Works Cited

Primary Sources

Websites

15.Athenian Democracy. Perf. Professor Kagan. Www.Youtube.com. YaleCourses, 20

Nov. 2008. Web. 26 Jan. 2014. <http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CmupK_shCBY>.

Professor Kagan speaks of the rise of the Athenian Empire to the organization of

the Athenian Democracy. He goes in detail about the legislative and executive

parts of the government. He explains what each branch of the Athenian

government does and how they do it. Also, Kagan spoke about what went on

before and during the assemblies.

16."Democracy Quotes." ::: International Endowment for Democracy. N.p., n.d. Web. 06

Apr. 2014. Quotes that pertain to democracy. Some of these quotes are directly

from books produced during the Athenian period, so we may consider this a

primary. What this helps us understand is the primary views on government going

around the city during that time.

17.Books

Aristotle, and Richard Robinson. Aristotle's Politics, Book 3 and 4. Oxford: Clarendon,

1962. Print. This book mostly Aristotle talking about political rights. This way it

gives us a better perspective of how things were back then. Aristotle thinks that

not all people have the capacity to rule, in the best regime only an elite few will

actually be citizens. He also talks about the differences between each type of

government rule.

Aristotle, and W. D. Ross. The Works of Aristotle: Volume II. Chicago: Encyclopædia
 Britannica, 1952. Print. Aristotle ruminates about the definitions of many political

terms, including king, state, and democracy. This provides us with insight on how

Athenians during our time period thought back then, and also lets us see their

troubles, which are pretty similar to ours today. For example, "Property is a part

of the household, and the art of acquiring property is a part of the art of managing

the household; for no man can live well, or indeed live at all, unless he be

provided with necessaries." Basically, every man is entitled to a pursuit of

happiness, which is in our Declaration of Independence.

Aristotle. The Athenian Constitution. Translated by P.J. Rhodes ed. London: Penguin

Group, 2002. Print. Aristotle comments on Athenian Democracy. He lays down

his thoughts for us, such as a poem, "I behold, and within my heart deep sadness

has claimed its place, As I mark the oldest home of the ancient Ionian race Slain

by the sword. " Basically the book is Aristotle's thoughts during the development

of Athenian democracy.

Aristotle. Politics: Books V and VI. Translated by David Keyt ed. New York: Oxford

University: Press, 1999. Print. Aristotle warns about the dangers of an oligarchy,

and also comments on how a constitution may be preserved. He states that if the

people serving the government are loyal to the government, than the constitution

will stay strong. He also argues for the other side, against democracy, and

explains how one could preserve a kingship or a tyranny, but this gives us

valuable insight on the other side of the argument.

Dillon, Matthew, and Lynda Garland. Ancient Greece: Social and Historical Documents

from Archaic times to the Death of Socrates (c. 800-399 BC). London: Routledge,
 1994. Print. Documents from the time period.

Fornara, Charles W. Archaic times to the End of the Peloponnesian War. Baltimore:

Johns Hopkins UP, 1977. Print. Devoted to the period which begins with the era

of Greek colonization and ends with the close of the Peloponnesian War in 404 B.

C. Charles Fornara has gathered together material compiled from inscriptions,

ancient encyclopedias, scholia, and similar sources. The material, much of it

translated by him for the first time, covers not only events of national significance

- wars and treaties, the founding of towns and colonies, the dedication of temples

- but also presents such records of daily life as ration lists, wine trade regulations,

inventories of treasure, drinking songs, and financial records. The documents are

accompanied by a brief commentary, which is basically intended to clarify

obscurities in the text. An extensive glossary and indexes explain obscure terms

of Greek social and governmental structure and permit detailed prosopographical

analysis.

Plato. The Republic. Translated by Benjamin Jowett ed. N.p.: Penguin UK, n.d. Print.

Questions why men behave justly. Is it because they fear some sort of retribution?

