. p,kh jk wkaou my; uelaiafj,a
fnda,aiaudka jl%j,ska oelaf'

wKql Yla;sh$ kJ mol-1

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

wKql pd,l ilrKh ykajd oS wKql pd,l jdofha Wml,amk ms<sn| j

idlPd lrkak'
uelaiafj,a-fnda,aiaudka jl% bosm;a lr tajdfhka jdhq yeisu ms<sn| ,efnk
f;dr;=re idlPd lsug isiq lKavdh fhduq lrkak'
m%;sldrl fnda;,hlg j fn%daka xjla oud ixjD; lr kslaIKh lsug
ie,eiafuka irKh wdoYkh lrkak'
49

ksmqK;dj 3'0

( mod:fha m%Odk wjia:dj, yeis uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 3'4

( jdhq Y%Khl yeisu .%y lsug fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl

mSvk kshuh Nd; lrhs'

ld,fo

( 02 hs'

bf.kq M,

wdxYsl mSvkh hkak ykajd" fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh m%ldY lrhs'
mmQK jdhq ilrKh weiqfrka fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh jHq;amkak

lrhs'
fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh wdY%s; .eg i|hs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

jdhq Y%Khl uq`M mSvkh flfrys ix>gl jdhq u`.ska odhl jk m%udKh

tajdfha wdxYsl mSvk f,i ye|skaf'

jdhq Y%Khl ix>gl jdhqjla Y%Kh wka;.; nfkys ;ks j wvx.= lr
;sfnk g we;s lrkq ,nk mSvkh tu ix>gl jdhqf wdxYsl mSvkh f'
fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh
jdhq Y%Khl uq`M mSvkh tla tla ix>gl jdhqf wdxYsl mSvkj, tl;=jg
iudk f'
A, B yd C jdhq wka;.; Y%Khl oS tla tla jdhqf wdxYsl mSvk ms<sfj<ska
PA, PB yd PC f k
Y%Kfha uq`M mSvkh Pt } PA+ PB + PC
mmQK jdhq ilrKh weiqfrka fvda,agkaf.a wdxYsl mSvk kshuh jHq;amkak
lsu
A yd B jdhq Y%Khl tla tla jdhqfjka ms<sfj<ska ujq, nA yd nB wvx.= f'
PV = nRT
A jdhqj i|yd

B jdhqj i|yd

jdhq Y%Kh i|yd

50

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

jdhqf.da,h O jdhQkf
a .a Y%Khla nj isym
s ;a lr jdhqf.da,h
S mSvkh flfrys

tla tla ix>gl jdhqf odhl;ajh fln o hkak ms<sn| nqoa l,nk
idlPdjla fufyhjkak'
mka;h
s lKavdh lr my; i|yka wdldrfha ir, .eg ioSug fhduq lrkak'
jdhq Y%Khl tla tla ix>gl jdhqf wdxYsl mSvk oS we;s g jdhq Y%Kfha
ixhq;sh yd uq`M mSvkh ksKh lsu
jdhq Y%Khl uq`M mSvkh yd ixhq;sh oS we;s g tla tla jdhqf wdxYsl
mSvk ksKh lsu
jdhq Y%Khl uq`M mSvkh yd wdxYsl mSvk oS we;s g ixhq;sh ksKh
lsu'

ntotal = n A + nB
PtotalV PAV PBV
=
+
RT
RT RT
Ptotal = PA + PB

51

ksmqK;dj 3'0

( mod:fha m%Odk wjia:dj, yeis uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 3'5

( ;d;a;al jdhq i|yd fhh yels jk fia mmQK jdhq

ilrKh i|yd ixfYdaOk fhdackd lrhs'

ld,fo

( 03 hs'

bf.kq M,

imSvH;d idOlh w: olajd ;d;al yd mmQK jdhq inkaO j tu w.h

p,kh jk wkaou m%ia;dl j bosm;a lrhs'

;d;a;al jdhq" mmQK jdhq yeisfuka wm.ukh ug fya;= pd,l wKql
jdofha Wml,amk Wmqgd olajka ia;r lrhs'
;d;a;al jdhq mmQK yeisfuka olajk wm.uk i|yd ixfYdaOk we;=<;a
lr ilia l< ilrKhla f,i jeka v' jd,aia ilrKh bosm;a lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

z hkq imSvH;d idOlh f' mmQK jdhq i|yd z } 1 f' kuq;a ;d;a;al
jdhq i|yd fuu w.h ksh;hla fkdjk nj mlaIKd;aul f;dr;=re u`.ska
fy<s we;'
WIaK;ajh 273 K ys oS O jdhq i|yd PV .=Ks;hg tos j P ys m%ia;drh

mmQK jdhq

wvq mSvk ;;a;aj hgf;a ;d;a;al jdhq" mmQK yeisug <`.d jk nj fuu
m%ia;drhg wkqj meyeos,s f'

52

 O WIaK;ajhka oS yhsrcka jdhq ujq,hla i|yd PV/RT w.hg tos j P ys

m%ia;drh

mSvkh

by< WIaK;ajhka ys oS ;d;a;al jdhq mmQK yeisug <`.d jk nj by;

m%ia;drj,g wkqj meyeos,s f'
jeka v' jd,aia ilrKh

P } mSvkh
V } mudj
n } jH ^ujq,& m%udKh
R } idj;% jdhq ksh;h
T } ksrfmalaI WIaK;ajh
a yd b hkq ;d;a;al jdhq i|yd ksh; ^jeka v' jd,aaia ksh;& f'
jeka v' jd,aaia ilrKh weiqfrka .Kkhka is lsu wkjYH hs'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

imSvH;d idOlh ;d;a;al jdhq inkaOfhka fjkia jk wkaou m%ia;dr

weiqfrka wOHhkhg i,iajkak'

;d;a;al jdhq mmQK;ajfhka wm.ukh ug fya;= yd mmQK yeisug
<`.d jk ;;a;aj idlPd lsug fhduq lrkak'
;d;a;al jdhq i|yd fhosh yels jk fia jeka v' jd,aia ilrKhg ixfYdaOk
we;=<;a lr we;s wdldr idlPd lrkak'

53

ksmqK;dj 4'0

( tka;e,ams fjkia yd wyUq;df fjkia uYkh

lrka ridhksl moaO;sj, ia:dhS;dj yd mhdi is ug
we;s yelshdj ms<sn| fm/hS lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 4'1

( m%;sl%shlj, yd M,j, tka;e,ams w.h ii|ka ridhksl

moaO;sj, ia:dhS;dj ms<sn| fm/hS lrhs'

ld,fo

( 06 hs'

bf.kq M,

moaO;sh" mirh" udhsu" ixjD; moaO;sh" jD; moaO;sh yd tal,s; moaO;sh w:

olajhs'
tka;e,amsh wjia:d Y%s;hla f,i yd ;dm.;sl .=Khla f,i ykajhs'
j.=.; l< tka;e,ams o;a; weiqfrka m%;sl%shd wdY%s; tka;e,ams mhdi .Kkh
lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

Yajfhka wOHhkh i|yd f;dard.;a fldgi moaO;sh f,i ye|skaf'
wOHhkh i|yd Yajfhka f;dard.;a fldgi yereKq fldg b;s ish,a, mirh

k f'
moaO;sh yd mirh fjka flfrk iSudj udhsu f,i ye|skaf'

moaO;sh

mirh
udhsu
udhsu yryd Yla;sh yd mod:h yqjudre jk moaO;s jD; moaO;s k f'
Yla;sh yd mod:
udhsu yryd Yla;sh muKla yqjudre jk moaO;s ixjD; moaO;s f'

Yla;h
s
udhsu yryd Yla;sh;a" mod:h;a hk fol u yqjudre fkd jk moaO;s tal,s;

moaO;s k f'
mod: m%udKh u; r|d mj;sk .=K ;a;s .=K k f'

ksoiqka ( ialkaOh" mudj" ;dm Od;dj

mod: m%udKh u; r|d fkdmj;sk .=K >gkd .+K k f'
ksoiqka ( WIaK;ajh" mSvkh" >k;ajh" iai%d;dj" ujq,sl mudj" ujq,sl
;dmOd;dj
moaO;shl WIaK;ajh" mSvkh" tys wvx.= jH" tajdfha m%udK wdosh ms<sn|
ia;rh moaO;shl wjia:dj f,i ye|skf
a ' h moaO;shla i|yd fuu f;dr;=re
iqfYaIS f'
moaO;shla mj;sk wjia:djg iqfYaIS w.hla iys; .=K wjia:d Y%S; hkqfjka
ye|skaf' fuu .=K moaO;sfha b;sydih u; r|d fkd mj;shs'
54

 wjia:d Y%s;hl is jk fjkia f m%udKh tys wdrNl wjia:dj yd wjidk

wjia:dj u; muKla r|hs' fjki is lrkq ,nk ud.fhka iajdh;a; f'

mudj" WIaK;ajh" >k;ajh" j;kdxlh wdosh wjia:d Y%s; i|yd ksoiqka f'
ksh; mSvk ;;a;aj hgf;a oS" moaO;shlg imhkq ,nk fyda moaO;shlska msg
lrkq ,nk fyda ;dm m%udKh tka;e,ams fjki ^H& jYfhka ye|skaf' fuh

;dm .;sl .=Khls' wjia:df Y%s;hls'

m%;sl%shdjla wdY%s; tka;e,ams mhdi ^H&" M,j, yd m%;sl%shlj, tka;e,ams
fjkiska ,ef'
H = HM, - Hm%;sl%shl
m%;sl%shdjla wdY%s; tka;e,ams mhdih
H < 0 k m%;sl%shdj ;dmodhl f'
H > 0 k m%;sl%shdj ;dmjfYdaIl f'
m%;sl%shdj is we;s m%udKh ^Extent of Reaction - & ms<sn| ixl,amh fuu Ih
ksfoaYh ;=< wksjdh fkd flf' ta wkqj fok ,o m%;sl%shdjla bosfha
kJ mol-1 ^m%;sl%shd is we;s tall m%udKhlg Yla;s fjki& hkak fjkqjg
Nd; jka f ka m% ; s l % s h djg wod< uq ` M Yla ; s fjki kJ f' ta wkq j
iafgdhslsfhda;sl wxl ^ -tallh 1 hs'& fjkqjg iafgdhslsfhda;sl ix.=Kl
^mol& Nd; f' tfy;a m%;sl%shdj is we;s m%udKh ms<sn| ixl,amh IUPAC
u`.ska ksfoaY fldg we;s fyhska th Nd; lr is lrk .Kkhka o we.hSj,
oS ksjeros f,i i,lkq ,ef'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

O m%;sl%shd wdY%s; m%;sl%shl yd M, i;= iu; tka;e,ams w.h ^t k tu

jHj, iu; W;amdok tka;e,ams w.h& isiq lKavdhj,g ,nd oS tu m%;sl%shd

wdY%s; tka;e,ams mhdi H = HM, - Hm%;sl%shl weiqfrka .Kkh lsug fhduq
lrjkak'

55

ksmqK;dj 4'0

( tka;e,ams fjkia yd wyUq;df fjkia uYkh

lrka ridhksl moaO;sj, ia:dhS;dj yd mhdi is ug
we;s yelshdj ms<sn| fm/hS lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 4'2

( wdY%s; tka;e,ams mhdi Yaf,aIKh lrka mj;k is

ug we;s yelshdj ms<sn| fm/hS lrhs'

ld,fo

( 16 hs'

bf.kq M,

Ih ksfoaYhg we;=<;a tka;e,ams mhdi iy iu; tka;e,ams mhdi

w: olajhs'
tka;e,ams rEmigyka yd ;dm ridhksl pl% Nd;fhka O l%shdj,s wdY%s;

tka;e,ams mhdi .Kkh lrhs'

O ix>glj, djK tka;e,ams mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lr jd;d lrhs'
w,j, yd Niauj, WodiskSlrK tka;e,ams mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lr

jd;d lrhs'
m%;sia:dmk m%;sl%shdjl tka;e,ams mhdi mlaIKd;aul j ksKh lr jd;d
lrhs'
fyia kshufha j,x.=;dj iqiq m%dfhda.sl mlaIKhla weiqfrka mlaId lr
jd;d lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

iu; W;amdok tka;e,amsh ^

&
H C
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a we;s ixfhda. ujq, tlla iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a we;s tys
ix>gl uQ,jHj,ska W;amdokh lsf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
ksoiqka ( H2O(l) ys W;amdokfha iu; tka;e,amsh -286 kJ mol-1 f'
th fufia oelah yel'

iu; oyk tka;e,amsh ^

&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS uQ,jHhl fyda ixfhda.hl fyda ujq,hla jeuk;a
Tlaiscka ;=< uq`Mukska u oykh lsf oS isjk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'

iu; nkaOk >gk tka;e,amsh ^ H D &

iu; ;;a;j
a hgf;a oS jdhquh m%fNaohl nkaOk ujq,hla | jdhquh ;;a;j
a fha
ix>gl njg m;alsf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs' ^fuh fYaIs; l<
uQ,jHhl fyda ixfhda.hl fYaIs; l< nkaOkhla inkaOfhka m%ldY
flf'&

56

iu; WodiSkslrK tka;e,amsh ^ H neut &

iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS c,Sh djKhl we;s H+ whk ujq,hla c,Sh djKhl
we;s OH- whk ujq,hla iu`. m%;sl%shd lr c,h ujq,hla iEoSf oS is jk
tka;e,ams mhdih hs'

iu; jK tka;e,amsh ^

&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS jdhquh whk ujq,hla jeuk;a djl m%udKhla
yuqf" djK ;;a;ajhg m;af oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
jeuk;a
djlh

Mn+ (g) +

Mn+ (solvent)

iu; c,SlrK tka;e,amsh ^

&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS jdhquh whk ujq,hla jeuk;a c,h m%udKhla iu`.
djK ;;a;ajhg m;af oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
Na+(g)+H2O(l) Na+(aq)

iu; ixl%uK tka;e,amsh

iu; ;;a;ajfha mj;sk jHhl ujq,hla tla l,dmhl isg tu jHfha u

fjk;a l,dmhla njg m;af oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs' ^fuys oS
l,dmhla jYfhka fYaIfhka nyqrEmS wdldr woyia flf' l,dm mhdi
jYfhka .efkk fN!;sl wjia:d mhdi yd wdY%s; tka;e,ams mhdi fjku
ia;r flf'&
C(graphite) C(diamond)
iu; djK tka;e,amsh ^

&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a h jH ujq,hla djlhl osh lr 1 dm3l djKhla
iEoSf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
NaCl(s) + (aq) NaCl (aq)
} 1 kJ mol-1

fyia kshuh

ridhksl m%;sl%shdjl oS isjk tka;e,ams mhdih" m%;sl%shdj l=uk ud.h

Tiafia is l< o ksh; w.hla .kshs'

E
fyia kshuhg wkqj
H1= H2+H3

57

2C(S,gr)

tka ; e,a m s h

tka;e,ams rEmigyk

2C(S,gr)

;dm ridhksl pl%h

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

;dmodhl m%;sl%shdjla yd ;dmdjfYdaIl m%;sl%shdjla wdoYkh lrkak'
fhda; m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrl is lrkak'
;dm-ridhksl pl% yd tka;e,ams rEmigyka Nd; lr lKavdh jYfhka

.eg i|Sug fhduq lrkak'

58

ksmqK;dj 4'0

( tka;e,ams fjkia yd wyUq;df fjkia uYkh

lrka ridhksl moaO;sj, ia:dhS;dj yd mhdi is ug
we;s yelshdj ms<sn| fm/hS lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 4'3

( fndaka - ydn pl% fhdod .kska whksl moaO;sj, ia:dhS;dj

ms<sn| fm/hS lrhs'

ld,fo

( 08 hs'

bf.kq M,

whksl ixfhda.j, W;amdok tka;e,amsh ksKh lsf oS fhdod .efkk Ih

ksfoaYhg we;=<;a tka;e,ams mhdi w: olajhs'

whksl ixfhda.hla W;amdokh lsu yd inkaO fndaka - ydn ^Born-Haber&
pl%h f.dv kxjhs'
fndaka - ydn pl%h wdOdrfhka whksl ixfhda.hl iu; W;amdok tka;e,amh
s
.Kkh lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

iu; W!jmd;k tka;e,amsh ^

&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a >k uQ,jHhl ujq,hla fyda >k ixfhda.hl ujq,hla
fyda imQKfhka jdhquh wjia:djg m;a lsf oS isjk tka;e,ams mhdih
hs'
Ca(s) Ca(g)

iu; jdIamSlrK tka;e,amsh ^

&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a mj;sk j ixfhda.$uQ,jH ujq,hla jdhquh ixfhda.$
uQ,jH ujq,hla njg m;alsf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
Br2(l) Br2(g)

iu; ,hk tka;e,amsh ^

&
iu; ;;a ; a j hgf;a mj;a k d >k ixfhda . $uQ , jH ujq , hla " j
ixfhda.$uQ,jH ujq,hla njg m;alsf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'

iu; ;+lrK tka;e,amsh ^iu; mrudKqlrK tka;e,amsh& ^

&
iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS uQ,jHhla jdhquh wjia:df we;s mrudKq ujq,hla
njg m;alsf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'

m<uq whkSlrK tka;e,amsh ^

&

iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS jdhquh uQ,jH mrudKq ujq,hlska kHIahg ,sys,aj

u ne|S we;s bf,lafg%dakh ne.ska bj;a lr jdhquh tal Ok whk ujq,hla
iEoSf oS isjk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'
59

bf,lafg%dak ,nd .ekSf iu; tka;e,amsh H EA

iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS jdhquh ;;a;ajfha mj;sk mrudKq ujq,hlg

bf,lafg%dak ,nd oS jdhquh ;;a;ajfha mj;sk tal RK whk ujq,hla iEoSf
oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdihhs'
Cl(g) + e Cl- (g)

H EA
= 352 kJ mol-1

whksl ixfhda.hl iu; oe,sia tka;e,amsh H L

iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a oS jdhquh Ok whk iy RK whkj,ska >k wjia:df

we;s whksl ixfhda.hl ujq, tlla iEoSf oS is jk tka;e,ams mhdih hs'

fndaka - ydn pl%h

whksl ixfhda.hl W;amdok tka;e,amh

s fiu i|yd f.dvk`.k ;dm ridhksl
pl%h fndaka - ydn pl%h f,i ykajhs'

Na + (g) + Cl- (g) NaCl(s)

H L = -780 kJ mol -1

>k NaCl W;amdokh i|yd fndaka-ydn pl%h

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

wod< tka;e,ams mhdi w: olajkak'
O whksl ixfhda. isiq lKavdhj,g mjrd tajdfha W;amdok tka;e,ams

fiug wod< tka;e,ams w.hka imhkak'

fndaka - ydn pl%h weiqfrka mjrk ,o whksl ixfhda.fha W;amdok tka;e,amh
s
.Kkh lsug isiqkag mjrkak'

60

ksmqK;dj 4'0

( tka;e,ams fjkia yd wyUq;df fjkia uYkh

lrka ridhksl moaO;sj, ia:dhS;dj yd mhdi is ug
we;s yelshdj ms<sn| fm/hS lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 4'4

( ridhksl mhdij, iajhxisoaO;dj ms<sn| fm/hS lrhs'

ld,fo

( 07 hs'

bf.kq M,

tkafg%dmsh (S) yd .sia (G) Yla;sh hk mo ia;r lrhs'

G, H hk S w;r inkaO;dj m%ldY lrhs'
lsish m%;sl%shdjl fyda isoahl iajhxisoaO;dj ms<sn| j G wdOdrfhka

fm/hS lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

moaO;shl tkafg%dmsh hkq moaO;sfha wyUq;dj ms<sn| kquls'
tkafg%dmsh wjia:d Y%;
s hla jk w;r th moaO;sfha wdrNl yd wjidk wjia:dj

u; muKla r|d mj;sk w;r fjkia is jk ud.h u; r|d mj;S'

tkafg%dmsh o fN!;sl yd ridhksl fjkia flfrys n,mdk idOlhls'
tal,s; moaO;shl is jk iajhxisoO
a fjkia tkafg%dmsfha je u fya;f
= jka
is f'
lsih
s moaO;shla yd inkaO tkafg%dmsh wjia:d Y%;
s hla ksid" tkafg%dms fjki
wjidk tkafg%dms w.fhka wdrNl tkafg%dms w.h wvq lsfuka .Kkh l<
yels h'
S = Swjidk - SwdrNl
ridhksl m%;sl%shdjla i|yd
S = S M, - S m%;sl%shl
fuu fjki iu; ;;a;aj hgf;a uek we;s g
S = SM, - Sm%;sl%shl
mhdihla flfrys H iy S j, iuia; n,mEu G k .sia Yla;s
fjki u`.ska ,nd foa' ksh; WIaK;ajfha oS ^T& fjd w;r inkaO;dj fufia

hs'
G = H - TS
iajhxisoaO j is jk m%;sl%shdjla i|yd
G<O
iajhxisoaO j is fkd jk m%;sl%shdjla i|yd G>O
iu;=,s; m%;sl%shdjla i|yd
G = O
ksh; tkafg%dms moaO;shl ^S = 0& iajhxisoaO;dj H u`.ska ;SrKh jk w;r
ksh; tka;e,amsh hgf;a ^H = 0& isjk mhdihl iajhxisoaO;dj S u`.ska

;SrKh f'

61

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

m%;l
s h
s% djl iajhxisoO
a ;dj fyda oS we;s ;;a;j
a hla hgf;a th is fkdu ;SrKh

flfrk idOlh tka;e,ams fjki muKla fkdjk nj fmkah yels WodyrK

imhkak'
ksoiqka (
m%;sl%shdjl H > 0 g oS bf is jk wjia:d
m%;sl%shdjl H < 0 g oS bf is fkdjk wjia:d
l%shdjla u$fkdu ta wdY%s; moaO;sfhys wyUq;d fjkiau u; o r|d mj;akd
nj m%ldY lrkak'
wyUq;dj iy th m%udKd;aul j oelaug Nd; lrk 'tkafg%dmsh' .=Kd;aul
j meyeos,s lrkak'
H > 0 kuq;a iajhxisoaO j is jk ridhksl m%;sl%shd i|yd ksoiqka olajd
wyUq;dj tys oS je we;s wdldrh fmkajkak'
uQ,jHj, iy ixfhda.j, wyUq;dj m%udKd;aul j ksKh lr j.=.; lr
we;s nj fmkajkak'
S, H yd G w.hka imhd oS" we;s m%;sl%shdjla iajhxisoaOj is f o fkd
f o hk j. ;SrKh lsug isiqka fhduq lrkak'
wjYH gl oS G = H - TS ilrKh Nd;hg o fhduq lrkak'

62

ksmqK;dj 5'0

( s, p yd d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jHj, yd i x f h d a . j ,

.=K ykd .ekSu i|yd tajd uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 5'1

( s yd p f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jHj, .=K yd tajdfha p,k

rgd uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 08 hs'

bf.kq M,

s iy p f.dkqj, uQ,jHj, fN!;sl .=K ia;r lrhs'

s iy p f.dkqj, uQ,jH" wdj;hla Tiafia boshg fmkakq lrk m%jK;d

m%ldY lrhs'
s iy p f.dkqj, uQ,jH" ldKavhla Tiafia my<g fmkakq lrk m%jK;d

m%ldY lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

s iy p f.dkqj, uQ,jHj, fN!;sl .=K

m<uq wdj;h
uQ,jH
fN!;sl wjia:dj
jdxlh$0C

Li
s

Be
s

B
s

C
s

180

1280

2030

;dmdxlh$0C

1330

2480

Na
s
98
890

fo jk wdj;h
uQ,jH
fN!;sl wjia:dj
jdxlh$0C
;dmdxlh$0C

N
g

O
g

F
g

Ne
g

-219

-220

-250

3930

3700^G& -210
3550^D&
4830
-200

-180

-190

-245

Mg
s

Al
s

Si
s

P
s

S
s

Cl
g

Ar
g

650
1120

660
2450

1410
2680

44
280

119
445

-101
-34

-189
-186

iyixhqc wrh

tl u uQ,jHfha mrudKq folla iyixhqc j

ne|S we;s g tu mrudKq fol w;r wka; kHIal
ka y wvla tys iyixhqc wrh f,i ye|ska f'
iyixhqc wrh } d/2
d
jeka v' jd,aia wrh (

wKq folla tlsfklg yels ;dla <`.ska mj;sk

g" wdikakfha mj;sk kHIa fol w;r ka y
wvla jeka v' jd,aia wrh k f'

jeka v' jd,aia wrh } d/2

63

 f,dayl wrh
f,day oe,sfia we;s hd no legdhk kHIa folla w;r we;s ka y wvla

f,dayl wrh f'

d

f,dayl wrh } d/2

kHIal wdfrdamKh iy ksjdrl wdprKh mrudKql wrh flfrys n,mdhs'

ldKavhla osf.a my<g hdf oS iyixhqc mrudKql wrh je jk w;r

wdj;hl jf isg ol=Kg hdf oS wvq f'

ixhqc;dj iy TlaislrK wxl
wekdhk iy legdhk iEoSu ixhqc;d ljpfha we;s bf,lafg%dak .Kk iy

whkslrK Yla;sh u; r|d mj;S'

I, II, III ldKavj, uQ,jH legdhk idok w;r V, VI, VII ldKavj, uQ,jH
wekdhk idohs'
IV ldKavj, uQ,jH M4+ whk fkd idohs' thg fya;=j m<uq" fojk"
f;jk yd isjk whkSlrK Yla;sj, tl;=j by< w.hla .ekSuhs'
wdj;hla Tiafia boshg hk g uQ,jHj, Wmu TlaislrK wxlh
je f'
lsish ixfhda.hl oS uQ,jHhlg ;sh yels by< u TlaislrK wxlh tys
we;s ixhqc;d bf,lafg%dak ixLHdjg iudk f'
Tlaihsvj, oS TlaislrK wxl
yhsrhsvj, oS TlaislrK wxl

TlaislrK wxl

laf,darhsvj, oS TlaislrK wxl

bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj
fndfyda uQ,jHj, m<uq bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj RK w.hla .kshs' thg

fya;=j tl;= jQ bf,lafg%dakh kHIal wdfrdamKh u`.ska wdlIKh lsu

hs' fo jk bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;dj ieu g u Ok w.hla .kshs' thg
fya;=j oekgu;a RK wdfrdams; whkhlg RK wdfrdams; bf,lafg%dakhla
tl;= u hs'

64

 fo jk yd f; jk wdj;j,g wh;a uQ,jHj, m<uq bf,lafg%dak nkaOq;d

uQ,jH

Li

Be

bf,lafg%dk
a
nkaO;
q dj$kJ mol-1

-59'6

+66

-26'7

-122

+31

-141

-318

uQ,jH

Na

Mg

Al

Si

Cl

bf,lafg%dk
a
nkaO;
q dj$kJ mol-1

-90

+67

-30

-135

-60

-200

-364

wdj;hla yryd jf isg ol=Kg hdf oS mrudKql wrh wvq jk w;r

whkSlrKh Yla;sh je f' tu ksid legdhk iEoSf m%jK;dj wvq jk

w;r TlaislrKh lsrSf yelshdj o wdj;hla yryd hdf oS wvq f'
tfia u wdj;hla yryd jf isg ol=Kg hdf oS wekdhk ieoSf yelshdj
je jk w;r TlaisyrKh lsf yelshdj o je f'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

wdj; Tiafia boshg yd ldKav Tiafia my<g s yd p f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jH

fmkakq lrk p,k rgd .fIKh lsug isiqkag u`. fmkajkak'

65

ksmqK;dj 5'0

( s, p yd d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jHj, yd i x f h d a . j ,

.=K ykd .ekSu i|yd tajd uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 5'2

( s, p yd d f.dkqj,g

wh;a uQ , jHj, ridhks l .= K

uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 06 hs'

bf.kq M,

s f.dkqf uQ,jH jd;h" c,h yd ;kql w, iu`. is lrk m%;sl%shd

ikaikaokd;aul j kslaIK lr jd;d lrhs'

m<uq yd fo jk ldKavj, uQ,jH jd;h" c,h yd ;kql w, iu`. olajk
m%;sl%shdj, iajNdjh tu ldKav Tiafia my<g p,kh jk wkaou ia;r
lrhs'
m<uq yd fo jk ldKavj,g wh;a uQ,jH yd p f.dkqf uQ,jH jd;h" c,h
yd ;kql w, iu`. olajk m%;sl%shd ;=,s; ridhksl ilrK weiqfrka m%ldY
lrhs'
s yd p f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jH c,h" jd;h yd w, iu`. olajk m%;sl%shd
kslaIKh lr jd;d lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

c,h iu`.
m<uq jk ldKavfha f,day ish,a, u c,h iu`. m%;sl%shdlr H2 msg lrka

yhsfrdlaihsv njg m;a f'

ksoiqka( Na c,h iu`. f.fhka m%;sls%hd lrka yhsrcka msg lrhs'

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)
l=vd K lene,a,la c,hg tl;= l< g .sks .kska m%;sl%shd lrhs'
Na j,g jvd f.fhka K c,h iu`. m%;sl%shd lrk neka ldKavfha
my<g h;a u c,h iu`. m%;sl%shd Ys>%;dj je jk nj ks.ukh l< yels
h'
fo jk ldKavfha uQ,jHhla jk Mg ys msis lrk ,o lene,a,la c,hg
tl;= l< g m%;sl%shd jk nj olakg fkd ,ef' Mg iys; c,h WKqiq
l< g fifuka m%;sl%shd jk nj olakg ,ef'
Mg(s) + 2H2O(l) Mg(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)
Na j,g idfmalaIj Mg c,h iu`. olajk m%;sl%shdld;ajh wvq neka
m<uq jk ldKavfha f,dayj,g idfmalaI j fo jk ldKavfha f,day c,h
iu`. wvq m%;sl%shdld;ajhla olajk nj lsj yels h' Be c,h iu`. m%;sl%shd
fkd lrhs' Ca, Sr iy Ba c,h iu`. m%;sl%shd lr H2 msglrka

yhsfrdlaihsv idohs'
Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

Be iy Mg yqud,h iu`. m%;sl%shd fldg f,day Tlaihsv idohs'

Be(s) + H2O(g) BeO(s) + H2(g)

Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO(s) + H2(g)

p-f.dkqf uQ,jH ie,l+ g ye,cka muKla c,h iu`. m%;sl%shd lrk

w;r m%;sl%shdld;ajh ldKavfha my<g hk g wvq f'

66

*afjdka c,fha we;s Tlaiscka ia:dmkh lrhs'

2F2(g) + 2H2O(l) 4HF(aq) + O2(g)
il%shk Yla;sh by< neka Cl2 c,h iu`. fika m%;sl%shd lrhs'
Cl2(g) + 2H2O(l) HCl(aq) + HOCl(aq)
0
(-1)
(+1)
*afjdka yer wfkl=;a ye,ck c,h iu`. by; i|yka mos oaOdlrK
m%;sl%shdjla olajhs'
jd;h iu`.
m<uq ldKavfha f,day jd;h iu`. olajk m%;sl%shd lsysmhls'
ksoiqka (
4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O(s)
2Na(s) + O2(g) Na2O2(s)
jd;fha CO2 we;s g Na2CO3 iEh yels h'
Na2O(s) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(s)
K, Rb, Cs iqm Tlaihsv idoka m%;sl%shd f'
K(s) + O2(g) KO2(s)
m<uq ldKavfha Li muKla jd;fha r;a l< g khsrcka iu`. m%;sl%shd
lrhs'
6Li(s) + N2(g)
2Li3N(s)
msis lrk ,o ue.akSish m lene,a,la yd l=vdjg lmd .;a fidah
lene,a,la jd;hg jD; j ;nd l f,djlska ksCIKh l< g ue.aki
S h
s
mhg jvd fl ld,hl oS fidah lene,af,a ,siqu wvq jk nj olakg
,ef' f wkqj jd;h iu`. ue.akSishj, m%;sl%shdld;ajh fidah
j,g jvd wvq nj meye,s f'
t neka m<uq jk ldKavfha f,dayj,g idfmaCIj fo jk ldKavfha f,day
jd;h iu`. m%;sl%shdld;ajh wvq h'
fo jk ldKavfha f,day jd;fha r;al< g Tlaihsv iy khsg%hsv idoka
oykh f'
2Mg(s) + O2(g)
2MgO(s)
3Mg(s) + N2(g)
Mg3N2(s)
Be m%;sl%shd u i|yd b;d by< WIaK;ajhlg r;a l< hq;= hs'
p-f.dkqf uQ,jH ie,l+ g weksh jd;fha r;a l< g Tlaihsv
idoka Yd, ;dm m%udKhla uqod yka m%;sl%shd f'
4Al(s) + 3O2(g)
2Al2O3(s)
Tlaihs mg,hlska wdjrKh mj;sk ksid ldur WIaK;ajfha oS weksh
jd;h iu`. m%;sl%shd fkd f'
by< WIaK;ajfha oS C oykh CO2 idohs'

C(s)+O2(g)

CO2(g)

Si b;d by< WIaK;ajhlg r;a l< g Tlaihs idohs'

b;d by< WIaK;ajfha oS muKla O2 iu`. N2 m%;sl%shd NO idohs'
N2(g) + O2(g) 2NO (g)
iq f*dia*ria jd;h iu`. ^O2& m%;sl%shd lrhs'
iS; Tlaiscka yuqf
P4(s)+3O2(g) 2P2O3(s)
jemqr Tlaiscka yuqf
P4(s)+5O2(g) 2P2O5(s)
67

 S jd;fha oykh SO2 idohs'

S(s)+O2(g)

SO2(g)

w, iu`.
s f.dkqf f,day kHIahg ,sys,a j nekq bf,lafg%dak msg lrka Wp

jdhq kHdih iys; ia:dhs legdhk idoka Tlaisydrl f,i l%shd lrhs'
m<uq jk ldKavfha f,day w, iu`. m%;sl%shd lrka Yd, ;dm m%udKhla

uqod yk neka iafMdagkhla isf' t neka mlaIdjg ,la lsu fkdl<

hq;= h'

fo jk ldKavfha f,day ;kql w, iu`. m%;sl%shd lr f.fhka H2 msg

lrhs'

Mg u`.ska idka HNO3 TlaisyrKh u o is f'

p f.dkqf uQ,jH w, iu`. Yd, O;ajhlska hq;=j m%;sl%shd is lrhs'

C, S, P WKqiq idka H2SO4 iu`. m%;sl%shd lrhs'

C, S, P WKqiq idka HNO3 iu`. m%;sl%shd lrhs'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

msfkda,ama;,Ska xjla tl;= lrk ,o c, lrhlg l=vd fidah lene,a,la

tl;= lr ,efnk kslaIK idlPd lrkak'

msfkda,ama;,Ska xjla tl;= lrk ,o c,h wvx.= lelEre k,hlg msis
lrk ,o Mg m lene,a,la tl;= lr kslaIKh lrkak' miqj tu djKh
kgjd kslaIKh lsug i,iajkak'
c,h iy w, iu f,day olajk m%;sl%shd is lr ksrSlaIK ,nd .ekSug
wjia:dj i,ikak'
68

ksmqK;dj 5'0

( s, p yd d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jHj, yd i x f h d a . j ,

.=K ykd .ekSu i|yd tajd uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 5'3

( s yd p f.dkqj,g wh;a ixfhda.j, .=K yd tajdfha p,k

rgd uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 12 hs'

bf.kq M,

wod< ;dm.;sl o;a; Wmfhda.Slr .kska s f.dkqf ,jKj, c,fha djH;dj

ixikaokh lrhs'
wod< ;dm.;sl o;a; Wmfhda.S lr .kska s f.dkqf khsfgj, ldnfkagj,
yd nhsldnfkagj, ;dmia:dhS;dj ksKh lrhs'
s yd p f.dkq j , fya , hs v " Tla i hs v " yhs rhs v yd yhs frdla i hs v j,
wd,sl$Ndial$WNh.=KS iajNdjh wdj; Tiafia boshg yd ldKav Tiafia
my<g p,kh jk wkaou m%ldY lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

fok ,o ixfhda. hq.,hl djH;dj my; mos iei|Sug l< yels h'

69

 by; wjia:d folg wod< .sia Yla;s fjkiau iei|Su u`.ska tajdfha djH;d
iei|sh yels h' .sia Yla;s fjki fuys oS MgSO4 i|yd >K w.hla jk w;r
BaSO4 i|yd Ok w.hhla f' ta wkqj .sia Yla;s fjki jvd;a RK jk
BaSO4 ys djH;dj MgSO4j,g idfmalaIj by< nj ks.ukh l< yel'
ii|kq ,nk .sia Yla;s w.h hq.,u >K w.hka k ixLHd;aul j jvd

Yd, w.h iys; jHfha djH;dj by< nj ks.ukh l< yel'

ii|kq ,nk .sia Yla;s w.h hq.,u Ok w.hhka k ixLHd;aul j l=vd
Ok w.h iys; jHfha djH;dj by< nj ks.ukh l< yel'
fok ,o ixfhda. hq.,l ;dm ia:dhS;dj iei|Sf oS o by; l%ufoh u W;
f'

by;

yd
iei|sf oS jvd l=vd Ok w.h iys; ldnfkagh jk
MgCO3 myiqfjka ;dm fhdackhg ,la jk nj mqfrdal:kh l< yel' i;H
jYfhka u MgCO3 ys fhdack WIaK;ajh 540 0C oS muK jk w;r CaCO3
fhdackh jkqfha 900 0C oS muK h'
s f.dkqf m<uq ldKavhg wh;a ,jK ish,a,la u mdfya c,fha djH f'
s f.dkqjg wh;a fo jk ldKavfha f,day idok ,jKj, djH;dj ms<sn|
f;dr;=re my; j.=f oelaf'

70

Cl-

Br-

djHh

djHh djHh

wdjHh wdjHh djHh

djHh

djHh

djHh djHh

djHh

Mg2+ djHh

djHh djHh

wdjHh wdjHh djHh

djHh

djHh

djHh djHh

djHh

Ca2+

djHh

djHh djHh

djHh

djHh

Sr2+

djHh

djHh djHh

djHh

djHh

djHh h; h;
osh f osh f
djHh wdjHh wdjHh

Ba2+

djHh

djHh djHh

h; wdjHh djHh
djHh
h; wdjHh djHh
djHh
fyd|ska wdjHh djHh
djHh

djHh

djHh

Be2+

I-

OH-

djHh osh
osh
fkd f fkd f

3 jk wdj;fha uQ,jH idok Tlaihsvj, wd,sl$Ndial$WNh.=KS iajNdjh

Na2O

MgO

Al2O3

SiO2

P 2O 5

SO 2

Cl2O7

m%n,
Ndial

n,
Ndial

WNh.=KS

b;d n,
wd,sl

n,
wd,sl

wd,sl

b;d m%n,
wd,sl

3 jk wdj;fha uQ,jHj, yhsfv%dlaihsvj, wd,sl$Ndial$WNh.=KS iajNdjh

NaOH

Mg(OH)2

Al(OH)3

Si(OH)4

P(OH)5

S(OH)6 Cl(OH)7

NaOH

Mg(OH)2

Al(OH)3

H4SiO4

H3PO4

H2SO4

HClO4

m%n,
Ndial

n,
Ndial

WNh.=KS

b;d n,
wd,sl

n,
wd,sl

m%n,
wd,sl

b;d m%n,
wd,sl

3 jk wdj;fha yhsv%hsvj, wd,sl$Ndial$WNh.=KS iajNdjh

NaH

MgH2

AlH3

SiH4

PH3

H2S

HCl

m%n,
Ndial

n,
Ndial

WNh.=KS

b;d n,
wd,sl

n,
wd,sl

wd,sl

b;d m%n,
wd,sl

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

s f.dkqf uQ,jH idok ,jKj, djH;d mlaId lsug isiq lKavdhj,g

wjia:dj fokak'
s f.dkqf uQ,jH idok khsfg" nhsldnfkag yd ldnfkagj, ;dmia:dhS;dj

mlaId lsug fhduq lrkak'

j.=.; l< .sia Yla;s w.hhka isiqka g ,nd oS ,jKj, djH;d yd ;dm
ia:dhS;d iei|Sug isiqka fj; mjrkak'

71

ksmqK;dj 5'0

( s, p yd d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jHj, yd i x f h d a . j ,

.=K ykd .ekSu i|yd tajd uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 5'4

( s yd p f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jHj, yd ixfhda.j, O;ajh

ykd .ekSu msKsi tajd ms<sn| uYkfha fhfohs'

ld,fo

( 15 hs'

bf.kq M,

Tlaiscka" i,a* yd f*dia*riaj, nyqrEmS wdldr ms<sn| f;dr;=re bosm;a

lrhs'
f*dia*ria" i,a* yd laf,daka idok Tlais w,j, jHqy bosm;a lrhs'
H2O2 , H2 iy SO2 Tlaisldrl yd Tlaisydrl f,i yeisfrk wjia:d i|yd
ksoiqka ;=<s; ridhksl ilrK weiqfrka bosm;a lrhs'
c,Sh udOHfha oS yhsvc
% ka fya,hsvj, wd,sl;dj" laf,darhsvj, c, fokh
laf,daka yd laf,daf whkj, oaOdlrKh yd ye,ckj, idfmalaI
Tlaisldrl m%n,;d W; ksoiqka f.k yer olajka ia;r lrhs'
WP jdhqj, .=K i|yka lr tajd idok ixfhda. i|yd ksoiqka bosm;a lrhs'
ksmqK;d ugu 5'4 hgf;a fhda; m%dfhda.sl mlaIK is lr jd;d lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

f*dia*riaj, nyqrEmS wdldr

iq f*dia*ria

r;= f*dia*ria

l f*diamria

f*dia*ria jd;fha we;s O2 iu`. m%;sl%shd lrk ksid c,fha .nvd lrhs'
kuq;a N2 ys N N nkaOkfha m%n,;dj ksid ksoyia jdhqjla f,i jdhqf.da,fha

mj;S'
f*dia*ria ys Tlais w,

Hypophosphorus Acid

Orthophosphorus Acid

72

Phosphoric Acid

 Tlaiscka ys nyqrEmS wdldr

Tlaiscka O2

fidaka O3

i,a*ys nyqrEmS wdldr

i,a*j, nyqrEmS wdldr iaMlrEmS iy wiaMlrEmS hkqfjka m%Odk wdldr

folls'
ish u iaMlrEmS i,a* S8 wKqj,ska iuka; f'

iaMlrEmS i,a*

frdniSh i,a*

taldk;s i,a*

kso fmfkk ly meye;s iaMl f'

Tm = 113 0C

Uqre meye;s b|slgq jeks iaMl f'

Tm = 119 0C

wiaMlrEmS i,a*

iqldh i,a* yd l,s, i,a* f i|yd ksoiqka h'

i,a*j, Tlais w,
O

HO

HO
OH

OH
H2SO4

H2SO3
73

OH
OH
H 2 S2 O 3

 yhsrcka fmfrdlaihs (H2O2)

H
O

O0

1040

98

O1110

H
H2O 2

H2O
H2O2 Tlaisydrhla f,i

H2O2 Tlaisldrhla f,i

i,a* vfhdlaihs ^SO2 &

wjK jdhqjls' jd;hg jvd >k;ajhlska hqla; jk w;r lgql .kaOhla we;'
c,fha fyd|ska osh f'
SO2 c,fha osh i,amshqla ^IV& w,h idohs' th n, w,hls'
SO2(g) + H2O(l) H2SO3(aq)
SO2 Tlaisldrlhla f,i
2MgO(s) + S(s)
2Mg(s) + SO2(g)
3Mg(s) + SO2(g)
2MgO(s) + MgS(s)
SO2 Tlaisydrlhla f,i
SO2 (g) + 2H2O (l)
4H+(aq) + SO 2-4 (aq) +2e
(i) H+/KMnO4iu`.
5SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 2KMnO4 (aq) K2SO4(aq)+2MnSO4(aq)+2H2SO4(aq)
(ii) H+/K2Cr2O7iu`.
K2Cr2O7(aq) + H2SO4(aq) + 3SO2(g) K2SO4(aq) + Cr2(SO4)3(aq) + H2O(l)
(iii) FeCl3 (aq) iu`.
FeCl3(aq) + SO2(g)+ 2H2O(l) H2SO4(aq) + FeCl2(aq) +2HCl(aq)

74

ye,ck iu`.
SO2(g)+Cl2(g)+2H2O(l)H2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(aq)
(v) H2O2iu`.
H2O2(aq) + SO2 (g)H2SO4(aq)
rxck ldrlhla f,i
SO2(g) +2H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)+2H+(aq) + 2e
X
+ 2H+ + 2e XH2
(iv)

jKj;a
idhu

wjK ixfhda.h

yhsrcka i,a*hs (H2S)

wjK jdhqjla jk w;r" c,fha uo jYfhka osh f' l=Kq ;a;r .kaOhla

we;'
H2S c,Sh djKhla ;rula wd,sl f'
H2S(aq) H+(aq) + HS-(aq)
HS-(aq) H+(aq) + S2-(aq)
wd,sl iajNdjh i|yd idlaIH
(i) fidah iu`. m%;sl%shdj
jemqr 2H2S(g) + 2Na(s) 2NaHS(s) + H2(g)