Whether from god or social constructs or maybe men behave well for themselves,

Plato defines individual justice, and then goes on to state that political harmony

can be achieved through a combination of classes. Plato holds justice to be the

greatest good.

Plutarch. Pericles. Translation by Bernadotte Perrin ed. Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1916.

Print. Plutarch's account of Pericles' life. He described his achievements and also

had some quotes from Pericles in the book.

Plutarch. Solon. Translated by Robin Waterfield ed. New York: Oxford UP, 1998. Print.

Greek Lives: A Selection of Nine Greek Lives. A historical account of Solon's

life. A bit hard to read, since it's in poem format, but it is a very descriptive and

exaggeration account of Solon's life. Solon was the first person to lay down the

foundations for democracy, and having his life story gives us context. And

context is all.

"Pseudo-Xenophon, Constitution of the Athenians E. C. Marchant, Ed." Pseudo-

Xenophon, Constitution of the Athenians,chapter 1. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014.

A person commenting on the Athenian constitution. A translated version can be

found at "http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3atext

%3a1999.01.0158". This gives us information as to what the people thought of

their political system and how they felt about it.

Stanton, G. R. Athenian Politics, C. 800-500 B.C.: A Sourcebook. London: Routledge,

1990. Print. This study is designed to sharpen historical skills by utilizing a

critical approach to the sources of information on ancient Athenian politics. It

presents contemporary sources, later historical and biographical writings,

archaeological evidence, inscriptions on stone and papyri from Egypt. The reader

has available in translation virtually all the documents in which scholars of this

period base their conclusions.;The period covered embraces the reforms of Solon,

the tyranny of Peisistratos and his sons, and the constitutional changes of

Kleisthenes. When Athenian politics first become visible, the noble families are

firmly in control. At the end of the period democracy is just beginning to emerge.

Central to an understanding of the politics of the time is the conflict between

 aristocratic clans and vertical ties between noble patrons and their supporters and

dependents in the lower social strata. Paradoxically, democracy emerged from the

actions of noble leaders who were certainly not of democratic disposition.

Thucydides. The Rise of an Athenian Empire. Translated by Francis Henry Colson ed.

N.p.: Nabu, 2010. Print. Thucydides documents the rise of Athens. This book

provides background knowledge on Athens and also in what context democracy

was first introduced. From his writing and his tone, we can infer that Thucydides

did not believe in the common man and his ability to make decisions.

Travlos, John. Pictoral Dictionary of Ancient Athens. New York: Praeger, 1971. Print.

Photographs, pictures, and plans of Ancient Athens.

 Secondary Sources

Websites

"12 Phases of Athens and Its Democracy." About.com Ancient / Classical History. N.p.,

n.d. Web. 20 Jan. 2014. The 12 Phases of Athens ans Its Democracy lists

historical events that lead to the development of a democracy in Athens. Athens

sees its terms of the rise and fall to be a big contribution to the West. Democracy

did not happen all of a sudden, but gradually developed in response to the

historical conditions. The people of Athens lost their form of democracy by the

time of Akexander of Macedonia and later the Romans.

"Ancient Athens Democracy - Ancient Greece for Kids." Ancient Athens Democracy -

Ancient Greece for Kids. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2013.

<http://greece.mrdonn.org/athensdemocracy.html>. Athens is the world's first

democracy. It was not a perfect democracy, but it was the roots of which our

democracy was based on. In Athens, 500 citizens are picked out from all of the

citizens to serve as law markers.The rest of the citizens were required to vote on

these laws.This system of law making became known as a direct democracy.

"Ancient Greek Democracy." History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web. 17

Nov. 2013. <http://www.history.com/topics/ancient-greece-democracy>.

Clesisthenes, an Athenian leader, introduced a system of political reform called

demokratia, "rule by the people," in 507 B.C. Demokratia abolished all political

distinction, and stressed equality among citizens. Equality was limited to only

male citizens who were older than 18. This meant only 40,000 of 100,000 would

be part of demos. Athenian democracy was made up of three institutions.