2Na(s) + H2S(g) Na2S(s) + H2(g)

(ii) fidah yhsfv%dlaihs iu`. m%;sl%shdj
jemqr 2NaOH(aq) + H2S(g)Na2S(s) + 2H2O(l)
jemqr H2S(g) + NaOH(aq)NaHS(s) + H2O(l)
H2S fndfyda f,day whk iu`. m%;sl%shd lr i,a*hsv ,nd foa' fuh f,day whk
ykd .ekSf mlaIdjla f,i fhdod .efka'
Pb2+(aq) + H2S(g) PbS(s) + 2H+(aq)
Cu2+(aq) + H2S(g) CuS(s) + 2H+(aq)
H2S Tlaisydrlhla f,i
(i) 2KMnO4(aq)+3H2SO4(aq)+5H2S(g)K2SO4(aq)+5S(s)+2MnSO4(aq)+8H2O(l)
(ii) K2Cr2O7(aq)+4H2SO4(aq)+3H2S(g)K2SO4(aq)+Cr2(SO4)3(aq)+3S(s)+7H2O(l)
(iii) 2
(aq) + 12H+(aq) + 2H2S(g)2S(s) + 2As3+(aq) + 8H2O(l)
g wu;rj c,Sh S2- whk iu`. As3+ m%;sl%shd wjlafIamhla idohs'
2As3+(aq) + 3S2-(aq) As2S3(s)
H2S Tlaisldrlhla f,i
Cu(s)+H2S(g)
CuS(s)+H2(g)
SO2 yd H2S jdhq fjkalr y|qkd .ekSu
^1& c,Sh H+/K2Cr2O7 ;=<ska fuu jdhq nqnq,kh l< g ;e,s mdg djKh fld<
meyehg yefrk kuq;a S l,s, we;s u ksid H2S nqn,
q kh l< djKh wmeyeos,s
f'
^2& c,Sh Pb(CH3COO)2j,ska fm`.jQ fmryka lvodishla jdhqjg we,a g H2S
jdhqj u`.ska fmryka lvodish u; l`M mdgla we;s flf'
75

^3& c,Sh H+/KMnO4 ;=<ska fuu jdhq fjka fjka j nqnq,kh l< g omdg
wjK jk w;r H2S nqnq,kh l< djKh i,a* we;s fuka wmeyeos,s f'
^4& SO2 j,ska u,afm;s rxckh isjk w;r H2S j,ska tfia fkdf'
ye,ck

- ,d lymdg I jdhqjls'
- ,d fld, mdgg yqre lymdg I jdhqjls'
- r;= Uqre jhls'
- os,sfik l`Mmdg >khls' ^W!Ojmd;kh f&
- lsrKYS,S uQ,jHhls'

F2
Cl2
Br2
I2
At

laf,darSkaj, Tlais w,

Cl

O
H

Cl

HO

Cl

HO

HClO2

HOCl

HClO3

O
Cl
HO

HClO4

Tlaisldrl .=Kh
HOCl< HClO2<HClO3<HClO4

( H )

fd

yhsrcka fya,hsv ^HX&&

iu; W;amdok
tka;e,amh
s
HF
HCl
HBr
HI

iu; nkaOk >gk

tka;e,amh
s

/kJ mol-1

/kJ mol-1

-273
-92
-36
27

562
431
366
299

76

nkaOkh j, f'
nkaOk os. je f'
ia:dhS;dj wvq f'
wd,sl .=Kh je f'

Wpjdhq iy tajdfha ixfhda.

ksIal%sh hs'
ixfhda.
fkd idohs

He
ldur WIaK;ajfha
Ne
oS wjK jdhq f'
Ar
;ks mrudKq f,i
Kr
mj;S'
Xe
Rn - lsrKYS,S h

;dmdxl b;d wvq h' ldKavh Tiafia my< u mrudKql l%udxlh je

j;a u ;dmdxlh jef' mrudKql wrh jej;a u O%elrKh f yelshdj je
f'
oHq;a RK;dj je uQ,jH iu`. Xe ixfhda. idok nj 1962 oS muK jk
g fidhd f.k ;sf'
ksoiqka ( XeF2, XeF4, XeF6, XeO3

14 yd 15 ldKavj, laf,darhsvj, c,fokh

CCl4 c, fokh fkdf'
SiCl4 (l)+2H2O(l)4HCl (aq)+SiO2(s)
SiCl4 (l)+4H2O(l)4HCl (aq)+Si(OH)4(aq)
NCl3(g)+3H2O(l) NH3(aq)+3HOCl(aq)
PCl3(g)+3H2O(l) H3PO3(aq)+3HCl(aq)
PCl5(g)+H2O(l) POCl3(aq)+2HCl(aq)
PCl5(g)+4H2O(l) H3PO4(aq)+5HCl(aq)
AsCl3(aq)+3H2O(l) H3AsO3(aq)+3HCl(aq)
SbCl3(aq)+H2O(l) SbO+(aq)+3Cl-(aq)+2H+(aq)
BiCl3(aq)+H2O(l) BiO+(aq)+3Cl-(aq)+2H+(aq)
c,Sh udOHfha oS yhsv%cka fya,hsvj, wd,sl;dj
h<s jdhq ;;a;ajfha we;s yhsrckafya,hsv wd,sl fkd f' flfia kuq;a
tajdfha c,Sh djK wd,sl f'

HCl (g)+H2O(l) H3O+(aq)+Cl-(aq)

yhsfrd*afjdla w,h n, w,hla jk w;r wksl=;a yhsv%cka fya,hsv
ish,a, u m%n, w, f' fuhg fya;=j H-F nkaOkh fYaIfhka Yla;su;a u
hs'
77

laf,dakays oaOdlrKh
^i& ;kql NaOH iu`.

Cl2 (g) + 2NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + NaOCl(aq) + H2O(l)

(0)
(-1)
(+1)
^ii& idka NaOH iu`.

Cl2 (g) + 6NaOH(aq) 5NaCl(aq) + NaClO3(aq) + 3H2O(l)

(0)
(-1)
(+v)
fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (
fmd*riaj, Tlais w,j, jHQy we| tajd k lsug isiqkag u`. fmkajhs'
yhs rcka f*frdla i hs " i,a * vfhdla i hs yd yhs rcka i,a * hs "

Tlaisydrlhla iy Tlaisldrlhla f,i l%shd lrk m%;sl%shd i|yd WodyrK

imhkak'

78

ksmqK;dj 5'0

( s, p yd d f.dkqj, uQ,jHj, yd ixfhda.j, .=K ykd

.ekSug tajd uYkh lr n,hs'

ksmqK;d ugu 5'5

( d f.dkqf uQ,jHj, .=K wdj;hla Tiafia p,kh jk

wkaou ykd .ekSu i|yd tajdfha .=K uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 05 hs'

bf.kq M,

f; jk wdj;fha msys d f.dkqf uQ,jH fmkajk p,H TlaislrK

wjia:d i|yka lrka p,H TlaislrK wjia:d mej;Sf .=Kh s yd p
f.dkqj, uQ,jH iu`. ii|hs'
f; jk wdj;hg wh;a d f.dkqf uQ,jHj, oHq;a RK;dj" m%:u whkSlrK
Yla;sh yd whksl wrh wdj; Tiafia bhg p,kh jk rgdj s yd p
f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jH iu`. ii|hs'
W; WodyrK bm;a lrka d f.dkqf uQ,jH yd ixfhda.j, W;afm%arl
f,i lghq;= lsf yelshdj yd jKj;a ixfhda. iEf .=Kh ia;r lrhs'

m<uq fjks whkS l rK Yla ; s

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

mrudKq l l% u dxl

H isg Cs olajd uQ,jHj, m<uq jeks whkSlrK Yla;s m%ia;drh

79

80

K isg Zn olajd uQ,jHj, fN!;sl .=K

uQ,jH
mrudKql wrh/nm
jdxlh/0C
;dmdxlh/0C
>k;ajh/g cm
whksl wrh/nm

s- f.dkqf uQ,jH

;=ka jk whkSlrK Yla;sh/ kJ mol-1

fo jk whkSlrK Yla;sh / kJ mol-1

oHq;a RK;dj
m<uq jk whkSlrK Yla;sh / kJ mol-1

f,dayl ^mrudKql& wrh/nm

wka;l uQ,jH

Sc isg Zn olajd uQ,jHj, f,dayl wrh" oHq;a RK;dj yd whkSlrK Yla;sj, p,kh

Sc

Ti

iq,n
Tlaihsv

Sc2O3

iq,n
laf,darhsv

ScCl3

ixfhda.j,
oS
fmkakq
lrk
TlaislrK
wxl

Cr

Mn

Ti2O3 V2O3
TiO2 V2O5

Cr2O3
CrO3

TiCl3
TiCl4

VCl3

V
III

Co

Ni

Cu

Zn

MnO
FeO
MnO2 Fe2O3
Mn2O7

Co
Co2O3

NiO

Cu2O
CuO

ZnO

CrCl2
CrCl3

MnCl2
MnCl3

CoCl2

NiCl2

CuCl
CuCl2

ZnCl2

VI

VII
VI
V

Fe

FeCl2
Fe2Cl6

VI

IV
III

IV

V
IV

III

III

III

II
I

II
I

II
I

II

III
II

III
II

II

IV

V
IV

V
IV

IV
III

III

II
I

II

Sc isg Zn olajd uQ,jHj, TlaislrK wxl ^iq,n TlaislrK wxl ;ol`M

wl=ka olajd we;'&

Sc isg Zn olajd uQ,jHj, jdxl yd ;dmdxl

81

d f.dkqf uQ,jH yd tajdfha ixfhda. ludka;j, oS W;afm%arl f,i fhdod

.kakd wjia:d
d f.dkqf
uQ,jHh

W;afm%arl f,i
fhdok jH

W;afm%arKh flfrk m%;sl%shdj

Ti

TiCl3/Al2(C2H5)6

nC2H4
taf;aka nyqwjhlrKh

V2O5or vanadate(VO3-)

2SO2+O22SO3
iamY l%uh

Fe

Fe or Fe2O3

N2+3H2 2NH3
fyan l%uh

Ni

Ni

RCH = CH2+H2RCH2CH3
udcka ksIamdokh

Cu

Cu or CuO

CH3CH2OH+1O2CH3CHO+H2O
t;fkda,a" t;ke,a njg TlaislrKh

Pt

Pt

Pt

Pt

2SO2+O22SO3
c c ia
) nmY l%uh
4NH3+5O24NO+6H2O
NONO2HNO3
wefudakshdj,ska khs%la w,h
ksmou

jefkahj, TlaislrK wjia:d

TlaislrK wjia:d

+V

+IV

+III

+II

c,Sh djKfha oS
jKh

ly

ks,a

fld<

whkh

VO2+

VO2+

V3+

V2+

ku

vhsTlafidjefkah(V)

Tlafidjefkah(IV) jefkah(III)

jefkah(II)

whkh
dioxovanadium(V) ion

whkh
oxovanadium(IV) ion

whkh
vanadium(II) ion

82

whkh
vanadium(III) ion

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

d f.dkqf jKj;a ixfhda. lsym
s hla yd tajdfha c,Sh djK lsym
s hla mka;h
s g

m%oYkh lrkak'
O jKj,ska hq;a ixfhda. iEu yd tajdfha f,dayj, TlaislrK wjia:d

O u wjOdrKh lrkak'
wod< m%ia;dl yd j.=.; l< f;dr;=re isiq lKavdhj,g mjrk ,o

,CIKhla Sc isg Zn olajd p,kh jk wkaou .fIKhg fhduq lrkak'

mjrk ,o ,CIKh s yd p f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ, jHj, tu ,CIKh yd
ieiug isiq lKavdh fufyhjkak'

83

ksmqK;dj 5'0

( s, p yd d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jHj, yd i x f h d a . j ,

.=K ykd .ekSu i|yd tajd uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 5'6

( d f.dkqf ixfhda.j, O;ajh ykd .ekSu i|yd tajdfha

.=K uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 04 hs'

bf.kq M,

jefkah" fl%dah yd ueka.kSiaj, Tlaihsvj, iajNdjh

wd,sl$Ndial$WNh.=KS f,i m%ldY lrhs'

fl%dah yd ueka.kSiaj, Tlais wekdhk Tlaisldrl f,i l%shd lrk m%;sl%shd
i|yd ksoiqka bosm;a lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

uex.kSiaj, Tlaihsv
Tlaihsvh
MnO
Mn2O3
MnO2
MnO3
Mn2O7
fl%dahj, Tlaihsv
Tlaihsvh
CrO
Cr2O3
CrO2
CrO3

TlaislrK wxlh
+II
+III
+IV
+VI
+VII

Tlaihsvfha iajNdjh
Ndial
n, Ndial
WNh.=KS
n, wd,sl
wd,sl

TlaislrK wxlh
+II
+III
+IV
+VI

iQ;%h

TlaislrK wxlh

VO
V2O 3
VO2
V2O 5

+II
+III
+1V
+V

Tlaihsvfha iajNdjh
n, wd,sl
WNh.=KS
n, wd,sl
wd,sl
wd,sl-Ndial
iajNdjh
Ndial
Ndial
WNh.=KS
wd,sl

by; lS Tlaihsv j. w,j, yd Niauj, djH;dj weiqka wd,sl"

Ndial fyda WNh.=KS f,i j. l< yels h'

84

 wd,sl udOHfha MnO4- Tlaisldrlhla f,i SO2 iu`. m%;sl%shdj

MnO4-(aq) + 5e + 8H+ (aq) Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l) Tlaiy

s rK wO m%;l
s h
%s dj
(+VII)
(+II)
2SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) SO4 (aq) + 2e + 4H+(aq) TlaisyrK wO m%;sls%hdj
(+IV)
(+VI)
2MnO4 (aq) + 5SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) 2Mn2+(aq) + 5SO42-(aq) +4H+ (aq)
;=,s; whksl ilrKh
Ndial udOHfha MnO4- Tlaisldrlhla f,i SO2 iu`. m%;sl%shdj
MnO4-(aq) + 3e + 2H2O(l) MnO2 + 4(OH)- (aq) Tlaiy
s rK wO m%;l
s h
%s dj
(+VII)
(+IV)
SO2(g) + 4(OH)-(aq) SO42-(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 2e TlaisyrK wO m%;sls%hdj
(+IV)
(+VI)
2MnO4-(aq) + 3SO2(g) + 4(OH)- (aq) 2MnO2 + 3 SO42-(aq) + 2H2O(l)
;=,s; ilrK
CrO42- Tlaisldrlhla f,i
CrO42-(aq) + 8H+ (aq)+ 3e Cr3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)
SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) SO42-(aq) + 2e + 4H+(aq)
2CrO42-(aq) + 4H+(aq) + 3SO2(g) 2Cr3+(aq) + 2H2O(l) + 3SO42-(aq)
Cr2O72- Tlaisldrlhla f,i
Cr2O72-(aq) + 14H+(aq) + 6e 2Cr3+(aq) + 7H2O(l)
SO2(g) + 2H2O(l) 4H+(aq) + SO42- (aq) + 2e
Cr2O72-(aq) + 2H+(aq) + 3SO2(g) 2Cr3+(aq) + H2O(l) + 3SO42-(aq)

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

fmkakq lrk p,H TlaislrK wjia:d wkqj V, Cr yd Mn i|yd meje;sh

yels Tlaihsvj, iQ;% uikak'

O Tlaisydrl j. iu`. (SO2, H2S jeks) CrO42-, Cr2O72-, MnO4- wd,sl yd
Ndial udOHj, olajk m%;sl%shd fjk fjk u wO whksl m%;sl%shd Nd;
lr whksl ilrK f.dv ke`.Sug wjia:dj i,ikak'

85

ksmqK;dj 5'0

( s, p yd d f.dkqj,g wh;a uQ,jHj, yd i x f h d a . j ,

.=K ykd .ekSu i|yd tajd uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 5'7

( d f.dkqf ixlSK ixfhda.j, O;ajh ykd .ekSu i|yd

tajdfha .=K uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 06

bf.kq M,

Cr, Mn, Fe, Co yd Cu hk uQ,jH H2O, NH3 yd Cl- hk ,s.k ^nkaOk& iu`.

idok ixlSKj, iQ;% yd jK m%ldY lrhs'

uOH mrudKqj" Tlail

s rK wxlh yd ,s.k moaO;sh ixlSK ixfhda.j, jKh

flfrys n,mdk wkaou W; ksoiqka weiqka f.k yer olajhs'

Copper(II) yd Cobalt(II) ,jK yhsfrdlaf,dala w,h iu`. olajk m%;sl%shd
ksCIKh lr jd;d lrhs'
uex.kSij
a , +II, +IV, +VI iy +VII Tlail
s rK wjia:dj,g wod< jK ksCIKh
lr jd;d lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

Cr, Mn, Fe, Co yd Cu hk uQ,jH H2O, NH3 yd Cl- hk ,s.k iu`. idok

ixlSK

,s.k
moaO;sh
H2O

3+

Cr

[Cr(H2O)6]3+
ks,a-o

NH3

uOH f,day whkh

Mn2+
Fe3+

Co2+

Cu2+

[Mn(H2O)6]2+ [Fe(H2O)6]3+ [Co(H2O)6]2+ [Cu(H2O)6]2+

,d frdai

ly Uqre

[Cr(NH3)6]3+

frdai
[Co(NH3)6]2+

ly

ly Uqre

Cl-

[CoCl4]2-

,d ks,a
[Cu(NH3)4]2+
ks,a
[CuCl4]2-

ks,a

ly

uOH f,day mrudKqj wkqj ixlSKfha jKh fjkia f'

ksoiqka' [Cr(H2O)6]3+ - ks,a-o meyeh" [Fe(H2O)6]3+ - ly Uqre meyeh

uOH f,day mrudKqf TlaislrK wjia:dj wkqj ixlSKfha jKh fjkia
f'
ksoiqka' [Fe(H2O)6]2+ - ,d fld< meyeh" [Fe(H2O)6]3+ - ly - Uqre meyeh"
[Mn(H2O)6]2+ ,d frdai meyeh" [Mn(H2O)6]3+ - o meyeh
,s.kh fjkia u wkqj o jKh fjkia f'
ksoiqka ( [Co(H2O)6]2+ frdai meyeh" [Co(NH3)6]2+ - ly Uqre meyeh

86

 yhsfrdlaf,dala w,h iu`. Cu2+(aq) olajk m%;sl%shdj

Cu2+(aq) + 4HCl(aq) [Cu(Cl)4]2-(aq) + 4H+(aq)

ks,a
ly
yhsfv%dlaf,dala w,h iu`. Co2+(aq) olajk m%;sl%shdj
Co2+(aq) + 4HCl(aq) [Co(Cl)4]2-(aq) + 4H+(aq)
frdai
ks,a
Cr j, Tlais whk iy mj;k

ly

;e,s

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

uOH mrudKqj" TlaislrK wjia:dj iy ,s.k moaO;sh wkqj jK fjkiA

j,g ksoiqka jk ixlSK ixfhda.j, kshe isiqkag m%oYkh lrkak'

fok ,o m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrlj, lKavdh jYfhka ksr; ug isiqkg
wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
uex.kSiaj, O TlaislrK wjia:djka ys fmkakq lrk jK ksrSlaIKh
lsrSug wjia:dj i,ikak'

87

ksmqK;dj 5'0

( s, p yd d f.dkqj, uQ, jHj, yd ixfhda.j, .=K ykd

.ekSug tajd uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 5'8

( uYkh myiq lrjkq msKsi d f.dkqf ixlSK ixfhda.

kdulrKh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 04

bf.kq M,

IUPAC kdulrKfha jeo.;alu i|yka lrhs'

ir, legdhk yd ixlSK wekdhk iys; ixfhda. iy ixlSK legdhk yd

ir, wekdhk iys; ixlSK ixfhda. IUPAC l%uhg k lrhs'

ixfhda.fha IUPAC ku we;s g tajdfha jHQy bm;a lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

ixlSK ixfhda.j, IUPAC kdulrKh
fuys ixlSK ixfhda.hl IUPAC ku f.dvke`.Sug fuka u IUPAC ku we;s
g ixfhda.fha jHQy iQ;%h ,sug wfmalaId flf' d f.dkqf uQ,jH idok
ixlSK ixfhda. muKla i,ld ne,Su m%udKj;a h'
ixlSK ixfhda. ir, j fldgia folla hgf;a i,ld n,kq ,ef'
(i) legdhk ir, jk w;r wekdhk ixlSK jk ixfhda.'
(ii) legdhk ixlSK w;r wekdhk ir, jk ixfhda.'
l=uk ixlSK ixfhda. wdldrh ie,l=j o kdulrKh Wfoid fmd kS;s
ud,djla mshjfrka mshjr wkq.ukh l< hq;= f'
^1& ir, wldnksl ixfhda.hl fuka u fuys o legdhkh m<uq j o"
wekdhkh Bg miq j o k lrkq ,ef' legdhkfha ku yd wekdhkfha
ku w;r ysoeila ;eu o l< hq;= h'
^2& ixfhda.fha wvx.= ixlSK whk fldgi ykd .ekSu jeo.;a u mshjr
f' uq,ska i|yka l< m fuh Ok wdfrdams; fyda RK wdfrdams; fyda
h yels h'
ykd.;a ixlSK whkfhys uOHu f,day mrudKqj jgd we;s ldKav
ke;fyd;a ,s.k (ligand) fojkq j ykd .; hq;= h'
(i)

WodiSk nkaO ldKav we;s g ta i|yd fYaIs; jQ k fhh hq;=

h'
ksoiqka :H2O tlajd
aqua
NH3 weka
ammine
CO
ldnkhs,a
carbonyl
NO
khsfrdihs,a nitrosyl

88

(ii)

RK wdfrdams; nkaO ldKav we;s g tjdfha bx.%Sis kfuys w.g

- - m%;Hh tl;= lrkq ,ef'
ksoiqka :Cl- laf,dafrda
- chloro
ihfkda
- cyano
CN NO 2- khsfg%da
- nitro
OH yhsfrdlafida
- hydroxo
SCN - ;fhdaihfkafgda
- thiocyanato
H
yhsfvda
- hydrido
2O
Tlafid
- oxo

(iii)

Ok wdfrdams; nkaO ldKav we;s g tajdfha bx.%Sis kfuys w.g 'bh' - (ium) hk m%;Hh tl;= lrkq ,ef'
ksoiqka :+
NH3 - NH2 - yhsriSksh
- Hydrazinium

(4)

uOH f,day mrudKqj jgd we;s nkaO ldKav ie,lSf tl u j.hlg

wh;a nkaO ldKav tllg jvd je .Kkla we;s wjia:dj, tu nkaO
ldKav ixLHdj fmkakq lsu i|yd ldKavfha kug fmr" ixLHdjg
wod< kduh fmr wEula (prefix) f,i fhdokq ,ef'
tlu j.fha ldKav 2" 3" 4" 5 iy 6 la we;s g ms<sfj<ska vhs (di)"
g%hs (tri)" fgrd (tetra)" fmkagd (penta) iy fylaid (hexa) hk fmr wE
Nd; lrkq ,ef'

(5)

ixlSK whkh Ok wdfrdams; jQ g fyda WodiSk jQ g fyda tys wvx.=

f,daayh k lsf f,dayfha bx.%Sis kduh Nd; lrkq ,nk w;r tu
kug miqj ysoeila fkd;nd Tlail
s rK wxlh lemsg,a frdau b,lalj,ska
ir, jrykla ;=< fmkakq l< hq;= h'
ksoiqka :Co3+ cobalt(III)
Fe2+ iron(II)
6+
Cr
chromium(VI)

(6)

oeka ixlSK whkh k lsu l< yels h' fuys m<uqj nkaO ldKav
o" fojkqj f,dayh o" k lrkq ,ef' ku ,sf tu jpk w;r
bv fkd;eug j. n,d .; hq;= h'
ksoiqka :[Co(NH3)6]3+ hexaamminecobalt(III) ion
[Fe(H2O)6]2+ hexaaquairon(II) ion
2+
[Cu(NH3)4] tetraamminecopper(II) ion

(7)

ixlSK whkhg nkaO ldKav j. lsysmhla inkaO we;s wjia:dj,

nkaO ldKav k lsf tajdfha k bx.%i
S s fydafha wl=re wkqm<
s f
s j<g
(alphabetical order) fhfok whqka i|yka l< hq;= h'
ksoiqka :- [Fe(CN)2 (NH3)4]+ - tetraamminedicyanoiron(II) ion
89

(8)

ixlSK whk fldgi Ok f,i wdfrdams; fyda RK f,i wdfrdams;

fyda WodiSk fyda h yelsh' ta wkqj f,dayh inkaO j fhdok kduh
o fjkia f'
(i)
ixfhda.hla ixlSK whk fldgi Ok f,i wdfrdam;
s fyda WodiSk
fyda jk wjia:djkays tys wvx.= f,dayfha ku fhdod k lrkq
,ef' fuys o f,dayfha TlaislrK wxlh ir, jrykla ;=<
lemsg,a frdau b,lalka oelau w;HjYHh h'
ksoiqka :[Fe(CN)3 (NH3)4] fuh WodiSk h' t g fuys ku jkq fha"
triamminetricyanoiron (III)
[Cu(H2O)6 ]2+

fuh Ok wdfrdams; h' fuys ku jkqfha hexaaquacopper(II) ion

(ii)

ixlSK whk fldgi RK wdfrdams; jk wjia:djkays tys

wvx.= f,dayfha ku w.g 'ate' hk m%;Hh tl;= lrkq ,ef'
fuys o f,dayfha TlaislrK wxlh ir, jrykla ;=< lemsg,a
frdau b,lalka oelah hq;= h'
ksoiqka :[CoCl4]2- tetrachlorocobaltate(II) ion
[Co(CN)6]3- hexacyanocobaltate(III) ion
[CuCl4]2- tetrachlorocuprate(II) ion
[Fe(CN)6]4- hexacayanoferrate(II) ion
[Fe(CN)6]3- hexacayanoferrate(III) ion
[Ag(CN)2]- diacayanoargentate(I) ion
[Cr(Br)6]3- hexabromochromate(III) ion

fuf;la bf.k.;a kS;s l%udKql+, j ms<smefuka ixfhda.hl IUPAC

kduh f.dv k`.d .; yels h'
(i)

ir, legdhkhla o" ixlSK wekdhkhla o we;s wjia:d

fuys Ok wdfrdams; fldgi iy RK wdfrdams; fldgi w;r
bvla ;nd we;s whqre;a" ixlSK fldgfiys kduh bv fkd ;nd
tl .g u ,shd we;s whqre;a" wjOdrKh flf'
ksoiqka :K3[Fe(CN)5 NO] Potassium pentacyanonitrosylferrate(II)
Na2[ZnCl4] Sodium tetrachlorozincate(II)

(ii)

ixlSK legdhkhla o" ir, wekdhkhla o we;s wjia:d

[Ag(NH3)2]Cl2 Diamminesilver(I) chloride
fuys Ok wdfrdam;
s fldgfiys ku iy RK wdfrdam;
s fldgfiys
ku w;r bvla ;eh hq;= h'
ksoiqka :[Fe(OH)2(H2O)4]Br Tetraaquadihydroxoiron(III) bromide
[CoCl(NH3)5](NO3)2 Pentaammine chlorocobolt(III) nitrate(V)
90

oeka wjOdkh fhduq lrkqfha ixlSK ixfhda.hl ku we;s gl tys

jHqy iQ;%h f.dv k`.d .kakd wdldrh ms<sn|j h'
1' idudkH l%uhg u Ok wdfrdams; whkh m<uqj o" RK wdfrdams; whkh
Bg miqj o" oelah hq;= h'
2' ieu g u ixfhda.fha we;s ixlSK whk fldgi fldgq jrykla ;=<
,sh hq;= h'

wod< wdfrdamKhla wef;d;a th fldgq jrykg msg;ska ol=Kq Wv

fl<jfrys oelah hq;= h' wdfrdamKfha ,l=K o" ixLHd;aul w.h
o i|yka l< hq;= h'
ksoiqk :- [Fe(CN)6]33' ixlSK whk fldgfiys jHqy iQ;%h ,sf m<uq j f,dayh o" Bg
miqj nkaO ldKav o ,shd oelah hq;= h' nkaO ldKav ,sf kdulrKfha
fuka bx.%Sis fydafha wl=re ms<sfj< fuys Nd; fkd flf' ta
fjkqjg nkaO ldKav ,shkqfha tajd ork wdfrdamKhg wkql+, j hs'
t k" RK wdfrdams; nkaO ldKav uq,g o" WodiSk nkaO ldKav Bg
miqj o" Ok wdfrdams; nkaO ldKav wjidkhg o tk m h' tfia jqj
o tla ldKavhla ;=< we;s O nkaO ldKav bx.%i
S s fydafha wkqm<
s f
s j<g
ilia l< hq;= h' fuh ksoiqka u`.ska my; meye,s lr we;'

ksoiqk 1 (- Pentacyanonitrosylferrate(II) ion ys ridhksl iQ;%h ,shkak'

fuh RK wdfrdams; ixlSK wekdhkhls' fldgq jryk
;=< f,dayh ,shkq ,ef'
[Fe .....]
CN- whkh RK wdfrdams; ksid f,dayhg miq j whkh
i|yka l< hq;= w;r thg miq WodiSk NO nkaOk ldKavh

i|yka l< hq;= f'

[Fe (CN)5NO]

f,dayfha TlaislrK wxl +II f' ixlSK whkfha

uq`M wdfrdamKh -5 +2 = -3
tu ksid iQ;%h [Fe (CN)5NO]3- f'
ksoiqk 2 (- Pentaamminechlorocobalt (III) ion ys ridhksl iQ;%h
,shkak'
fuh Ok wdfrdams; ixlSK whkhls' fuu f,day
whkh Co3+ f' fldgq jryka ;=< f,dayh ,shkq ,ef'
[Co .....]

nkaO ldKav Cl- iy NH3 f' RK wdfrdams; nkaO

ldKav uq,g o miqj WodiSk nkaO ldKav o bosm;a lrkq
,ef'
[CoCl(NH3)5]

f,dayh +3 TlaislrK ;;a;ajfha we;s ksid

uq`M wdfrdamKh +3 + (-1) = +2
tu ksid iQ;%h [CoCl(NH3)5]2+
ixlSK ixfhda.fha uq`M ku oS we;s g o jHqy iQ;%h
,sug mq`Mjk'
91

ksoiqk 3 (- Potassium pentacyanonitrosylferrate(II)

m<uq jk ksoiqk wkqj ixlSK wekdhkfha jHqyh
[Fe (CN)5NO]3- f'
ixfhda.hla iEoSf oS wdfrdamK WodiSk h hq;= h'
ixlSK ixfhda.fha -3 wdfrdamKh WodiSk u i|yd
K+ whk ;=kla inkaO h hq;= h'
tu ksid iQ;%h K3[Fe (CN)5NO]

ksoiqk 4 (-Pentaamminechlorocobalt(III) bromide

fo jk ksoiqkg wkqj ixlSK whkfha iQ;h
% [CoCl(NH3)5]2+
f' fuu whk WodiSk lsu i|yd Br- whk folla ;sh
hq;= f'
tu ksid iQ;%h [CoCl(NH3)5]Br2

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

mka;sh lKavdhj,g fnod ir, wekdhk iu`. jk ixlSK legdhk iy

ir, legdhk iu`. jk ixlSK wekdhk iys; ixfhda. oS tajd kdulrKh

lrk f,i isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'

92

ksmqK;dj 6'0

( ldnksl ixfhda.j, O;ajh uid n,hs'

ksmqK;d ugu 6'1

( ridhk oHdf fYa I la f Ia ; % h la f,i ldnks l

ridhkfha jeo.;alu uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 03 hs'

bf.kq M,

ldnka m%Odk ix>gl uQ,jHh f,i wka;.; iajdNdl yd lD;%su ixfhda.

Yd, ixLHdjla mj;sk nj m%ldY lrhs'

wod< lreKq f.k yer olajka Yd, ixfhda. ixLHdjla iEoSug ldnka i;=

yelshdj ia;r lrhs'

O lafIa;%j,ska ksoiqka f.k yer olajka ffoksl ;fha oS ldnksl

ridhkh jeo.;a jk wkaou fmkajd fohs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

ldnksl ixfhda. rdYshla we;s ug odhl jk ldnka i;= .=Kdx. lsysmhla

my; oelaf'
ldnka mrudKq folla w;r m%n, tal nkaOk" oa;aj nkaOk yd ;%s;aj nkaOk

iEosh yels h' ldnka wh;a y;r jk ldKavfha mj;sk is,slkaj,g idfmalaIj
S f
a .ka
ldnka idok C - C, C = C, C C yd C - H nkaOk" jvd by< nkaOk Yla;k
hqla; jk nj kslaIKh lr we;'
wod< f;dr;=re my; j.=f oelaf'

nkaOkh

nkaOk Yla;sh
$kJ mol-1

C-C
C=C
C C
C- H
Si - Si
Si - H

346
610
835
413
226
318

ldnka mrudKqjlg iyixhqc nkaOk y;rla iEosh yels h' f wkqj fmkS

hkafka ldnka oduhlg O ldKav rdYshla inkaO h yels nj;a" Yd,

O;ajhlska hq;= ixfhda. mej;Sug tu .=Kh odhl jk nj;a h'
ldnksl ixfhda. Yd, ixLHdjla mej;Sug odhl jk ;j;a fya;=jla jkafka

ldur WIaK;ajfha oS yd idudkH jdhq f.da,Sh ;;a;aj yuqf tajd olajk

ia:dhS;dj hs' ldnksl ixfhda. Tlaiscka iu`. is lrk m%;sl%shd Yd,
jYfhka ;dmodhl f'

93

C3H8(g) + 5O2 (g)

3CO2(g) + 4H2O(l)

ta wkqj ldnksl ixfhda. ;dm.;sl j wia:dhS f' kuq;a ldnksl ixfhda.

Tlaiscka iu`. is lrk m%;sl%shd wdY%s; il%shk Yla;s w.hhka Yd, f' t
neka ldnksl ixfhda. pd,l ridhksl j ia:dhS jk w;r Yd, ixLHdjla
iajNdl j mj;S'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

bkaOk" T!IO" ;Ska;" ma,diala" frosms<s" idh wdosfha wvx.= uQ,sl ix>gl uQ,jH

.ek isiqkaf.ka uikak' ta wkqj ldnksl ixfhda. ykajd fokak'

mka;sfha isiqka lKavdh lsysmhlg fnokak' tosfkod ;fha oS O lafIa;%h

;=< Nd;hg .efkk ldnksl ixfhda.j,g WodyrK yd tajdfha jeo.;alu idlPd

lsug isiq lKavdhj,g mjrkak'

94

ksmqK;dj 6'0

( ldnksl ixfhda.j, O;ajh uid n,hs'

ksmqK;d ugu 6'2

( l%shdld ldKav weiqfrka ldnksl ixfhda.j, O;ajh

uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 04 hs'

bf.kq M,

Ih ksfoaYhg we;=<;a l%shdld ldKavj, kdu iy ixfla; ykd .kshs'

ldnksl ixfhda.j, O;ajh mj;akd l%shdld ldKav weiqfrka ykd

.ksh's
tla tla l%shdld ldKavh iys; ixfhda. ioDYH fY%aKs k lr ksoiqka bosm;a

lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

iuyr ldnksl ixfhda.j, C yd H muKla ix>gl uQ,jH f,i wvx.= f'

tajd yhsfrdldnk f,i ye|skaf'

jHQyh mok lrf.k yhsfrdldnk we,s*el yd wefrdauel f,i uQ,sl
j. follg fnfoa'
jD; ldnka oduj,ska muKla iuka; yhsfrdldnk l=,lh we,s*el
^wplS%h& yhsfrdldnk k f'
we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhsk jYfhka we,s*el ldnksl ixfhda. j.

lrkq ,ef'
ia:dk.; (delocalized)
bf,lafg%dak j,hla idoka ia:dhS we;s pl%Sh
ldnksl ixfhda. wefrdauel ixfhda. jYfhka ye|skaf'
C6H6 wKql iQ;%fhka oelafjk fnkaiSka" wefrdauel yhsfrdldnk ixfhda.
l=,lfha ir, u ixfhda.h f'
fndfyda ldnksl ixfhda.j, ldnka oduhg khsg%cka" Tlaiscka jeks IumrudKq inkaO f oS ldnka yd inkaO jQ mrudKq w;r oHq;a-RK;d
fjki fya;=fjka tu mrudKq ldKavh iska ixfhda.hg ,dlaIKsl jQ
m%;sl%shdld;ajhla ,nd foa' t jeks mrudKq ldKavhla l%shdld ldKavhla
(functional group) f,i ye|skaf' h ixfhda. wKqjl mj;sk l%shdld
ldKav wkqj tajd j. lrkq ,ef'
l%shdld ldKavh
OH

ioDY fY%aKsfha ku
we,afldfyd,
Alcohol

WodyrK
CH3CH2OH Ethanol

we,ayhsv
Aldehyde

CH3CHO

lSfgdak
Ketone

CH3COCH3 Propanone

O
C
H

Ethanal

O
C

95

O
C
OH

ldfndlais,sla w,
Carboxylic acid

CH3COOH Ethanoic acid

w, laf,darhsv
Acid chloride

CH3COCl Ethanoyl chloride

tiagr
Ester
weuhsk
Amine

CH3COOCH3 Methyl ethanoate

O
C
Cl
O
C
O

NH2

O
C
NH 2

NH 2

CH3CH2 NH2 Ethylamine

weuhsv
Amide

CH3CONH2 Ethanamide

weuhsfkda w,

CH3CHNH2COOH
2-Aminopropanoic acid

we,als,a fya,hsv*

CH3CH2Cl Chloroethane

COOH

* IUPAC kdulrKfha oS ye,ck ldKavh l%shdldrS ldKavhla f,i fkd ie,fla'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

O l%shdld ldKav wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQy iQ;% isiqkag bm;a lr tajd

ykd .ekSug fhduq lrkak'

ridhksl ixfhda. ,ehsia;=jla isiq lKavdhj,g oS tajd w;=ka tla ioDY fY%aKshlg

wh;a jk ixfhda. f;dard j.= .; lsug yd wod< ioDY fY%aKs f.dv kexug
wjia:dj ,nd fokak'

96

ksmqK;dj 6'0

( ldnksl ixfhda.j, O;ajh uid n,hs'

ksmqK;d ugu 6'3

( uYk myiq lrkq msKsi we,s*el ldnksl ixfhda.

kdulrKh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 07 hs'

bf.kq M,

iq,n ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHjydl k iy iu; kdulrKhl wjYH;dj

m%ldY lrhs'
IUPAC kS;s fhdod .kska Ih ksfoaYfha i|yka jHQyuh iSudjg we;=<;a

fok ,o ldnksl ixfhda. kdulrKh lrhs'

ixfhda.hl IUPAC ku m%ldY l< g jHQy iq;%h we| olajhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

Y=oaO yd jHjydr ridhk oHdj ms<sn| wka;cd;sl ix.uh iska 1949 oS
(International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry - IUPAC) ldnksl ixfhda.

k lsf l%udkql+, l%uhla bosm;a lrk ,oS'

IUPAC kdulrKhg wkqj ixfhda.hla i|yd fhdokq ,nk ku my; oelafjk
mos fldgia lsysmhlska f.dvk`.d .; yels f'
1' jHQyfhys m%Odk l%shdld ldKavh oelaug fhdokq ,nk m%;Hh
2' ixfhda.fha m%Odk ldnka iels,a, ykd .ekSug fhdokq ,nk iels,af,a
ku
3' wdfoaY ldKav oelaug fhdokq ,nk Wmi.
4' wdfoaY ldKav" w;sfl ldKav iy m%Odk l%shdld ldKavh iels,a,g
inkaO ;sfnk ia:dkh oelaug fhdokq ,nk wxl
we,smel ixfhda. kdulrKfha oS my; oelafjk mshjr wkqm<
s f
s j,g wkq.ukh
lsfuka myiqfjka ixfhda.fha IUPAC kduh f.dvk.d .; yels h'
1' m%Odk l%shdld ldKavh ykd .ekSu'
2' m%Odk oduh f;au'
3' m%Odk oduhg fhdok kdu uQ,h f;au
4' wjfYaI ldKav ^w;sfl ldKav& oelafjk m%;Hhka odufhys kduhg tl;=
lsu'
5' m%Odk l%shdld ldKavh oelaug fhdok m%;Hh odufhys kduhg tl;=
lsu'
6' wdfoaY ldKav k lsu'
7' wdfoaY ldKavj, k iels,af,a kug tl;= lsu'
8' ldnka iels,a, wxlkh lsu'
9' m%Odk l%shdld ldKavfha yd wdfoaY ldKavj, msysgqu oelaug fhdok
wxl tu ldKav bosfhka fhoSu'

97

ldKavh

m%Odk l%shdld
ldKavh jYfhka ku

wdfoaY ldKavh
jYfhka ku

Thsla w,h
oic acid
Tta
oate

weuhs

amide

we,a
al

ihfkd
cyano
f*dauhs,a
formyl

ka
one

Tlafid
oxo

,a
ol

yhsfrdlais
hydroxy

weuhska

weuhsfkd

O
C

amine
amino
---------------------------------------------------------------------------whska
whska
yne
yne
Bka
Bka
ene
ene
fyaf,da
halo
-NO2
khsfrd
nitro

1 j.=j - l%shdld ldKavj, m%uqL;dj wvq fjk ms<sfj<g ilia lrk ,o fY%aKsh

98

ldnka mrudKq
.Kk
1
2
3
4
5
6

kdu uQ,h
meth
eth
prop
but
pent
hex

wkqrEm yhsfrdldnkfha
ku
Methane
Ethane
Propane
Butane
Pentane
Hexane

m%Odk odufha mj;sk ldnka mrudKq ixLHdj wkqj ixfhda.fha

kug fhfok kdu uQ,h yd wkqrEm yhsffrdldnkfha ku
IUPAC kdulrKhg wkql+, j ixfhda.fha jHQy iQ;%h we|Su'

kdulrKhg wkql+, j ixfhda.hl jHQy iQ;%h we|Su my; oelafjk

mshjrj,a wkq.ukh lsfuka l< yels f'
1. iels,a, ykdf.k tu kduh wkqj iels,a, we|Su
2. iels,a, wxlkh lsu
3. oS we;s IUPAC ku wkqj m%Odk l%shdld ldKavh yd wjfYaI ldKav
ykdf.k tu ldKavj, kug fmr ;sfnk wxlh wkqj tu ldKav iels,af,a
ksjeros ia:dkj,g inkaO lsu'
4. ieu ldnka mrudKqjl u ixhqc;dj y;r jk mos yhsrcka mrudKq
iels,af,a jHQyhg fhoSu'
IUPAC

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

Ih ksfoaYfha i|yka iSudjkag hg;a j ixfhda. lsysmhl jHQy tajd IUPAC

l%uhg k lsug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

Ih ksfoaYfha i|yka iSudjkag hg;a j h ixfhda.hl IUPAC kduh ka g thg

wod< jHQyh ,sug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

Wla; mejre lKavdh ls%hdldrl f,i bm;a lrkak'

99

ksmK
q ;dj 6

( ldnksl ixfhda.j, O;ajh uid n,hs'

ksmqK;d ugu 6'4

( tl u wKql iQ;%h iys; wKqj, mrudKq ilia meje;sh yels

O wdldr uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 05 hs'

bf.kq M,
(
fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd mej;sh yels ish u jHQy iQ;% w|shs'
fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd w|sk ,o ish u jHQy iQ;%" jHQy iudjhl yd
;%sudk iudjhl f,i j. lrhs'
fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd mej;sh yels iudhl w;=ka fYaIs; l<
,laIK iys; iudjhlj, jHQy w|shs'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la
(
tlu wKql iQ;%h we;s tlsfklg fjkia jHqy mej;Sf ixisoah iudhl;dj
f,i ykajhs'
ixfhda.hl iudjhl tlsfklg fjkia fN!;sl yd ridhksl .=K fmkah
yels h'
ldnksl ixfhda.j, iudjhl;dj my; wdldrhg j. l< yelshs'
iudjhl;dj

;%sudk iudjhl;dj

jHqy iudjhl;dj

odu
iudjhl;dj

ia:dk^msyg
s
q &
iudjhl;dj

l%shdld ldKav
iudjhl;dj

odu iudjhl;dj
tlu ioDY fY%aKshg wh;a" tlu wKql iQ;%h i|yd ldnka odufha iajrEmh
fjkia fuka odu iudjhl ,ef'
CH3
ksoiqka( CH3-CH2-CH2-CH3

yd

hqfka (Butane)

m%;r
s Emwjhj
iudjhl;dj

mdr;%sudk
iudjhl;dj

CH3 CH

CH3

2-fu;s,afm%dfmaka (2-Methylpropane)

ia:dk iudjhl;dj
tl u wKql iQ;%h" tlu l%shdld ldKavh iy tl u ldnka iels,a, mej;sh
o l%shdld ldKavh inkaO j we;s ldnka mrudKqj fyda l%shdld ia:dkfha
msysu fyda fjkia fuka ia:dk iudjhl ,ef'