 Ekklesia, or Assembly was made up of any member of demos. They made

decisions about war and foreign policy, wrote an revised laws, and approved or

condemned the conduct of public officials. The Boule was the second institution,

which was made up of 50 men from each of the ten Athenian tribes. Positions

were not determined by election, but were chosen by a lottery system so wealth

and popularity would not influence anything. They handled government workers

and were in charge of navy ships and army horses. The Dikasteria was the third

institution, which was popular courts. There was no such thing as a police force,

so demos would bring up their own court cases. Verdicts and sentences were

determined by majority rule. Pericles evolved Athenian democracy to something

similar to aristocracy in 460 B.C. The ruling did not survive, but democratic

ideals and processes heavily influenced modern-day government.

"The Ancient Greeks - the Athenians of Ancient Greece." The Ancient Greeks - the

Athenians of Ancient Greece. Arrowhead Website Design, n.d. Web. 30 Jan.

2014. The Athenians believed that a man should be free as long as he acted within

the laws of a just and righteous state. They also thought that individuality was

important to society and formed it as the basis. Two major ideas that we get from

them is "nothing in excess" and "know thyself". This website sums up the culture

of Athenian democracy, which provides us with the context in which democracy

was first thought of.

"Aristotle, Solon and the Origins of Athenian Democracy." Aristotle, Solon and the

Origins of Athenian Democracy. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Jan. 2014.

<http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his101/web/05athens.htm>. It talks about Solon's

 breakthrough when he became chief magistrate. Solon made reforms specifically

to appease the demands of the soldiers for political power, This way more people

would join the military. Solon increased the number of people who shared in

political decisions by creating a "Council of the 400" that included the heads of

the most prominent merchant and farming families, and an "Assembly" that

included all males of military age. This idea soon enough became what we call

democracy.

"Athenian Democracy: A Brief Overview." Athenian Democracy: A Brief Overview.

N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013.

<http://www.stoa.org/projects/demos/article_democracy_overview?page=4>.

Athen's democratic government relied on three main foundations. The three

foundations of Athenian democracy were: the Assembly of the Demos, the

Council of 500, and the People’s Court. These were helped by the Council of the

Areopagus, the Archons, and the Generals. Actual legislation involved both the

Assembly and the Council, and boards of lawmakers.

"Athenian Democracy: A Brief Overview." Athenian Democracy: A Brief Overview.

N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. Athenian democracy lasted from 508 to 322 BCE.

The people controlled everything, from decisions about war to the qualifications

of a ferry-man. However, it wasn't just a free-for-all voting process. Athenians

understood the idea of checks and balances, and created three main institutions,

who each limited the other. Everyone at the Ekklesia had free speech, but if

someone spoke outside of his expertise, he would get shouted down. Ekklesia is

also called the Assembly, and they had rituals to start the meetings and a show of
 hands decided how many votes. The next institution was the Council of 500,

which was the full-time government of Athens. They were audited so as to keep

virtuous people in charge of the city. The council would decide the agenda for the

Assembly. A third and final institution was the Legislation, who could enact laws

that limited the Assembly's powers, but the Assembly also had some hold over

the Legislation because they could choose not to follow.

"Athenian Democracy." Athenian Democracy. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2013.

<https://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Athenian_democracy.

html>. Athenian democracy was developed in Athens. Democracy in Athens was

considered one of the most powerful and stable of all Greek cities. Participation

was very open, where anyone participate with no economic standard. The public

opinion was heavily influenced by political satire performed by the comic poets at

the theaters. Solon, Cleisthenes, and Ephialtes all contributed to develop Athenian

democracy. The longest and greatest leader of all time was Pericles. After his

death, Athenian democracy was twice briefly interruppted by revolutions towards

the end of the Peloponnesian War. The Macedonians ended the democracy in 322

B.C.E. The Athenian institutions were later revived, but to the extent of whether

they were a real democracy is questionable.