100

ksoiqka (
OH
^i&

CH3
Propan-1-ol

CH

CH3

Propan-2-ol

^ii&
But-1-yne
Cl
^iii&

But-2-yne
Cl

Cl

O
1,2-Dichlorobenzene

Cl

1,3-Dichlorobenzene

l%shdld ldKav iudjhl;dj

tl u wKql iQ;%h i|yd fjkia l%shdld ldKav we;s jHqy mej;Su l%shdld
ldKav iudjhl;dj f,i ykajhs'
ksoiqka(
^i&

O
CH 3CH 2

CH 3

Propanal

C
CH 3

Propanone

^ii&

CH 3CH 2

CH 3

OH

Propanoic acid

C
O

CH3

Methyl ethanoate

;%sudk iudjhl;dj
tl u wKql iQ;%h yd tlu jHQy iQ;%h we;s uq;a" ;%sudk wjldYfha nkaOk
osYdk; we;s wdldrh fjkia fuka" fjkia jHQy ,eu ;%u
s dk iudjhl;dj
k f' fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd mej;sh yels ;%sudk iudjhl w;=frka
tlla wksflys omK m%;snh jk jHQy m%;srEmwjhj iudjhl f,i
ye|skaf' tlla wksflys omK m%;snh fkdjk jHQy mdr;%sudk iudjhl
k f'
mdr;%sudk iudjhl;dj
cHd;sl iudjhl;dj mdr;%sudk iudjhl;dj fmkakq lrk tla
wjia:djls' C } C oa;aj nkaOkhl oS
nkaOkhg wu;r j mj;sk
nkaOkh ksid tu ldnka mrudKqj,g nkaOkh jgd ksoyfia N%uK ug
fkd yels h' f fya;=j ksid wvx.= mrudKq tl u wdldrhg nkaOkh we;s
kuq;a tajdfha ;%sudkfha msysu fya;= fldg f.k fjkia kHdi mej;sh yels
h' th cHd;sl iudjhl;dj f,i ykajhs'
tfia ,efnk fjkia jHQyj,g cHd;sl iudjhl hehs lshkq ,ef'

101

we,alSkj, jHQy iQ;% u`.ska cHd;sl iudjhl ykd .; yels h'

p

a
C

C
q

yd
k tu ixfhda.h cHd;sl iudjhl;dj fmkajhs'
by; wjia:djl oS iudk ldKav folla oa;aj nkaOkfha wCIhg idfmaCI j
tl u me;af;a jQfha k thg isia ^cis& iudjhlh hhs o fome;af;a msysfha
k thg g%dkaia ^trans) iudjhlh hhs o lshkq ,ef'
ksoiqka - But -2-ene
CH3
C
H

CH3
C
H

CH3
C
H

cis iudjhlh

H
C
CH3

trans iudjhlh

a, b, p yd q ldKav y;r u wiudk jk g o cHd;sl iudjhl;dj fmkajhs'

kuq;a t jeks iudjhl isia yd g%dkaia f,i k l< fkd yel' tu ixfhda.
kdulrKh fuu Ih ksfoaYhg wod< fkd f'
tlla wfkflys omk m%;sN jk iudjhl m%;srem wjhj j, ye|skaf'
m%;srEmwjhj iudjhl;dj
tlsfklg fjkia ldKav y;rla inkaO ldnka mrudKqjla iys; ixfhda.
m%;srEm wjhj iudjhl;dj olajhs' tla m%;srEmwjhjhla muKla wvx.=
djKhla yryd ;,O%e; wdf,dalh hejQ g O%ejK ;,h N%uKh f' tla
m%;srEmwjhjhla u`.ska O%ejK ;,h tla osYdjlg o wfkla m%;srEmwjhjh
u`.ska Bg m%;sreoaO osYdjg o N%uKh is flfrhs' m%;srEmiudjhl u`.ska
O%ejK wjhj ;,h N%uKh lrk ksid tajd m%ldY il%sh iudjhl f,i o
ye|skaf'
fn%dfudlaf,dfrd*afjdfrdf;akj
a ,
(Bromochlorofluoromethan)
m%;srEm wjhj iudjhl
omKh

fhda; bf.kq - b.eka l%shdldrl (

C4 H8 yd C5 H12 wKql iQ;%j,g we|sh yels ish u jHQy iQ;% bosm;a lrk
f,i is i q k a g ls h d" iudjhl;dj" jHQ y iudjhl;dj iy ;% s u dk
iudjhl;dj hk mo ykajd fokak'
mka;sh lKavdhj,g fnod iudjhl ms<sn| Ih ksfoaYfha wka;.;
ish u me;s wkdjrKh jk fia wKql iQ;% isiqkag fokak' tu wKql
iq;%j,g we|sh yels ish u jHqy iQ;% bosm;a lr tajd j.SlrKh lrk f,i
isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'
W; jH fhdod .kska wKqj, cHd;sl yevj, wdlD;s ;kd tajdfha O;ajh
ykd .ekSug fhduq lrkak'
102

ksmqK;dj 7'0

( yhsfrdldnkj, jHQyh yd .=K w;r inkaO;d uYkh

lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 7'1

( we,s*el yhsfrdldnkj, jHQyh" fN!;sl .=K yd nkaOk

iajNdjh uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 06 hs'

bf.kq M,

we,aflak" we,alSk iy we,alhskj, nkaOk iajNdjh W; WodyrK weiqfrka

ia;r lrhs'
we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhsk ioDYH fY%aKs Tiafia tajdfha fN!;sl .=K

p,kh jk wkaou ikaikaokd;aul j jrKh lrhs'

ir, we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhskj, cHd;sl yevh iu ldnka
mrudKqj, uqyqlrKh inkaO lr olajhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

wkqhd; idudlhska fofofkl= fjkia jkafka CH2 tallhlska muKla k

t jeks ixfhda. fY%aKshla ioDY fY%aKshla f,i ye|skaf'

ksoiqka f,i we,aflak fY%aKsh f.k ia;r lr osh yels h'
we,aflak wKqjla ksO%eh fyda b;d n, f,i O%eh fyda f' ksO%eh wKq
folla w;r wdlIK n, f,i we;af;a b;d n, jekavjd,aia n,hs' fY%aKsfha
uq,a idudlhska ldur WIaK;ajfha oS jdhq f' my<g hk g j iy >k
idudl ixfhda. yuq f'
ldnka odu w;= fnoSu;a iu`. jeka v'jd,aia wdlIK n, f' ldnka myla
we;s we,aflak idudlhska ie,l+ g (
ixfhda.h

;dmdxlh
360 C
280 C
90 C

Pentane
2- Methylebutane
2, 2 Dimethylpropane

we,alk
S j, o fN!;sl .=K fndfyda rg we,aflakj, fN!;sl .=Kj,g iudkhs'
we,alhskj, o O%eh;dj wvq neka fN!;sl .=K w;ska we,alhsk o wkqrEm

we,aflak yd we,alSkj,g fndfydarg iudk f'

ldnka - ldnka nkaOk ieoSf oS C mrudKq sp, sp2 yd sp3 f,i uqyqlrKhg
Ndck f'

103

uqy
q lrKh

WodyrKh

cHd;sh
fh

sp

sp2

H
C=C
H

H
sp3

H
H

;,Sh

p;=ia;,Sh

ldnkaj, N+ wjia:df bf,lafg%dak kHdih - 1s2 2s2 2p2

ldnkaj, N+ wjia:df bf,lafg%dak kHdihg wkqj ldnka mrudKqjl we;af;a
hq.au bf,lafg%dak folla muKs'
kuq;a ldnka mrudKqjla CH 4 idok g ijiu nkaOk y;rla idohs' fuh jgyd

.ekSu i|yd ldnka mrudKqf bf,lafg%dak W;af;a; wjia:djg m;a bka miq
uqyqlrK l%shdj,shg wj;SK jk nj Wml,amkh l< yels h'

fuys oS ldnka ys 2s Wm Ylaa;s ugfuys we;s bf,lafg%dakhla 2p ysia ldlaIslhlg

ixl%uKh fuka miq uqyqlrKh is f'

W;af;a; bf,lafg%dak iys; ldnka mrudKqj sp3 fyda sp2 fyda sp uqyqlrKhkag

tal nkaOk"
Ndck fuka ms<sfj<ska
nkaOk idok wdldrh ia;r l< yels h'

104

oa;aj nkaOk iy

;%s;aj

 N+ wjia:df" W;af;a; wjia:df iy uqyqlrKh jQ ldnka mrudKqj, ixhqc;d

ljpfha we;s O ldlaIslj, Yla;s fjki ixikaokd;aul j my; oelaf'

N+ wjia:dj

W;af;a; wjia:dj

N+ wjia:dj

W;af;a; wjia:dj

sp
N+ wjia:dj

W;af;a; wjia:dj

H
H
H
CH4

wKqj - uOH ldnka mrudKqf

uqyqrKh sp3 f'

105

C2H4

wKqj - uOH ldnka mrudKqj,

uqyqlrKh sp2 f'

nkaOk
nkaOk

nkaOk
nkaOk
C2H2 wKqj

- uOH ldnka mrudKqj,

uqyqlrKh sp f'

uqyq ldlaIslhl s m%;sY;h nkaOk os. i|yd n,mdhs' ksoiqka jYfhka

uqy
q lrKh

C- H nkaOk r ^wexiag% tallj,ska&

sp3

1.112

sp2

1.103

sp

1.079

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhskj, fmd iQ;% isiqkag ykajd fokak' tla tla fmd

iQ;%hg wod< ixfhda.h ne.ska ,sug isiqkag wjia:dj ,nd fokak' ta w;=ka ir,
we,aflakhl" we,alSkhl yd we,alhskhl jHQyh" Tjqka f jk g;a bf.k f.k
we;s uqyqlrK weiqka meyeos,s lrkak'
mka;sh lKavdh ;=klg fnod methane, ethene yd ethynej, ldnka mrudKqj,

uqyqlrK wdldrh" cHd;sl yev yd fN!;sl .=K ;ldkql+, j f.dvk`.d bosm;a

lsug wjia:dj ,nd fokak'
myiqfjka fidhd .; yels jH Wmfhda.S lr f.k wdlD;s idod wKqj, yev ia;r

lsug wjia:dj ,nd fokak'

106

ksmqK;dj 7'0

( yhsfrdldnkj, jHQyh yd .=K w;r inkaO;d uYkh

lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 7'2

( fnkaiSkaj, nkaOk iajNdjh uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 05 hs'

bf.kq M,

fnkaiSkaj,g ms<s.; yels jHqyhla

uq,ska u bosm;a lf<a fll=f,a iska

kuq;a fu u`.ska fnkaiSkaj, ish .=K ia;r fkdug fya;= bosm;a lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

idudkH ;;a;aj hgf;a wix;Dma;;dj ms<sn| mlaIKj,g fnkaiSka ms<s;=re

fkd foa' tneka fnkaiska i|yd ir, we,alSk fyda we,alhsk i;= wdldrfha
jHqyhla meje;sh fkd yels h'

fnkaiSka i|yd fll=f,a fhdackd l< jHQyh u.ska wKqf oa;aj nkaOk
;=kla oelajj
Q ;a " we,alk
S ;rug fnkaik
S a wix;Dma; ke;' f ksid fnkaik
S j
a ,
jHQyh fll=f,a jHqyhg iudk fkd jk nj meyeos,s h'

fnkaiSkaj, ldnka mrudKq folla w;r nkaOk r tlsfkl iudk jk w;r

tys w.h 1.39 x 10-10 m f' ;j o fnkaiSka wKqj imQKfhka ;,Sh f'
kuq;"a
oa;aj nkaOkhl os.

tal nkaOkhl os.

m
f ksid fnkaiSkays jHQyh my; im%hqla; jHQyj, uqyqula h hq;= nj
meyeos,s f'
H
C

C
C

C
C

C
C

fll=f,af.a im%hqla; jHQyh

fuu fo ysia B;,fhka oelafjkafka fnkaiSka fuu jHqy fol w;r udre
jk nj fyda iu;=,s; mj;sk nj fyda fkd f' im%hqla;;djh hs'
iy w;r fjki meyeos,s lr fokak'

wKql ldlaIsl jdoh u`.ska fnkaiSkaj, jHQyh jvd;a fyd|ska meyeos,s f'
tys ish u ldnka mrudKq sp2 uqyqlrKh we;'
107

 fuys oS kquqyq p ldlaIslj, we;s bf,lafg%dak ixhq.aul oa;aj nkaOk

f,i mj;sk neka fomi we;s kquqyq p ldlaIsl iu`. w;sPdokh h

yels h'
fuhska pl%Sh bf,lafg%dak j,djla ysf yelshdj ;sf' tu ksid
p bf,lafg%dak yh pl%Sh j ia:dk.; u u`.ska i;H ;%s;aj nkaOk ;=kla
iys; jHQyhg idfmalaI j fnkaiSkays im%hqla; jHQyh ia:dhS f'
fnkaiSka wKqjl ia:dhS;dj meyeos,s lsug iu; yhsrckSlrK tka;e,amS
o;a; o bjy,a f'

kuq;a fnkaiSka oa;aj nkaOk ;=klska iuka; jQfha k"

tys iu;

>

tk"
h hq;= h'
yhsrckSlrK tka;e,amsh
tk ^360-208& }
m%udKhlska fnkaiSka tys fll=f,a jHQyhkg
jvd ia:dhSj mj;sk nj meyeos,s h'

fll=f,a jHqyh

Yla;sh $kJ mol-1

im%hqla;;d Yla;sh

- 360 kJ mol

-1

>
>

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

C6H6 wKql iQ;%hg wod< j ;sh yels jD; odu jHQyhla we|Sug isiqkag mjikak'
tu jHQyj, oa;aj nkaOk" ;%s;aj nkaOk fyda tu nkaOk foj.h u fyda mj;sk
nj;a" ta wkqj tajd wix;Dma;;d mlaIdj,g ms<s;=re h hq;= nj;a Tjqkag wjOdrKh
lrkak'

108

ksmqK;dj 7'0

( yhsfrdldnkj, jHQyh yd .=K w;r inkaO;d uYkh

lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 7'3

( we,aflak" we,alSk iy we,alhskj, jHQyh weiqfrka

tajdfha m%;sl%shd uYkfha yd ixikaokfha fhfohs'

ld,fo

( 10 hs'

bf.kq M,

we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhskj, m%;sl%shdYS,s;ajh tajdfha jHQyh weiqfrka

ia;r lrhs'
we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhsk is lrk ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd tajdfha jHQyh

iajNdjh iu`. inkaO lrhs'

fuf;aka laf,dakSlrKh" t;Skaj,g fn%daka yd yhsv%cka fya,hs wdl,kh
hk m%;sl%shdj, hka;%Kh meyeos,s lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

we,aflakj, fYaI l%shdld ldKavhla fkdue;' ;jo" we,aflakj, ish

iyixhqc nkaOk
nkaOk f'
nkaOk"
nkaOkj,g jvd ia:dhS
neka we,aflak idudkH ridhkd.dr m%;sldrl iu`. ^ OH-, CN-, H+ wdosh
iu`.& m%;sl%shd idudkH ;;a;aj hgf;a m%;sl%shd fkd fmkajhs'
we,aflakj, nkaOkj, O%eh;dj b;d wvq ksid m%;l
s h
s% ;dj wvq we;' nkaOk

iufokh uqla; LKavl iEoSug keUqre f ^uqla; LKavlhl hq.au

bf,lafg%dakfha jeo.;alu myod fokak&'
t neka iufokh is h yels Cl2, Br2 wdosh iu`. muKla m%;sl%shd lrhs'

wdrNl m%;sls%hdj

Cl

'

Cl
Cl

'

'

Cl
Cl

'

'

Cl
H

2Cl
CH3

'

Cl

CH 3

CH2Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

Cl

'

CH2Cl
CHCl2

'

CHCl2

'

HCl + CH3

'

Cl + CH3Cl

'

HCl + CH2 Cl

'

Cl + CH2Cl2

'

HCl + CHCl2

'

Cl + CHCl3

109

'

Cl

Cl

Cl

'

HCl + CCl3

CCl3

'

'

CCl3

Cl + CCl4

kej;Sf m%;l
s h
%s d

'

Cl

'

H 3C

'

Cl Cl

Cl

'

CH3CH3

CH3

m<uq mshjfrka ckkh jk Cl uqla; LKavlfhka flfrkafka CH nkaOkh

iufokh lsu hs' f l%shdj,fha oS ldnka iys; uqla; LKavlhla

ckkh f'
wdrNfha .egq iNd;dj wkqj Cl uqla; LKavlhla CH4 wKq iu`. .ef
yelshdj by< neka CH3Cl we;s f'
iEfok CH3 uqla; LKavlh m%;sl%shdf uq,a w;rueosh f' miqj fjk;a w;r
ueos iEosh yel' kso ( CH2Cl
m%;sl%shdj is jk w;rueo oS o odu wjika mshjr is h yels ksid os.ska os.gu
m%;sl%shdj is ug os.ska os.g u ysret<sh iemhsh hq;= h'
t;S k a wKq f ;,fhka fomig k`.d we;s
bf,la f g% d a k >k;a j h
bf,lafg%d*S,sl m%;sldrl wdlIKh lr .ekSug iu;a f' bf,lafg%d*hs,h
bf,lafg%dak j,djg wdlIKh ldnka mrudKqjlg neKq miq wfkla
ldnkaj,g inkaO we;af;a ldKa
ii v ;=kla muKla ksid ixhqc;d imQK
lr .ekSug ;j;a nkaOkhla we;s f'
yhsrcka fya,hsv iu`. we,alSk m%;sl%shd lrhs' fuys oS yhscka whk
bf,lafg%d*hs, f,ig l%shd lrka oa;aj nkaOkhg myr foa' fuu
bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shj, oS w;rueos ldfndlegdhk iEfoa'
ldfndlegdhkj, ia:dhS;dj ;D;shsl
oa;Shsl
m%d:l
R
R

R
+

C
H

H
+

ldfndlegdhkfha + wdfrdams; C mrudKqjg we,als,a ldKav inkaO j we;s

g legdhkfha ia:dhS;dj je f' thg fya;=j jkafka we,als,a ldKav u.ska

tajd inkaO j we;s Okdfrdams; ldnka mrudKqj foig nkaOk Tiafia
bf,lafg%dak lYkh lsuhs' fuys oS isjkafka Ok wdfrdamKh imQK
whkh mqrd is f.dia ia:dhSlrKh u h'
^fuys oS R ldKav u`.ska we,als,a ldKav ksrEmKh f' ldfndlegdhkfha
wdfrdamKh im%hqla;;dj u`.ska ia:dk.; ug wod< moaO;s idlPd lsu
wjYH ke;'&
yhsrcka fya,hsv iu. wiu;sl we,alk
S hl is jk bf,lafg%d*s,l
s wdl,k
m%;sl%shdj, oS bf,lafg%d*hs,h ne|Sfuka miq
wiu;sl ldfndlegdhk folla iEosh yels h'

110

Cl

CH 3 CH + CH 2
m%d:l ldfndlegdhkh

C2 u;
fm%dafgdakSslrKh
3

CH 3 2 CH 1 CH 2
Cl u;
fm%dafgdakSslrKh

CH 3 + CH CH 3
oa;Shsl ldfndlegdhkh

ka jvd ia:dhS ldfndlegdhkh jvd myiqfjka iEfoa'

wkqj jvd ia:dhs ldfndlegdhkh ,efnkafka oa;aj nkaOkh fomi
ldnka mrudKQ fol w;ka yhsrcka mrudKq je .Kkla inkaO we;s
ldnka mrudKqjg bf,lafg%d*hs,h inkaO fuks'
fuu kslaIKh" we,alSk Yd, ixLHdjl m%;sl%shd wOHhkh lsfuka miq
udfldaksfld*a kshuh f,i idudkHlrKh lr we;'
yhsrckafya,hsv w;ka yhsrckafn%dauhs muKla m%;sl%shd udOHfha
fmfrdlaihsv we;s g g m%;sreoaO osYdjg inkaO u is f'
fuhg fya;=j fmfrdlaihsv yuqf yhsrckafn%dauhs iy we,alSk

w;r m%;sl%shdj is jkafka uqla; LKavl hka;%Khla yryd neks' fuu

hka;%Kh meyeos<s lsu wjYH ke;'
Wod (

fmfrdlaihsv

we,alSkj,g fn%daka wdl,kfha hka;%Kh

we,alSkfha ;,h fomi we;s
bf,lafg%dak >k;ajh ksid fn%daka wKqf
fm%a; oaO%ejhla we;s f' bf,lafg%d*hs,h f,i l%shd lrkafka fuu fm%a;

oaO%ejh hs'
C

H + ( Br

H
Br
Br-

Br+

Br

Br

we,alSkj,g i,a*shqla w, wdl,kh yd ,efnk M,fha c, fokh'

H

idka

CH 2

CH2 + H2SO4

CH3

OSO 3H
CH3CH2OSO3H + H2O

CH3CH2OH + H2SO4

111

 Hg2+ whk iy ;kql i,a*shqla w,hwe;s g we,alhskj,g tla c, wKqjla

wdl,kh f'
CH

H 2O

CH

CH 3 CHO+ H+

CH 2 CH

O H
Bfkda,h we,ayhsvh njg laIKslj m%;sixOdkh jkafka
ia:dhS;dj by< jk ksid h'
isis,a laIdh

ys

iu. we,alSkj, m%;sl%shdj

CH 2 CH2

CH 2

CH 2

CO

OH

OH

we,alSkj, W;afm%a; yhsv%ckSlrKh

idudkH ;;a;aj hgf;a oS H2 yd we,alSk m%;sl%shd fkdlrhs' kuq;a ishq f,i

l=vq lrk ,o Pt/Pd/Ni f,day W;afm%arl yuqf oS we,alSk yhsv%cka iu.
m%;sl%shd wkqrEm we,aflak idohs'
l=vq

Wod (

yd
we,alhskj, ;%s;aj nkaOkh idok C g
inkaO H ^w.%ia: yhsv%cka& wd,s
l .=K olajhs'
fuu we,alhskj, wd,sl H f,day u`.ska ia:dmkh l< yel'
H

CH 3

CH3

CH3

C H

Na

Na +C

NH3/Cu2Cl2

NH3/AgNo3

CH 3

NaNH2

CH 3+ H2

CH 3 C
CH 3 C

Na+C

CCu
CAg

CH 3+ NH3

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

CH4 " C2H4 iy C2H2 wKqj, wdoY wdlD;s isik
q g
a fmkajd" uqy
q lrKh wkqidrfhka

ldnka - ldnka nkaOkj, ia:dhS;dj meyeos,s lrkak'

mka;sfha isiqka lKavdh ;=klg fnokak'

ta tla tla lKavdhug ms<sfj<ska

we,aflak" we,alSk iy we,alhsk inkaO Ih ksfoaYfha olajd we;s m%;sl%shd
wOHhkh lr jd;d lsug mjrkak'

112

ksmqK;dj 7'0

( yhsfrdldnkj, jHQyh yd .=K w;r inkaO;d uYkh

lrhs'

ksmqK;dj ugu 7'4

( fnkaiSkaj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd weiqfrka tys ia:dhS;dj

Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 07 hs'

bf.kq M,

fnkaiSka wdl,k m%;sl%shdj,g jvd wdfoaY m%;sl%shd flfrys olajk keUqrej

W; WodyrK weiqka fmkajd fohs'

khsfrdalrKfha" we,als,alrKfha yd ye,ckSlrKfha hka;%K weiqfrka

fnkaiSkaj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd f,i bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd ia;r

lrhs'
we,aflak" we,alSk yd we,alhsk is lrk m%;sl%shd iu`. fnkaiSka is lrk
m%;sl%shd ii|hs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

fnkaiSkaj, we;s ,sys,a j nekq

bf,lafg%dak j,dj ksid fnkaiSka j,h

fomi wl bf,lafg%dak >k;ajhla we;' f bf,lafg%dak >k;ajh ksid
bf,lafg%d*hs, wdlIKh f' bf,lafg%d*hs,h iu`. wka;l%shd lsfuka
miq ldfndlegdhkhla iEfoa' fuhska fnkaiSkaj,fha bf,lafg%dak W!k;djla
we;s f' pl%Sh j ia:dk.; jQ bf,la
fg%dak j,dj ,nd .ekSug we;s m%jK;dj
ksid H+ bj;a wdfoaY m%;sl%shdjla is f'
fnkaiSkaj, bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd(
khsfrdalrKh id' HNO3 iy id' H2SO4 j,ska ieos khsfrdalrK Y%Kh yuqf oS fnkaik
S j
a ,g
khsfrda ldKavhla wdfoaY khsfrdafnkaiSka ksmo f'
NO 2
id' HNO3/ id' H2SO4
50 0C

fnkaiSkaj,g wod< hka;%K ,sf oS im%hqla; jHqy foflka tlla f.k

hka;%K ,sug fhdod .efka'

113

jryka ;=< we;s im%hqla; jHqy ;=< we;s jl% B;, rys; j ksrEmKh lsug
fhduq lrkak' ^B;, Nd; jkafka tla im%hqla; jHQhlska wfkl ,efnk
wdldrh wjfndaO lr .ekSug muKS'&
*S%,a l%d*a we,als,alrKh
ksc,Sh AlCl3 jeks ia w,hla yuqf oS fnkaiSka" we,als,a fya,hsv iu.
m%;sl%shdf' fuys oS thg we,als,a ldKavhla wdfoaaY f'
R
ksc,Sh' AlCl3/R-Cl

ksc,Sh

ye,ckSlrKh
ye,ck jdylhla we;s g fnkaiSka ye,ck iu. ^Cl2 fyda Br2& m%;sl%shd
lsfuka fnkaiSka j,hg ye,ck ldKavhla wdfoaY f' fuys oS ye,ck
jdylh u.ska ye,ck wKqj O%elrKh lrk neka ye,ck wKqjg
bf,lafg%d*hs,hla f,ig l%shd l< yels f'
Br
ksc,Sh FeBr3/Br2

114

Tlail
s rKh
jeks idudkH Tlaisldrl u.ska fnkaiSka TlaislrKh fkdf'
tfia jqj;a fnkaiSka j,hg we,als,a ldKavhla wdfoaYs; fnkaiSka ixfhda.
u.ska TlaislrKh fnkafidhsla w,h idohs' ^fuu l%shdjg
K2Cr2O7 Nd;d l< yel'

COOH

CH 3

H +/KMnO 4

H + /KMnO 4

m%d:l iy oa;shsl we,alhs,a ldKav TlaislrKh jk ;;a;aj hgf;a ;D;shsl

we,alhs,a ldKav TlaislrKh fkdf'

by< m%;sl%shd ;;a;aj hgf;a ;D;shsl we,alhs,a ldKav TlaislrKh
fnkafidhsla w,h muKla fkdj fjk;a ydhk M, ,nd osh yel'
bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shd
we,alSk myiqfjka bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shdj,g Ndckh jQj;a"
fnkaik
S a j,fha iqfYaIS ia:dhs;dj fya;f
= jka bf,lafg%d*s,l
s wdl,k m%;l
s h
s% d
flfrys t;r keUqre;djla fkdolajhs' kuq;a fks ksl,a W;afma%rlh yuqf
150 0C ys muK fnkaiSka yhsv%cka jdhqj iu. m%;sls%hd lr ihslaf,da
fylafiaka idohs'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

fnkaiSkaj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd fln f oehs fya;= iys;j m%ldY lsug isiqka

fhduq lrkak'
isiqka lKavdh ;=klg fnod my; i|yka tla hka;%Khla ms<sn| ia;r lsulaa

mka;sh bfha is lrkakg mjrkak'

khsfg%dlrKh yd tys hka;%Kh
we,als,alrKh yd tys hka;%Kh

FeX3 yuqf ye,ckSlrK yd tys hka;%Kh

115

ksmqK;dj 7'0

( yhsfv%dldnkj, jHqyh yd .=K w;r inkaO;d uYkh

lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 7'5

( tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSkaj, wdfoaYs; ldKavfha osYdNsuqL

lsrSf yelshdj Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 02 hs'

bf.kq M,

tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSkaj, wdfoaYs; ldKav f;d" merd fyda fugd YdNsuqL

ldKav f,i ykd .kshs'

tal wdfoaYs; fnkaiSkaj,g fojk wdfoaYs; ldKavhla inkaO jk ia:dkh

m<uq wdfoaYs; ldKavfha YdNsuqL lsf .=Kh wkqj m%ldY lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

tla l%shdld ldKavhla wdfoaYs; fnkaiSka" fojk bf,lafg%d*s,sl wdfoaY

m%;sl%shdjlg Ndckh jqjfyd;a" fojk wdfoaYs; ldKavh inkaOjk ia:dkh

;SrKh jkafka m<uq wdfoaYs; ldKavfha .=K wkqjhs'
wdfoaYs; ldKavhla u.ska fnkaiSka j,h fj; uQ,sl wdprK wdldr 2 la we;s

l< yelshs'
fuysoS fojk wdfoaYs; ldKavh inkaO jkqfha m<uq wdfoaYs; ldKavhg

idfmalaIj j,fha f;da iy merd ia:dkj,g k m<uq wdfoaYs; ldKavh

f;d" merd fhduqldrl ldKavhla f,i ykajhs'
f;d" merd fhduqldrl ldKavj,g ksoiqka
H

" ye,ck
CH3

Wod (

CH3

CH3
NO 2

id' HNO3/ id' H2SO4

50 C

NO 2
fnkaiSka j,hg wdfoaYs; bf,lafg%dak wdlYl ldKav u.ska j,h l%Sh

lrhs' f fya;=fjka fojk wdfoaYu is jkafka" m<uq wdfoaY ldKavhg

idfmalaIj j,fha fugd ia:dkfha oS h' tu ksid bf,lafg%dak wdlYl
ldKavhla fugd kshdul ldKav f,ig ykajhs'
fugd kshdul ldKavj,g ksoiqka
-NO2, -CHO, -COR, -COOH, -COR
116

Wod (

NO 2

NO 2
CH3Cl $ ksc,Sh AlCl3

CH 3

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

mka;sfha isiqka lKavdh follg fnokak'
wdfoaY ldKav ,ehsia;=jla oS tla lKavdhulg f;da" merd fhduqldrl ldKavj,g;a"

wfkla lKavdhug fugd fhduqldrl ldKavj,g;a iqfYaIS jQ ,CIK u;= lr

.ekSug fhduq lrkak'

117

ksmqK;dj 8'0

( we,al,
s a fya,hsvj, jHQyh yd .=K w;r inkaO;d uYkh
lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 8'1

( we,als,a fya,hsvj, jHQyh" C - X nkaOkfha O%eh iajNdjh

iy m%;sls%hd uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo
bf.kq M,

( 11 hs'
( we,als,a fya,hsv" m%d:l" oa;Shsl yd ;D;Shsl f,i j.
lrhs'
ksoiqka olajka C - X nkaOkfha O%eh iajNdjh iu.
we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hd
flfrys olajk keUqre;dj inkaO lr olajhs'
we,al,
s a fya,hsv kshl
q ,
a f
s hd*s,l
s wdfoaY m%;l
s h
s% d is lrk
;;a;aj hgf;a oS laf,dafrdfnkaiSka yd sks,a laf,darhs
tu m%;sl%shd fkd oelaug fya;= meyeos,s lrhs'
.S%kd m%;sldrlh ms<sfh, lrk wkaou iy th olajk
m%;sls%hd meyeos,s lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

ixfhda.hl oS h ldnka mrudKqjlg inkaO mj;sk ldnka mrudKq

.Kk wkqj th m%d:l" oa;Sshsl fyda ;D;Shsl jYfhka k flf' ye,cka

mrudKqj ord isk ldnka mrudKqf iajNdjh wkqj we,al,
s a fya,hsv" m%d:l"
oa;Sshsl fyda ;D;Sshsl f,i k flf'
R

H
R

X
m%d:l

H we,al,
s a fya,hsv

C
H

R
X
oa;Sh
s l
s
we,al,
s a fya,hsv

;D;Sh
s l
s
we,al,
s a fya,hsv

we,als,a fya,hsv O%eh ixfhda. f'

we,als,a fya,hsvj, c,fha djH;dj b;d wvq h' fuhg tla fya;=jla jkafka

tajd c,h iu`. yhsrcka nkaOk fkd iEoSuhs'

ldnkaj,g idfmalaI j ye,cka mrudKqf wl oHq;a RK;dj fya;=fjka
C - X nkaOkh O%elrKh f' f fya;f
= jka tu ldnka mrudKqf bf,lafg%dk
a
W!k;djla mj;S' t neka kshqla,sfhd*hs, u`.ska tu ia:dkhg myr fohs'
^ldnka kHIaj,g myr oSug keUqre;djla olajk" Ndial" bf,lafg%dakj,ska
fmdfydi;a m%;sldrl kshqla,sfhd*hs, f,i ykajkak'&
kso(
we,als,a fya,hsvj,g ,dlaIKsl jkafka kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd hs'

fuys oS ldnka mrudKqj kshqla,sfhd*hs,h iu`. kj nkaOkhla idok w;r

ye,cka mrudKqj fya,hsv whkhla f,i bj;a fjhs'
kso(
OH- +
OH + X
118

 kEu kshqla,sfhd*hs,hlg Niauhla f,i o l%shd l< yels h'

t neka
wd,sl yhsrcka mrudKqjla bj;a lrka we,als,a fya,hsvh bj;a f
m%;l
s h
s% djlg ,la lsf yelshdjla o mj;sh's ye,cka mrudKqj inkaO ldnka
u; msys yhsrcka mrudKq wd,sl nka je jqj;a tajd bj;a fuka ia:dhS
M,hla ,nd fkd foa' t neka hdno ldnka mrudKq u; msys u| jYfhka
wd,sl yhsrcka mrudKq bj;a f m%;sl%shd i|yd iyNd.s f'

OH-

H
+

C=C

+ H2O + X-

laf,dafrdfnkaiSka yd ks,a laf,darhs" we,als,a fya,hsv kshqla,fhd*s,sl

wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj,g iyNd.s jk ;;a;aj hgf;a tu m%;sl%shd is fkd lrhs' ta

i|yd fya;= f,i fuu ixfhda.j, oS C - X nkaOkh oa;aj nkaOk iajrEmhla
we;s lr .ekSu;a" ldnka mrudKqj sp2 uqyqlrK wjia:df mj;sk neka
nkaOk os. wvqu;a i|yka lrkak'
we,al,
s a fya,hsv h,s B; udOHfha Mg iu`. m%;l
s h
s% d lr .Sk
s% d m%;l
s drlh
h<s B;r

idohs' RX + Mg
RMgX
RMgX j, nkaOk O%elrKh fya;=fjka ue.akSish yd nekq ldnka m%n,

kshqla,sfhd*hs,hla f,i yd b;d m%n, Niauhla f,i l%shdlrhs' tneka

c,h u`.ska fm%dfgdak odhl lr we,aflak iEoSu je<elau i|yd h<s B;
udOHhla fhdod .efka'
R M gX +H 2 O
X-M g-O H +R H
my; i|yka m%;sl%shd u`.ska .S%skd

m%;sldrlfha m%n, kshqla,sfhda*s,sl

,laIKj,ska fmkakq l< yels h'

RH + Mg ( CH3COO) X
Wod ( RMgX + CH3COOH
RMgX + CH3OH
RH + Mg ( OCH3 ) X
RMgX + RNH2
RH + Mg ( RNH ) X
RMgX + H-C CR RH + MgX(C CR)
R-MgX + NH3 RH + Mg(NH2 )R

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

C 4 H 9 Cl wKql iQ;%h i|yd ;sh yels ish u we,als,a fya,hsvj, jHQy isiqka ,jd
wkaojkak'

taajd m%d:l" oa;Sshsl" ;D;Sshsl jYfhka j. lr oelaug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

tla tla iudjhlh idok .S%kd m%;sldrlh yd tajd w," we,afldfyd, yd wek
yuqf idok M,j, jHQy ,sug fhduq lrkak'

119

ksmqK;dj 8'0

( we,al,
s a fya,hsvj, jHQyh yd .=K w;r inkaO;d uYkh
lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 8'2

( nkaOk we;s u yd nkaOk u is jk ld,dka;rh weiqfrka

we,a l s , a fya , hs v j, ks h q l a , s f hd*s , s l wdfoa Y m% ; s l s % h d
Yaf,aIKh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 04 hs'

bf.kq M,

nkaOk u yd iEoSu tla jr is jk ;ks mshjr m%;sls%hdjla f,i we,als,a

fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hdj ia;r lrhs'

nkaOkh fuka wk;=re j kj nkaOkh iEoSu mshjr follska is jk
m%;sls%hdjla f,i we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhda*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hdj ia;r
lrhs'
;ks mshjrlska fyda mshjr follska is u flfrys we,als,a fya,hsvfha
iajNdjh n,mdk wkaou ia;r lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd meyeos,s lsug nkaOk

|Sf yd nkaOk ieoSf mshjr i|yd .;jk ld,dka;rh ie,ls,a,g .;

yels h'
nkaOkh |Su yd kj nkaOkh iEoSu tl jr is jk fgl we,al,
s a fya,hsvj,
kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj ;ks mshjr m%;sl%shdjla f,i i,lkq ,ef'
f wkqj ;ks mshjr m%;sl%shdj my; wdldrhg bosm;a l< yels h'

OH
OH

nkaOkh |Sfuka wk;=re j kj nkaOkh iEoSu is jk fgl we,als,a

fya,hsvj, kshl
q ,
a f
s hd*s,l
s wdfoaY m%;l
s h
s% dj mshjr follska is jk m%;l
s h
s% djla
f,i i,lkq ,ef'
f wkqj mshjr folska isjk m%;sl%shdj my; wdldrhg bosm;a l< yels h'
1 mshjr

Br

120

Br

2 mshjr
OH

OH

mshjr follska is jk m%;sl%shdj w;rueos ldfndlegdhkhla yryd is f' fuys

oS we;s jk ldfndlegdhkfha ia:dhS;dj ie,lSf oS" jvd;a ia:dhS ;D;Sshsl

ldfndlegdhkhla iEoSug yelshdj we;s ;D;Shsl we,als,a fya,hsv mshjr follska
kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY is lrhs' m%d:l we,als,a fya,hsv ia:dhS w;rueos
ldfndlegdhkhla iEoSug wiu;a neka kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaYh ;ks mshjra
m%;sl%shdjla f,i is lrhs'
oa;shl we,al,
s a fya,hsv l=uk ms<f
s j< wkq.ukh lrkafka o hkak m%;l
s h
s% d udOHfha

iajNdjh yd imhkq ,nk m%;sl%shd ;;a;aj u; ;SrKh f'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

lKavdh ls%hdldrl u.ska we,als,a fya,hsvj, kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaYh mshjr

tllska yd follska jk wdldr meye,s lsug W; wdlD;s ilia lsug isiqka

fhduq lrkak'

121

ksmK
q ;dj 9

Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;r

inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 9'1

we,afldfyd,j, jHQyh" tys ldnka-Tlaiscka nkaOkfha

O%eh iajNdjh" Tlaiscka-yhsrcka nkaOkfha O%eh
iajNdjh iy m%;sl%shd uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

08 hs'

bf.kq M,

we,afldfyd, m%d:l" oa;Sshsl yd ;D;Sshsl we,afldfyd, f,i j.SlrKh

lrhs'
oHq;aRK;d fjki inkaO lr .kska we,afldfyd,j, O - H nkaOkfha
O%eh iajNdjh ia;r lrhs'
we,afldfyd,j, we;s wka;-wKql n, iu`. tajdfha fN!;sl .=K inkaO
lrhs'
we,afldfyd,j, O - H nkaOkh u" C - O nkaOkh u" bj;a u iy
TlaislrK m%;sls%hd jHQyh iu`. inkaO lr olajhs'
we,afldfyd,j, .=K mlaId lr jd;d lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

fudfkdyhsl we,afldfyd," m%d:l" oa;Sshsl yd ;D;Sshsl jYfhka wdldr

;=klg j.SlrKh l< yels h' ^we,als,a fya,hsvj, oS fuks&

R

H
R

OH

m%d:l
we,afldfyd,

OH

oa;Sh
s l
s
we,afldfyd,

OH

;D;Sh
s l
s
we,afldfyd,

fN!;sl .=K

we,afldfyd,j, -OH nkaOkh R - O - -H + f,i O%elrKh f' ta wkqj

we,afldfyd, wKq w;r we;s jk wka;- wKql yhsrcka nkaOk ksid tajdfha
;dmdxl wkqrEm idfmaCI wKql ialkaOh iys; we,aflak yd B;rj,g idfmaCI
j by< w.hka .kshs' we,afldfyd, fYa%Ksfha my<g h;a u ;dmdxlh je
f'
t;fkda,aj, wka;-wKql yhsrcka nkaOk mj;akd wdldrh my; rEmfha
oelaf'
C2H5

C2H3

O
C2H5

122

O
C2H5

we,afldfyd, c,fha djH f' O%eh djlhla jk c,fhys we,afldfyd,j,

jH;djg bjy,a jkafka -OH ldKavh hs' we,afldfyd, wKqf ksO%eh
we,als,a lKavh c,fha jH;djg ndOdjls' we,afldfyd, ioDY fYa%Ksfha
my<g hEf -OH ldKavhg idfmaCI j ksO%eh we,al,
s a ldKavfha Yd,;ajh
l%ufhka je f' ta wkqj c,fhys djH;dj l%ufhka wvq f'

jHjydl kduh

iQ;%h

;dmdxlh$ oC

c,fha jH;dj$g
^c,h 100 g l djH jk
we,afldfyd, ialkaOh&

fu;s,a we,afldfyd,a
t;s,a we,afldfyd,a
n - fm%dmhs,a ""
n - hqghs,a ""
n - fmkaghs,a ""
n - fylaihs,a ""
n - fymaghs,a ""
n - Tlaghs,a ""

CH3OH
CH3CH2OH
CH3CH2CH2OH
CH3(CH2)2CH2OH
CH3(CH2)3CH2OH
CH3(CH2)4CH2OH
CH3(CH2)5CH2OH
CH3(CH2)6CH2OH

64.5
78.3

97
118
123.8
136.5
176
195

7.9
2.3
0.6
0.2
0.05

- kEu wkqmd;hlg Y% f'

O - H nkaOkh f|ka is jk m%;sls%hd

^i& fidah iu`. m%;sls%hdj

R-

+ Na

R - O-Na+ + 1/2 H2

we,afldfyd, n, w,hla f,i yeisfrka fidah iu`. m%;sl%shd fldg

yhsrcka jdhqj msg lrka fidah we,afldlaihs idohs' we,afldlaihs
whkh m%n, kshqla,sfhd*hs,hla yd m%n, Niauhla o f'
^ii&

ldfndlais,sla w, iu. m%;sls%hdj ^we,afldfyd, weis,alrKh&

idka H2SO4

ldfndlais,sla w, iu`. we,afldfyd, m%;sls%hd lr tiagr iEfoa' fuu

tiaglrK m%;sl%shdj i|yd idka H2SO4 w,h W;afma%rlhla f,i ls%hd
lrhs'
we,afldfyd,j,g C-O nkaOkh |Sfuka is jk kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY
m%;sl%shd
^i& we,afldfyd, PCl3 fyda PCl5 fyda iu`. m%;sls%hdfjka we,als,a laf,darhs
,ef'
3R - OH + PCl3
3RCl + H3PO3
R - OH + PCl5
RCl + POCl3 + HCl
123

(ii) we,als,a fya,hsv iu`. m%;sls%hdj

kso HBr
R-OH
R-Br + H2O
we,afldfyd, HBr iu`. m%;sls%hd lr wkqrEm we,als,a fn%dauhsvh ,nd
fohs'
HBr j,ska ,efnk Br- whkh fuys kshqla,sfhda*s,sl m%;sldrlh hs'
HI

R-OH

R-I + H2O

^iii& ZnCl2 yd idka HCl w,h iu. m%;sls%hdj ^lia mCIdj&

fuys oS ZnCl2 W;afm%arlhla f,i l%shd lrhs' M,h f,i ,efnk we,als,a
fya,hsvh ksid m%;sl%shd udOHfha wd,;djla we;sf' wd,;dj we;s ug
.; jk ld,h weiqfrka m%d:l" oa;Shsl yd ;D;Shsl we,als,a fya,hsv
lia m%;sldrlh iu`. is lrk m%;sl%shdf YS>%;dj iei|sh yels h'
c,fha djH m%d:l" oa;Shsl yd ;D;Shsl we,afldfyd,j,g muKla fuu
mlaIdj iSud f'
R/
R - C - OH +

R/

ksc,Sh ZnCl2 /
idka HCl

R - C - Cl + H2O

R//
R//
lia m%;sldrh iu. we,afldfyd,j, m%;sl%shd YSs>%;dj my; oelaf'
;D;Sshsl
we,afldfyd,