"Athenian Democracy." Athenian Democracy. N.p., n.d. Web. 22 Dec. 2014.

<http://www.uvm.edu/~jbailly/courses/clas21/notes/atheniandemocracy.html>.

This gave us the basic outlines of the development of democracy run from Solon

to Pericles. It informed us with the changes made from Solon to Cleisthenes to

Ephialtes to Pericles. Consisting of Cleisthenes changing Solon's Council of 400

 to the Council of 500. It also talks about how when it was under Pericles it was

more of a radical democracy. That means that the assembly and the law courts

had ultimate say in things.

"Athenian Democracy." Honors Research Template11 A.m. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov.

2013. <https://www2.bc.edu/~depalmad/honors3.html>. Gives an overview on

Athens, and then describes in-depth the rules of Athenian Democracy, including

the Assembly, Council, Legislation, Council of Areopagus and the People's

Court. The Assembly met and decided on matters that included law, foreign

policy, and war. The council met every day and decided on daily government

activities. In contrast, the Legislation only met when there was a court case to be

judged. The council of Areopagus was a council of the elders of the city, and

rivlaed the boule in the decision-making process.

"Athens." Ancient History Encyclopedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. This website

provides us with the history of Athens. Knowing the history of Athens gives us

background knowledge about the place where democracy was developed.

"ATHENS History and Culture." Athens City Greece Guide:. N.p., n.d. Web. 29 Jan.

2014. Athens has the longest history out of any city in Europe and in the world.

Named after Athena, goddess of wisdom and knowledge, Athens has been

continuously inhabited since the Bronze Age and is generally considered to be the

cradle of Western civilization. It became the leading city of Ancient Greece in the

first millennium BC and the strongest Greek city-state around 500 BC, entering

its Golden Age after emerging victorious from the Persian Wars (500 - 449 BC).

"Athens: The Truth about Democracy." Top Documentary Films RSS. N.p., n.d. Web. 18
 Nov. 2013. <http://topdocumentaryfilms.com/athens-truth-about-democracy/>.

Athenian Democracy is not as golden as historians make it out to be; A

democracy for equal and free men that was built upon slave labor, manipulated by

the rich and powerful, and featured sophisticated systems that had many

loopholes in between.

Barrett, Matt. "History of GreeceA Brief Outline of Athenian Democracy." History of

Greece: Athenian Democracy. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2013.

<http://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/athens-democracy.htm>. Democracy in the

Athens was the best type of government system during the fifth and fourth

centuries. Cleisthenes is most credited for developing the system. He turned

Athens from an oligarchy (government by the few) to a democracy (government

of the people). The key of the democracy was redrawing the social-political

landscape of Athens and Attica. Four of the existing tribes were replaced by ten

new tribes. The Assembly or ekklesia was open to all male citizens. They mad all

decisions upon foreign policy and discussed legislative issues. If they decided to,

ostracism was held once a year. This is where a person could be banished for ten

years. It kept citizens from being too aggressive due to the fear of being exiled.

The boule consisted of 50 men from each of the ten tribes. They decided on what

the assembly would discuss. The members were chosen by their municipalities.

The chief of the city was called the archon. He was responsible for conduction

investigations of legal cases. The archon was decided by the council of elders.

The polemarch was head of the military matters. Military in the Athens was set

up the same way as the boule, where 50 men from each tribe would join. There
 were also courts with six official judges known as the Thesmothatae. They had

little power since trials involved mass participation. Jurors were paid for their

service, but received roughly as much as a laborer. Athenian democracy

introduced the concept of equality and rotation of powers.

"The Boule (The Senate)." Birth of Democracy: The Boule. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014.

Describes how the Boule worked. They met in a building called the Bouletuerion,

but that was ditched and turned into storage as a new one was built beside it to

house 500 people. The people who served in the Boule had to dip their hands in

holy water before entering the building as a ritual.