>

oa;Shsl
we,afldfyd,

>

m%d:l
we,afldfyd,

imhk ,o ;;a;aj hgf;a by; m%;sl%shdj is jkafka mshjr follsks' tys oS

;D;Shsl we,afldfyd,h jvd;a ia:dhS w;rueoshla idok neka ;D;Shsl
we,afldy,h lia m%;sldrlh yuqf b;d u fl ld,hl oS wd,;djla we;s
lrhs'
we,afldfyd, idka H2SO4 w,h iu`. bj;af m%;sls%hdj;g Ndck
f' ^we,afldfyd, c,kh&
we,afldfyd,hlska c, wKqjla bj;a f m%;s%ls%hdj we,afldfyd,j,
c,kh hs' fuys oS m%;sls%hdf M,h f,i we,alSkhla ,ef'

ksc,Sh Al2O3 $

C
H

C
OH

C= C
fyda idka H2SO4 $

we,afldfyd,

we,alSk

124

we,afldfyd, TlaislrK
TlaislrKfhka ,efnk M,h we,afldfyd,fha m%d:l fyda oa;Sshsl fyda
;D;Sshsl fyda iajNdjh u; r|d mj;S'
i) m%d:l we,afldfyd,
[O]

O
R

[O]

CH2 OH

R
H

C
OH

ldfndlais,sla w,h

ii) oa;Shsl we,afldfyd,

R

CH OH

[O]

O
R

C
R/

lSfgdak

m%d:l yd oa;Sshsl we,afldfyd, TlaislrKh jk ;;a;aj yuqf idudkHfhka

;D;Sshsl we,afldfyd, TlaislrKh fkd f' thg fya;=j jkqfha ;D;Shsl

we,afldfyd,j, Tlaiscka inkaO ldnka u; yhsrcka fkdue;s ksid
ldnka-ldnka nkaOkh |sh hq;= u hs'
we,afldfyd, TlaislrKh H+/KMnO4 fyda H+/K2Cr2O7 fyda H+/CrO3 fyda
iu`. islrkq ,ef' we,ayhsv jvd;a myiqfjka by; m%;sldrl yuqf
;jrg;a TlaislrKh f' t neka tu m%;sldrl fhdod we,ayhsv ,nd
.ekSu myiq ke;' we,ayhsv ,nd .ekSug wjYH fgl ta i|yd msksh
laf,dafrdfl%daf [C5H5NH+CrO3Cl- ] fhdod .; yels h'
m%d:l we,afldfyd, msksh laf,dafrdfl%daf yuqf TlaislrKh
lsf M,h f,i wkqrEm we,ayhsvh ,ef' tys oS th ;j rg;a
ldfndlais,sla w,h olajd TlaislrKh fkd f'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

C4H9OH wKql iQ;%hg ,sh yels ish u we,afldfyd,j, jHQy bm;a lr

tajd m%d:l" oa;Sshsl yd ;D;Sshsl we,afldfyd, f,i j.SlrKh lsug
isiqkag Wmfoia fokak'

we,afldfyd,j, mj;akd wka;-wKql wdlIKj, iajNdjh ykdf.k ta

wkqj ys jk fN!;sl .=K ms<sn| j idlPdjla fufyhjkak'

we,afldfyd,j, jdxl" ;dmdxl yd c,fha djH;dj ms<sn| idlPd lsug

isiqka fhduq lrkak'

we,afldfyd,j, O-H nkaOkh fuka isjk m%;sls%hd" C-O nkaOkh

fuka isjk m%;sls%hd" bj;a f m%;sls%hd yd TlaislrK m%;sl%shd WodyrK

u.ska bm;a lsug yd wdoYkh lr fmkaug isiqkag wjia:dj i,id
fokak'

125

ksmK
q ;dj 9

Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;r

inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 9'2

ldnka-Tlaiscka nkaOkh yd Tlaiscka-yhsrcka

nkaOkh weiqfrka *Sfkda,aj, .=K yd m%;sl%shdj,
iajNdjh ms<sn| j uid n,hs'

ld,fo

bf.kq M,

04 hs'

we,afldfyd,j,g jvd *Sfkd,aj, wd,sl;dj je nj tys jHQyh weiqfrka

u;=lr fmkajhs'
we,afldfyd,j,g idfmalI
a j *Sfkda,j, by< wd,sl;dj yd kshl
q ,
a f
s hd*s,l
s
m%;sls%hd flfrys olajk wvq leue;a; W; m%;sls%hd bm;a lr fmkajd fohs'
*Sfkda,j, .=K mlaId lr jd;d lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

wefrdauel ixfhda.j, fnkaiSka j,fha ldnka mrudKqjlg yhsrcka

mrudKqjla fjkqjg -OH ldKavhla ne we;s ixfhda. *Sfkda, f,i ykajkq

,ef' we,afldfyd, yd *Sfkda, c,Sh djKj, my; olajd we;s f,i
>gkh f'
ROH + H2O F RO- + H3O+
C6H5OH + H2O F C6H5O- + H3O+
*Sfkda, we,afldfyd,j,g idfmalaI j wd,sl nka je h' bka woyia
jkafka by; olajd we;s *Sfkda,ays iu;=,s; ,laIHh jvd;a ol=Kq mig nr j
msysgk nj hs' fuhg fya;=j jkafka *Sfkda,aj,g idfmalaI j *Sfkdlaiaihs
whkfha ia:dhS;dj" we,afldfyd,hg idfmalaI j we,afldlaihs whkfha
ia:dhS;djg jvd je u hs' *Sfkdlaihs whkh jvd;a ia:dhS jkqfha tys we;s
RK wdfrdamKh im%hqla;;dj u`.ska iqrejd yeu fya;=fjks' t jeks
wdfrdamK iqrejd yeula we,afldlaihs whkfha is fkd f'
*Sfkda,j
a , by< wd,sl;dj my; ksoiqka u`.k
s a o ;yjqre f' we,afldfyd,hla

fidah iu. m%;sl%shd l<;a NaOH iu. m%;sls%hd fkdlrhs' kuq;a *Sfkda,a
fidah iu. fukau NaOH iu`. o m%;sl%shd lrhs'
2C6H5OH + 2Na 2C6H5O-Na+ + H2
C6H5OH + NaOH C6H5O-Na+ + H2O
*Sfkda,aj, ldnka mrudKq sp2 uqyqlrK wjia:df mj;sk neka yd fnkaiSka

j,fha
bf,lafg%dak j,dj iu`. Tlaiscka we;s lr .kakd im%hqla;;dj
yg.kakd oa;aj nkaOk iajNdjh ksid *Sfkda,aj, ldnka-Tlaiscka nkaOkh"
we,a f ldfyd,hl ldnka - Tla i s c ka nka O khg jvd fl h' t neka
we,afldfyd, fuka fkdj" *Sfkda, kshl
q ,
a f
s hd*s,l
s wdfoaY m%;l
s h
s% dj,g iyNd.s
fkd f'

126

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

my; mCIKj,g isiqka fhduq lrjkak' *Sfkda,a iaj,amh ne.ska mCId k<j,g

f.k my; oelafjk mlaId is lrkak'

c,h 1 cm3 muK tl;= lr fydka fid,jd thg pH lvodis lene,a,laa

oukak'
fidah yhfrdlaihs djKh 1 cm3 muK tl;= lr fydka fid,jd

fojkqj ;kql HCl w,h 1 cm3 muK tl;= lrkak'

kslaIK igyka lr .kak'
by; mCIKj, ,;a ksCIK wkqj *Sfkda,a ms<sn| j t<eh yels ks.uk

idlPd lrkak'

127

ksmK
q ;dj 9

( Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;r

inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 9'3

( *Sfkda,aj, -OH ldKavh Bg inkaO fnkaiSka j,fhys

m%;sl%sh;dj flfrys we;s lrk n,mEu uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 02 hs'

bf.kq M,

*Sfkda,aj, wdfoaY m%;sl%shdj, oS OH ldKavhg idfmalaI j wdfoaYlh f;d

^2"6& yd merd ^4& ia:dkj,g inkaO jk nj m%ldY lrhs'

*Ssfkd,ayS fnkaiSka j,h" fnkaiSkaj,g idfmalaI j bf,lafg%d*hs, flfrys

jvd;a il%sh nj meyeos,s lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

*Sfkda,aj, Tlaiscka mrudKqj u; jQ tlir bf,lafg%dk hq.,a fnkaiSka

j,fha ia:dk.; u ksid tys j,h b,lafg%d*s,sl m%;sldrl flfrys

fnfyka il%sh we;' *Sfkda,aj, -OH ldKavh f;da" merd fhduqldrl
f' ^OH ldKavh f;da" merd fhduqldrl jkafka ukaoe hs meyeos,s lsu
wkjYH h'&
*Sfkda,aj, bf,lafg%da*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sls%hd fnkaiSkays wkqrEm m%;sl%shdj,g

wdod< ;;a;aj iu`. iei|Sfuka *Sfkda,ays fnkaiSka j,h bf,lafg%d*hs,

flfrys jvd;a il%sh we;s nj meyeos,s f' my; ksoiqka i,lkak'
^i& fn%daka hr iu`. laIKsl j m%;sl%shd lr 2"4"6-g%hsfn%dafuda*Sfkda,a iq
wjlafIamh ,nd foa'
OH

OH
Br

Br

+ 3 Br2

+ 3HBr
Br
2"4"6-g%hsfn%dafud*Sfkda,a

^ii& *Sfkda,a khsfrdlrKh i|yd ;kql HNO3 muKla jqjo m%udKj;a f'
OH

OH

OH

;kql HNO3
20 0C

NO 2
+
NO 2

fhda; bf.kq - b.eka ls%hdldrl (

*Sfkda,a iu. my; mrSlaId is lr ksCIK ,nd.ekSug isiqka fhduq lrkak'

fn%daka hr 1 cm3 la muK mCId k,hlg f.k thg *Sfkda,a iaMlhla
^fyda x folla muK& tl;= lsu'
128

ksmK
q ;dj 9

( Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;r

inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;dj ugu 9'4

( we,ayhsv iy lSfgdakj, m%;sl%shd u.ska fmkakq flfrk

>C=O nkaOkfha O%eh iajNdjh iy wix;Dma; iajNdjh
uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 08 hs'

bf.kq M,

ldnks,a ldKavfha O%eh iajNdjh iy wix;Dma; iajNdjh ksid we,ayhsvj,g

iy lSfgdakj,g ,dlaIKsl jkafka kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shd nj

meyeos,s lrhs'
kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdl,k m%;sl%shdj,g ksoiqka jk m%;sl%shd lsysmhl hka;%K
bosm;a lrhs'
lSfgdakj,g idfmalaI j we,ayhsv b;d myiqfjka TlaislrKh f .=Kh
tajd tlsfkl fjka lr ykd .ekSug fhdod .kshs'
we,ayhsv iy lSfgdakj, .=K mCId lr jd;d lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

we,ayhsv yd lSfgdakj,g HCN wdl,kfha hka;%Kh

fuu m%;sl%shdj is lrkq ,nkafka ldnks,a ixfhda.h yd c,Sh fidah

ihkh djK Y%Khlg ;kql Lksc w,hla tl;= lsfuks'

fuys CN- whkh kshqla,sfhd*hs,h f,i m%;sls%hd lrhs'

OH

O
R

HCN

R
H
H

R
O-

O
C

CN

CN

OH
H H

CH 3

H
H

CN -

CN
ihfkdyhsk
% a
Cyanohydrin

.S%kd m%;sldrlh ^RMgX& iu. m%;sls%hdf hka;%Kh

OH

O
CH 3

(i) RMgBr h<s B;r

C
CH 3

OMgBr
CH3

CH 3
R - MgBr

CH3

O
CH3

CH3

^ii& H+/H2O

129

CH3

OH
H+/H2O

CH3

C
R

CH3

 f% m%;sldrlh ^2"4-DNP) iu`. m%;sl%shdf hka;%Kh

(i)

kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdl,kh

..

..
NH - NH2

R
C =O +

NO 2

lSfgdak
(ii)

NO 2

OH

NO 2

NO 2

2"4-vhskhsfrd*Skhs,ayhsriska
^2"4-DNP&

c,kh
by; w;rueos M,h iEKq .i u c,kh wjika M,h jk
2"4-vhskhsfrd*Skhs,ayhsrfidak ,ef'
NO 2

OH
R

C = N NH

NO 2

NO 2

NO 2
2"4-vhskhsfrd*Skhs,y
a hsrfidak
^;o ly fyda ;e,s mdg wjlafIamhla&

fuu m%;s%ls%hdj we,ayhsv iy lSfgdak fjk;a ixfhda.j,ska fjka lr ykd

.ekSf mlaIdjla f,i fhdod .efka'
Tlaiy
s rKh
(i) LiAlH4 fyda NaBH4 u.ska

TlaisyrKh
fuys oS we,ayhsv yd lSfgdak we,afldfyd, njg TlaisyrKh f'
(i) LiAlH4/h<s

C=O
(ii) H2O/ H

R
R
C=O

B;r

C
R

NaBH4 /fu;fkda,a

H
R

R
(ii)

OH

OH

u.ska TlaisyrKh ^laf,ukaika TlaisyrKh&

fuys we,ayhsv iy lSfgdak wkqrEm yhsfrdldnk njg TlaisyrKh
l< yels h'

Zn(Hg) $id'HCl

R
C=O

Zn(Hg) $id'HCl

C
H

130

 we,ayhsv TlaislrKh

^i& fgd,ka m%;sldrlh u.ska TlaislrKh

c,Sh is,j
a khsf djKhlg ;kql fidah yhsfrdlaihs x lsym
s hla
tla lsfuka ,efnk is,aj yhsfrdlaihs wjlafCIamhg ;kql wefudaksh
yhsfrdlaihs tla lsfuka fgd,ka m%;sldrlh- [ Ag (NH3) 2]+ idokq ,nhs'
O

R
+

C = O + 2[ Ag (NH3) 2] + 3OH

+ 2Ag + 4NH3 + 2H2O

O oS
legm;

fgd,ka m%;sldrlh u.ska TlaislrKh fyj;a legm;a mlaIdj we,ayhsv

yd lSfgdak tlsfklska fjka lr ykd .ekSu i|yd fhdod .efka'
^ii& f*a,sx djKh u`.ska TlaislrKh
Ndial lshqmala gdgf djKhla f*a,sx m%;sldrlh f,i ye|skaf' fuh
;o ks,a meye;s c,Sh djKhls' we,ayhsvhlska ka lsym
s hla fuu m%;l
s drlhg
tl;= lr r;a lsf oS djKfha ks,a meyeh l%ufhka ke;s .fvd,a r;= mdg
lshqmaria Tlaihs wjfCIamh we;s f'
O

R
C = O + f*a,sx djKh

Cu 2O

+R

.fvd,a r;=
wjfCIamh

+ 3H2O

f*a,sx djKh u`.ska o we,ayhsv yd lSfgdak tlsfkl fjkalr ykd.; yels h'
(iii)

wd,sl fmdgeish vhsfl%df ke;fyd;a wd,sl fyda Ndial fmdgEish

m'uex.fka hk Tlaisldrl u`.ska we,ayhsv ldfndlais,sla w, njg
TlaislrKh f'
R
C=O

H+/KMnO4

O
R

+ Mn2+

C
OH

H
R
C=O

H+/K2Cr2O7

O
R

+ Cr3+

C
OH

we,ayhsv yuqf H+/KMnO4 djKfha o meyeh wjK f' H+/K2Cr2O7 jKfha

;e,s meyeh fld< meyehg yef' fuu m%;sldrl u`.ska o we,ayhsv yd
lSfgdak tlsfklska fjka lr ykd.; yels h'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

O we,ayhsv yd lSfgdak isiq lKavdhj,g mjrd tajd Ih ksfoaYfha

i|yka m%;sldrl iu. m%;sl%shd lr idok ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQy ,shd

oelaug fhduq lrkak'
we,ayhsv TlaislrKh jk ;;a;aj yuqf lSfgdak TlaislrKh fkdjk nj
ixikaokd;aul j fmkajd fokak'
we,ayhsv iy lSfgdak tlsfkl fjka lr ykd .ekSf mCId is lrkak'
131

ksmK
q ;dj 9

( Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;r

inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 9'5

( iajhx ix>kk m%;sls% hd u.ska fmkakq flfrk mrs

we,ayhsv yd lSfgdakj,
.ksh's

ld,fo

bf.kq M,

ia:dkfhys m%;sls%h;dj ykd

04 hs'

ldnks,a ixfhda.j,

ia:dkfha m%;sls%hdYS,s;ajh W; WodyrK weiqfrka

fmkajd fohs'
fidah yhsfrdlaihs" weisge,ayhs yd weisfgdaka islrk ix>kk
m%;sls%hd bm;a lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

we,ayhsv yd lSfgdakj, C = O ldKavfha O%elrKh ksid thg hdno
ldnka mrudKqj, we;s C - H nkaOk n, f,i O%elrKh fjhs' tksid tu

yhsrcka mrudKq n, wd,sl iajNdjhla w;alr .kshs' ta wkqj laIdr yuqf

we,a*d yhsrcka bj; ldwekdhk iEug keUqre f'
H

>

+ OH- R

>

+ H2O

>

>

by; ldwekdhkh" whkSlrKh fkdjQ we,ayhsv wKqjl ldnks,a ldnka

mrudKqjg kshqla,sfhd*hs,hla f,i myr fohs' ta wkqj
yhsrcka iys;
we,ayhsv yd lSfgdak iajhx ix>kk m%;sl%shdjg Ndck f'
ksoiqkweisge,ayhs c,Sh NaOH yuqf m%;sls%hdj

.. '

HO
.. '

C = O

C = O + H2 O

H
O-

H
O
CH 3

CH2

C =O

CH3

CH

H
CH2

C = O

H
OCH3

CH

OH

H
CH2

CH3

C = O + H2O

CH

H
CH2

we,afvda,a
132

C = O + OH

by; oS ,enqKq wdl,k M, myiqfj

weisfgdaka ix>kkh

2CH3

CH 3

OH

CH 3

NaOH(aq)

CH3

C = O

CH2

C = O

CH 3

by; oS ,o wdl,k M, myiqfjka c,khg ,la f'

ksoiqka (OH

H
H $
+

CH3

CH

CH2

OH
CH3

CH 3
CH2

CH3

C = O

CH

CH

C = O

CH3

H+ $

CH3

C = O

+ H2O

CH 3

C = O + H2O

CH

CH3

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

yhsrcka we;s we,ayhsv iy lSfgdak my; tajdhska f;aug isiqka fhduq

lrkak' ta wkqj iajhx ix>kkhg iyNd.sjk we,ayhsv iy lSfgdak fudkjd
oehs f;aug;a" ix>kk M, ,shd oelaug;a isiqka fhduq lrkak'
H

CH3 C

C = O ,

CH3 CH2

H
C = O,

CH3 H
CH3

C = O ,

CH3

CH 3

C = O,

C = O ,

133

C = O,

CH3 CH2

ksmK
q ;dj 9

( Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;r

inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 9'6

( Tlaic
s ka wvx.= fjk;a ldnksl ixfhda. iu`. ldfndlai,
s l
s a
w,j, jHQyh iy .=K ixikaokh lrhs'

ld,fo

bf.kq M,

06 hs'

ldfndlais,sla w,j, jHQyh wkqj mj;sk wka;-wKql nkaOk yd tajdfha

fN!;sl .=K w;r we;s inkaO;d bm;a lrhs'

ldfndlais,sla ldKavfha ^-COOH& m%;sls%hd rgdj ldfndks,a ixfhda.j,
C Oiy *Ssfkda,a iy we,afldfyd,j, -OH ldKavh iu`. ixikaokh lrhs'
Na, NaOH, NaHCO3 iy Na2CO3 iu`. olajk m%;sl%shd weiqfrka ldfndlais,sla
w," we,afldfyd, iy *sfkda,aj, wd,sl .=K ixikaokh lrhs'"
O-H nkaOkh iy C-O nkaOkh u is jk m%;sls%hd i|yd WodyrK bm;a
lrhs'
ldfndlais,sla w,j, .=K yd m%;sl%shd mlaId lr jd;d lrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

ldfndlai,
s l
s a w,j, lsh
% dld ldKavh ldfndlai,
s a ldKavh f' ldfndlai,
s a

ldKavfhys ldnks,a ldKavhl=;a tu ldnka mrudKqjg inkaO jQ yhsfrdlai,

s a
ldKavhl=;a we;'
R

ldfndlais,a ldKavh O%eh ls%hdld ldKavhla f' C = O yd O - H ldKavj,

O%elrKh fya;=fjka wka;-wKql yhsrcka nkaOk idohs' iudk idfmaCI

wKql ialkaO iys; we,ayhsvj,g yd lSfgdakj,g idfmaCI j ldfndlais,sla
w,j, ;dmdxl by< f'
ldfndlais,sla w, wKq hq.,a f,i yhsrcka nkaOkj,ska ne oawjhjl
iEf yelshdj o ldfndlais,sla w,j, ;dmdxl by< w.hla .ekSug fya;=
f' ldfndlais,sla w, oawjhjl jHQy f,i yhsrcka nkaOkj,ska ne
mj;sk wdldrh my; rEmfha oelaf'

134

 ldfndlais,sla w,j, m%;sl%shd

O - H nkaOkh fuka isjk m%;sls%hd
R - COO Na+ + 1/2 H2
RCOO Na+ + H2O
RCOO Na+ + CO2 + H2O

RCOOH + Na
RCOOH + NaOH
RCOOH + NaHCO3

we,afldfyd," *Sfkda, yd ldfndlais,sla w, fidah" fidah

yhsfrdlaihs yd fidah nhsldnfka iu`. olajk m%;sl%shd
ixikaokd;aul j my; j.=f oelaf'
ixfhda.h

iu`.

m%;sls%hd lr
m%;sls%hd lr
fidah *Sfka
fidah *Sfka
idoka H2 msg lrhs' idoka NaOH
djKh ;=< h f'

OH

m%;sls%hd lr

m%;sls%hd lr

RCOO Na +
idoka H2 msg lrhs'

C
O -H

NaHCO3

djKh iu`.

m%;sls%hd lr
R -O Na+ idoka H2 m%;sl%shdjla ke;'
msg lrhs'

R - OH

NaOH djKh

Na f,dayh iu`.

m%;sls%hdjla
ke;'
m%;sls%hdjla
ke;'

m%;sls%hd lr

RCOO Na
idoka NaOH

RCOO Na +
idoka CO2

djKh ;=< h f'

jdhqj uqod yhs'

by; ixfhda. NaHCO3 iu`. m%;sl%shd lrk

wdldrhgu Na2CO3 iu`. o

m%;sls%hd lrhs'
we,afldfyd," *Sfkda, yd ldfndlai,
s l
s a w,j, wd,sl m%n,;d my; i|yka
m p,kh f'

we,afldfyd, < *Sfkda, < ldfndlais,sla w,

ldfndlais,sla w, c,Sh djKhl oS my; iu;=,s;;djg t<ef'
O

O
R

OH

+ H+

by; iu;=,s;fha iu;=,s;;d ,laIHh *Sfkda, we;s lr .kakd wkqrEm

iu;=,s;;djg idfmalaI j jvd;a ol=Kq mig nr j msysghs' fuhg fya;=j
jkafka ldfndlai,
s l
s a w,j,g idfmalI
a j ldfndlaif
s ,a whkfha ia:dhS;dj"
*S f kda , a j ,g idfma l a I j *S f ka whkfha ia : dhS ; djg jvd jeuhs '
ldfndlaisf,a whkh my; oelafjk jHQyj, im%hqla; uqyquls'
O

O
R

C
O

C
O

135

ldfndlais,sla whkh jvd;a ia:dhS jkqfha tys im%hqla; jHQy *Sfka whkfha
im%hqla;j,g jvd ia:dhS jk neks' fuu ia:dhS;djg fya;=jkqfha ldfndlaisf,a
whkfha im%hqla; jHqyj, RK wdfrdamKh by< oHq;a RK;djlska hq;= Tlaiscka
mrudKq u; mej;Suhs'
C - O nkaOkh fuka isjk m%;sls%hd
PCl3/ PCl5 iu`.

OH

PCl3

Cl

OH

+ H3PO3

Cl

C
PCl5

+ POCl3 + HCl

we,afldfyd, iu`.
O
CH3

C
OH

+ C2H5OH

H+

O
CH3

+ H2O

C
O-C 2H 5

ldfndlais,sla w, LiAlH4 u`.ska TlaisyrKh

ldfndlais,sla w, b;d m%n, Tlaisydrlhla jk LiAlH4 u.ska TlaisyrKfhka

we,afldfyd, ,nd fok w;r NaBH4 u`.ska TlaisyrKh fkdf'
O
CH3 CH2

LiAlH4

CH3

CH2 CH2

OH

O-H

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

ldfndlais,sla ldKavfha nkaOk iajNdjh meye,s lr t u.ska ldfndlais,sla

w,j, fN!;sl .=K wkdjrKh lsu i|yd idlPdjla fufyhjkak'

136

ksmK
q ;dj 9

( Tlaiscka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHqyh yd .=K w;r

inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 9'7

( w, jHq;amkakj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

bf.kq M,

03 hs'

w, jHq;amkakj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd jkafka kshqla,sfhd*s,sl wdfoaY m%;sl%shd

nj m%ldY lrhs'
w, laf,darhsvj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd i|yd ksoiqka ,shd olajhs'
tiagrj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sls%hd i|yd ksoiqka ,shd olajhs'
tauhsvj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd i|yd ksoiqka ,shd olajhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la

w, laf,darhsj, m%;sls%hd
^i& fidah yhsfrdlaihs iu`. m%;sls%hdj
w, laf,darhs NaOH iu`. m%;sl%shd jQ g wkqrEm ldfndlais,sla w,h
iEfoa' fuh m%;sl%shd udOHfha oS ldfndlaisf,a ,jkh jYfhka mj;S'
O
R

NaOH

O
R

NaOH

OH

Cl

O Na+

m%;sl%shdf hka;%Kh
OO
R

NaOH

O
R

Cl

OH

Cl
-OH

+ Cl-

OH-

OH

O
C

O-

^ii& c,h iu`. m%;sls%hdj

w, laf,darhs c,h iu`. m%;sl%shdlr wkqrEm ldfndlais,sla w,h idohs'

O
R

H 2O

Cl

OH

^iii& m%d:l wek iu. m%;sls%hdj

H

O
R

+ H

Cl

137

^iv& we,afldfyd, iu`. m%;sl%shdj

w, laf,darhsv" we,afldfyd, iu`. m%;sl%shd lr tiagr idohs'

O

O
R

+ C2H5-OH

Cl

O-C 2H 5

^v& *Sfkda,a iu`. m%;sl%shdj

OH
O
+
R C
Cl

O
C

NH3 iu`. m%;sl%shdj

w, laf,darhsv" wefudakshd iu`. m%;sls%hdlr tauhsv idohs'

^vi &

O
NH 3

Cl

tauhsv

NH 2

tiagrj, m%;sls%hd
^i& tiagr ;kql w, u.ska c,fokh wkqrEm ldfndlais,sla w,h iy
we,afldfyd,h ,nd fohs'
O
R

H20

O
R

+ C2H5OH

OC 2H 5

OH

^ii& tiagr c,Sh NaOH iu`. m%;l

s h
%s d jQ g we,afldfyd,h iy wkqrEm ldfndlai,
s l
s a

w,fha fidah ,jKh idohs'

O
R

O
NaOH

OC 2H 5

CH 3

+ C2H5OH
O Na +
-

tauhsvj, m%;sls%hdj
^i& NaOH iu`.
tauhsv c,Sh NaOH djKhla iu`. WKqiq l<g NH3 msg lrka wkqrEm
ldfndlais,sla w,fha fidah ,jKh idohs'
O
R

c,Sh

NaOH

NH 2

O
R

+ NH3
O Na+

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

w, laf,darhsv" tiagr yd tauhsvj, ,dlaIKsl m%;sl%shd isiq lKavdhj,g

mjrd tajd wOHhkh lsug fhduq lrkak'

138

ksmK
q ;dj 10

( khsrcka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;r

inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;dj ugu 10'1

( ,dlaIKsl m%;l
s h
%s d iy .=K weiqrk
s a wek iy weks,k
S a ms<n
s |
Yaf,aIKfha fhfohs'

ld,fo

( 06 hs'

bf.kq M,

we,als,a wekj, m%fNao ykd .kshs'

m%d:l wekj, m%;sls%hd yodrhs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

wefudakshdj, yhsrcka mrudKq fjkqjg we,als,a fyda we,a ldKav inkaO

we;s ixfhda. wek jYfhkaa ye|skah yels h' wek" m%d:l" oa;Shsl yd
;D;Shsl jYfhka j. lrkq ,ef' we,als,a fya,hsv yd we,afldfyd, fuka
fkdj" wek j.SlrKh flfrkqfha khsrcka mrudKqjg inkaO we;s
we,als,a fyda we,a ldKav ixLHdj wkqjhs' wefudakshdj, yhsrcka mrudKq
;=fkka tlla fjkqjg we,als,a fyda we,a ldKavhla inkaO we;s ixfhda.
m%d:l wek f,i ye|skf
a ' wefudakh
s dj, yhsrcka mrudKq folla fjkqjg
we,als,a fyda we,a ldKav folla inkaO we;s ixfhda. oa;sShsl wek
f,i o yhsrcka mrudKq ;=k fjkqjg we,als,a fyda we,a ldKav ;=kla
inkaO we;s ixfhda. ;D;Shsl wek f,i o ye|skaf'
ksoiqka (
CH3NH2
CH3 N CH3
CH3 N CH3
CH3

H
m%d:l wek

oa;Shsl wek

;D;Shsl wek

khsrcka mrudKqjg wju jYfhka tla we,a ldKavhlaj;a inkaO we;s

ixfhda. we,a wek f,i ye|skaf'
NH2
weks,k
S a

wekj, khsrcka mrudKqj u; we;s tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.auh fya;=fldg

f.k wek kshqla,sfhda*hs, f,i l%shd lrhs' m%d:l wek kshqla,sfhd*hs,

f,i O m%;sldrl iu`. olajk m%;s%lshd lsysmhla my; oelaf'
i& w, laf,darhsv iu`.
O
R

NH2 + R/

R/

COCl

NH

ii& we,ayhsv yd lSfgdak iu.

O
R

NH2

+ R/

C
139

R/
R

H + H2O

by; oelafjk m%;sl%shdj f% m%;sldrlh iu`. we,ayhsv yd lSfgdak

olajk m%;sl%shdjg wkqrEm f'
(iii& we,alhs,a fya,hsv iu`.

fufia iEfok oa;Shsl wek we,als,a fya,hsv iu`. m%;sl%shd lrka

;D;Shsl wek yd pd;=:; we,als,a wefudaksh ,jK ,nd fohs'

f wkqj by; m%;sl%shdf oS M, Y%Khla ,ef'

^khsria w,& iu`.

(iv)
R-NH2

we,als,a
vhfidaksh
laf,darhs

we,als,a vhfidaksh laf,darhs wia:dhS neka we,afldfyd,h

njg myiqfjka m;af'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

fok ,o wKql iQ;%hla i|yd mej;sh yels we,als,a wekj, jHQy bm;a

lsug isiqkag mjrkak'

m%d:l wekj, m%;sls%hd idlPd lrkak'

140

ksmK
q ;dj 10

( khsrcka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;r

inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 10'2

( fjk;a ldnksl ixfhda. iu`. wekj, Ndial;dj ii|hs'

ld,fo

( 05 hs'

bf.kq M,

we,s*el wekj, iy weks,Skaj, Ndial;dj ii|hs'

tauhsvj, iy wekj, Ndial;dj ii|hs'

Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (

;kql LKsc w, u`.ska wek tajdfha ,jK njg mj;kh lrhs' fuu

,jK c,Sh yhsfrdlais,a whk iu`. m%;sl%shd lr kej;;a wekh ksoyia f'
t neka wek c,hg jvd Ndial jk w;r" yhsfrdlais,a whkhg jvd wvq
Ndial;djlska hqla; nj meyeos,s f'
RNH 2 +H 3 O +
RNH 3 + +H 2 O
RNH 3 + +OH -
RNH 2 +H 2 O
wek" we,afldfyd,j,g jvd Ndial f'

R-OH + H+ ROH2+ we,als,a Tlafidaksh whkh

R-NH2 + H+ RNH3+ we,als,a wefudaksh whkh
Tlaisckaj,g jvd khsrckays oHq;aRK;dj wvq neka tlir bf,lafg%dak
hq.,la m%odkh lsug je keUqrejla olajhs' t k wekhlg idfmalaI j
we,al,
s a wefudakh
s whkfha ia:dhS;dj" we,afldfyd,hlg idfmalI
a j we,al,
s a
Tla f ida k s h whkfha ia : dhS ; djg jvd je h' fuhg fya ; = j jkq f ha
oHq;aRK;dfjka wvq mrudKqjlg Ok wdfrdamKhla jvd myiqfjka oeh
yelsu hs'
weks,Skaj,g jvd m%d:l we,s*el wekj, Ndial;dj je h'

weks,Skays khsrcka u; jQ tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.,h im%hqla;;dj u`.ska

wefrdauel j,h iu`. ia:dk.; we;s neka fm%dafgdakhlg ,nd oSu
myiqfjka is fkdu weks,Skaj, wvq Ndial;djg fya;=f'

141

 wekj,g jvd weuhsvj, Ndial;dj wvq h' ukaoh;a" weuhsv ldKavfha

khsrcka u; we;s bf,lafg%dk

a hq., im%hl
q ;
a ;dj u`.k
s a ldfndkhs,a ldKavh
iu`. ia:dk.; mej;Suhs'

O-

O
R C

R C
NH2

N+H2

Tlaic
s kaj, wl oHq;R
a K;dj ksid wefrdauel wekj,g o jvd weuhsvj,
Ndial;dj wvq h'

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

we,afldfyd," wek" weks,Ska yd weuhsvj, Tlaiscka yd khsrcka mrudKqj, u;

we;s tlir bf,lafg%dk

a hq.u
a odhl lsug we;s yelshdj wkqidrfhka tu ixfhda.j,
Ndial;dj ixikaokd;aul j meyeos,s lrkak'

142

ksmK
q ;dj 10

( khsrcka wvx.= ldnksl ixfhda.j, jHQyh yd .=K w;r

inkaO;d uYkh lrhs'

ksmqK;d ugu 10'3

( vhfidaksh ,jKj, m%;sl%shd uYkh lrhs'

ld,fo

( 05 hs'

bf.kq M,
(
vhfidaksh ,jKh ksmojd .kakd wdldrh ia;r lrhs'
vhfidaksh ldKavh c,h" H3PO2, CuCl, CuCN, CuBr yd KI iu`. islrk
m%;sia:dmk m%;sls%hd ,shd olajhs'
vhfidaksh ,jKh bf,lafrd*hs,hla f,i yeisfrk m%;sls%hd i|yd
ksoiqka ,shd olajhs'
Ih lreKq meyeos,s lr oSug w;aje,la (
weks,Ska khsria w,h iu`. m%;sl%shd lr *Sfkda,a ,nd foa'
OH

NH2
NaNO2 /HCl

+ N2 + HCl

wefrdauel vhfidaksh ,jKh we,s*el vhfidaksh ,jKhg jvd ia:dhS

f'
t neka fuu m%;l
s h
s% dj my< WIaK;ajhkays oS is l< g wefrdauel vhfidakh
s
,jKh *Sfkda,h njg m;au j<ld,sh yels h'
NH2
NaNO2 /HCl
(0 - 5) 0C

vhfidaksh ldKavh is lrk m%;sia:dmk m%;sl%shd

- c,h iu`.
OH
H2O/

- CuCl iu`.

+ N2 + HCl
Cl

CuCl/ HCl

- CuBr iu`.

N +2 Cl -

+ N2
Br

CuBr/HBr

143

+ N2

- KI iu`.
KI

+ N2

- CuCN iu`.

CN
CuCN/KCN

+ N2

- yhsfmdfmdiamria w,h iu`.

H3PO2

+ N2 + H3PO3 + H+

H2 O

vhfidaksh ,jKh bf,lafg%d*hs,hla f,i m%;sls%hd lrkq ,nk

m%;sls%hd
vhfidaksh ,jKh *Sfkda,a iu`. r;= jKhlska hqla; jk ixfhda.hla
o -kemaf;da,a iu`. ;e,s jKhlska hqla; ixfhda.hla o ,nd foa'
OH
/ NaOH
N=N

HO

r;=
OH
/ NaOH

HO
N=N

;e,s

fhda; bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl (

wek" we,afldfyd," weks,Ska yd weuhsvj, ir, jHQy we|Sug isiqkag Wmfoia

fokak'
tu ixfhda.j, khsrcka mrudKq i;= tlir bf,lafg%dak hq.au odhl lsug we;s

yelshdj wkqidrfhka f ixfhda.j, Ndial;dj ixikaokd;aul j meyeos,s lrkak'

144

mdi, mok lr.;a ;lafiarelrKh - ye|skau

bf.kqu-b.ekau iy we.hSu wOHdmk l%shdj,sfha jeo.;a ixrpl ;=kla nj;a bf.kqfuys
iy b.ekafuys m%.;sh oek.ekSu msKsi we.hSu fhdod .;hq;= nj;a iEu .=rejrhl= iska
u o; hq;= meyeos,s lreKls' tajd wfkHdakH n,mEfuka hq;= j l%shd lrk nj;a tfiau
tlsfkflys ixjOkh flfrys tu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a tfia u tlsfkflys ixjOkh
flfrys tu ixrpl n,mdk nj;a .=rejre oks;s' ika;;sl ^ksrka;rfhka isjk& we.hS
uq,Ou wkqj we.hSu ish hq;af;a bf.kSu yd b.ekau flfrk w;r;=r oSh' fuh
bf.kq-b.eka l%shdj,sh wdrNfha oS fyda ueo oS fyda w. oS fyda hk kEu wjia:djl
oS ish yels nj f;are .ekSu .=rejrhl=g wjYH h' tf,i ;u isiqkaf.a bf.kq m%.;sh
we.hSug wfmalaId lrk .=rejrhl= bf.kqu" b.ekau iy we.hSu ms<sn| ixOdkd;aul
ie,eiaula fhdod.; hq;= fjhs'
mdi, mok lr.;a we.hS jevms<sfj, yq Nd. l%uhla fyda mlaIK meje;aula fyda
fkdf' th ykajkq ,nkafka isiqkaf.a bf.kSu;a" .=rejrekaf.a b.ekau;a je oshqKq
lsu i|yd fhdod.kq ,nk ueosy;a ula jYfhks' fuh isiqkag mm j iska Tjqkaf.a
m%n,;d iy n,;d ykdf.k tajdg ms<sh fhdoka isiqkaf.a Wmu jOkh <d lr
.ekSug fhdod.; yels jevms<sfj,ls'
bf.kq-b.eka l%shdldrl ;=<ska wkdjrK l%shdj,shlg isiqka fhduq flfrk w;r"
.=rejrhd isik
q a w;r .ejfika Tjqka bgqlrk ldh kslaIKh lrka udf.damfoaYl;ajh
imhka lghq;= lsu mdi, mok lr.;a we.hS jevms<f
s j, l%h
s d;aul lsf oS wfmalI
a d
flf' fuys oS YsIHhd ksr;=re j we.hSug ,lah hq;= w;r" YsIH yelshd ixjOkh
wfmalaIs; wkaoka isjkafka oehs .=rejrhd iska ;yjqre lrkq ,eh hq;= fjhs'
bf.kSu iy b.ekau u.ska ish hq;af;a isiqkag ksis w;aoelS ,nd foka tajd isiqka
iska ksis mos w;am;a lr f.k ;sf oehs ;yjqre lr .ekSu h' ta i|yd ksis udf.damfoaYh
iemhSu h' we.hSf ^;lafiare lsf& fhoS isk .=rejrekag ;u isiqka i|yd fohdldrhl
udf.damfoaYl;ajh ,nd osh yels h' tu udf.damfoaY fmdf ykajkafka m%;sfmdaIKh
^Feedback& yd bos fmdaIKh ^Feed Forward& hkqfjks' isiqkaf.a n,;d yd fkdyelshd
wkdjrKh lr.;a g Tjqkaf.a bf.kq .eg u.yrjd .ekSug m%;sfmdaIKh;a isiq
yelshd iy m%n,;d ykd .;a g tu olaI;d je oshqKq lsug bos fmdaIKh;a ,nd oSu
.=re ldhh fjhs'
bf.kq-b.ekak
q l%h
s dj,sfhaa id:l;ajh i|yd mdGud,df wruqKq w;frka ljr wruqKq
ljr ugka idlaid;a l< yels jQfha oehs ykd .ekSu isiqkag wjYH fjhs' we.hS
jevms<f
s j, Tiafia isik
q a <.d lr .;a m%K;d ug ksYp
a h lsu f wkqj .=rejrekaf.ka
n,dfmdfrd;a;= jk w;r isiqka yd foumshka we;= fjk;a wod< mdYjj,g isiq m%.;sh
ms<sn| f;dr;=re ikaksfokh lsug .=rejreka fhduqh hq;= h' f i|yd fhdod.; yels
fyd| u l%uh jkafka ika;;sl j isiqka we.hSug md;% lsug bv m%ia:d i,ik mdi,
mok lr.;a we.hS l%uhhs'
hf:dala; wruqK iys; j l%shd lrk .=rejreka iska ;u b.ekakq l%shdj,sh;a isiqkaf.a
x

145

bf.kq l%shdj,sh;a jvd;a ldhlaIu lsu msKsi jvd fyd| ldhlaIu;dfjka hqla;
bf.kq" b.ekakq iy we.hS l%u fhdod .; hq;= fjhs' f inkaOfhka isiqkag iy
.=rejrekag fhdod .; yels m%fY ms<sn| m%fNao lsysmhla u;= oelafjhs' fjd fndfyda
l,l isg .=rejreka fj; Nd. fomd;fka;=j iska o cd;sl wOHdmk wdh;kh iska
o f;dr;=re imdokh lrk ,o l%ufo fjhs' tfyhska tajd inkaOfhka mdi,a moaO;sfha
.=rejreka fyd|ska oekqj;a we;ehs wfmalaId flf' tu m%fNao fufiah(
01' mejre
02' jHdmD;s
03' ilaIK
04' .fIK
05' kslaIK
06' m%oYk$ bosm;a lsu
07' lafIa;% pdld
08' fl ,s; mlaIK
09' jHQy.; rpkd
10' jD; .%ka: mlaIK
11' ksudKd;aul l%shdldrl
12' Y%jK mlaIK
13' m%dfhda.sl l%shdldrl
14' l:kh
15' iaj ksudK
16' lKavdh l%shdldr
17' ixl,am is;shu
18' oa;aj ck,
19' ;a;s mqj;am;a
20' m%Yak pdrd;aul jevigyka
21' m%Yak yd ms<s;=re fmd;a
22' jdo
23' idlPd uKav,
24' iuka;K
%
25' laIKsl l:d
26' N+ld rx.k
ykajd oS we;s fuu bf.kq" b.ekakq iy we.hS l%u iEu tllau iEu Ihhla
inkaOfhka ieu Ihh tallhgu fhdod .; hq;= hehs wfmalaId fkdflfrhs' ;u
Ihhg" Ih tallhg .e<fmk m%fNaohla f;dard .ekSug .=rejreka oekqj;a h hq;=h; j.
n,d .; hq;= h'
fuu .=re udf.damfoaY ix.%yj, .=rejrekag ;u isiqkaf.a bf.kq m%.;sh ;lafiare lsu
i|yd fhdod .; yels bf.kq-b.ekakq yd we.hS m%fNao ms<sn| i|ykla ;sf' tajd
.=rejreka iska iqiq mos ;u mka;sfha isiqkaf.a m%.;sh ;lafiare lsu msKsi fhdod .;
hq;= fjhs' tajd Nd; fkdfldg u. yeu isiqkag ;u Ydia;%sh yelshd fuka u wdfoksl
.;s ,laIK;a ufkdapd,l olaI;d;a ms<sn| jOkhla <.d lr .ekSu;a m%oYkh lsu;a
ms<sn| wvqmdvq we;s lrjhs'

xi 146

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jdrh 1" WmlrKh 01

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fyda

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5'0 WmlrKfha wruqKq

1'0 we.hS wjia:dj

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b.ekau i|yd yqrej ,nd u'
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wjfndaOh yd Nd;h by< kexu'

jdrh 1" WmlrKh 03

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1'6

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147

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jdrh 1" WmlrKh 04

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1'0 we.hS wjia:dj

jdrh 1" WmlrKh 05

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wod< ksh; fhdod .kska rdidhksl
.Kkhka is lssu'
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lsu
(

jdrh 2 WmlrKh 01

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m%Yak pdrd;aul jevigyk

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( mod:fha wjia:d ms<sn|j yd fYaIfhka u

jdhq ms<sn| oekqu yd wjfndaOh je hqKq
lsu'
wNsfhda.d;aul m%Yak ilia lsf l=i,;d
,nd u'
m%Yak pdrd;aul jevigykla fufyhf
yelshdj ixjOkh lsu'

148

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( jdrh 2" WmlrKh 02

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1'0 we.hS wjia:dj

( jdrh 2" WmlrKh 03

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( jdrh 2" WmlrKh 04

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ridhk jH yd ridhkd.dr WmlrK Nd;h
ms<sn| l=i,;d ixjOkh lsu'

149

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jdrh 2" WmlrKh 05

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jdrh 3" WmlrKh 01

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(

jdrh 3" WmlrKh 02

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.ekSug fhduq lsu'

150

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jdrh 3" WmlrKh 03

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jdrh 3" WmlrKh 04

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jdrh 3" WmlrKh 05

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ieiu'

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yd fufyhf yelshdj ixjOkh lsu'

151