"Bouleuterio Introduction." Bouleuterio Introduction. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. The

boule was not only limited; It existed in other Ionian cities too. Names for the

boule were: boule, gerousia, synedrio, alia, apella, or alaiai. Homer's epics also

mention the boule. One job of this institution was to draw up provouleumata, or

proposals for laws. They also ensured that the government continued to run day

by day.

"A Brief History of Democracy and Its Benefits." , Introduction to Democracy,

Potentials of Democracy, SOSE Year 9, NSW. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2014.

Explains how the words "demos" and "kratia" came to form the word democracy.

Democracy is a system of government where all citizens could vote. In ancient

Greece, a city-state named Athens came closest to establishing a democracy,

because it allowed it's citizens to participate in the government. In reality,

however, the citizens were actually the white males over 18, so women, slaves,

and freed slaves were left out of the voting process, disqualifying Athenian
 democracy to be a true democracy.

Cartledge, Paul. "The Democratic Experiment." BBC News. BBC, n.d. Web. 18 Nov.

2013. <http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/greeks/greekdemocracy_01.shtml>.

In Greece, the political systems varied from city-state to city-state. However, the

rarest and the freest out of them all was in Athens, where they came up with the

idea for democracy. It was Solon, a wise man and poet, that laid down the

foundations for democracy, even though he didn't believe in it. Cliesthenes, one

of Athen's rulers, implemented it to help out the failing city. Democracy was not

without enemies, as oligarchies were violently restored from time to time, but the

power of the people was too strong. The power invested into the citizens of

Athens were many, including court decisions, war decisions, law decisions, and

even ostracism.

"CLEISTHENES." CLEISTHENES. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. A clear explanation of

the achievements of Cliesthenes in regards to government and politics, including

naming him the founder of Athenian Democracy, fighting against the Persians,

ostracism, and preventing faction building.

Davis, William. "A Day in Old Athens." The Ecclesia of Ancient Athens. N.p., n.d. Web.

31 Jan. 2014. A page leading to articles on Athenian Democracy. We find out that

Athenian democracy was founded by Solon and Cliesthenes, and developed by

Themistocles and Pericles. Also, Attica only acknowledges one lord during this

time period - King Demos, or king everybody. Socrates also says that it's the job

of the wealthy to hold feasts and provide entertainment for the masses.

"Democracy Then and Now." Solon's Reforms - Democracy Then and Now. N.p., n.d.
 Web. 31 Jan. 2014. Solon: "Such power I gave the people as might do, Abridged

not what they had, now lavished new. Those that were great in wealth and high in

place, My counsel likewise kept from all disgrace. Before them both I held my

shield of might, And let not either touch the other's right." Solon freed all debtors

who sold or pledged their own bodies to pay off their debts, and limited the

wealthy's power a little bit. Solon was an important turning point for Athens,

enhancing the standard of living and setting in place the roots of democracy.

"Democracy." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 22 Jan. 2014. Web. 23 Jan. 2014.

<http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Democracy>. Cliesthenes was the father of

Athenian Democracy, which was a direct democracy, that the people directly

controlled the government. The fact that he's had a bust made of him symbolizes

his importance to the Athenian culture and society.

"The Development of Athenian Democracy." The Development of Athenian Democracy.

N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. This website describes Solon's reforms, which

included a constitution and freeing all enslaved men because of their debts. He

also created the Council of Areopagus, which regulated the laws given out by the

Archons. This website was very detailed and gave us many ancient Greek words.

"Development of Democracy in Athens." Development of Democracy in Athens. N.p.,

n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013.

<http://historylink101.com/2/greece3/democracy_athens.htm>. The statesman

Cleisthenes is considered the founder of Athenian democracy. He introduced a

new division of the population of Athens into ten tribal groups. Each would elect

by lot fifty representatives to the Assembly. This extended the representation and
 voting rights to most all male citizens in Athens. This laid the foundation upon

which the Athenians developed a democracy.The Athenian government was a

direct democracy. Any citizen could speak to the group to persuade them to their

was of thinking. The assembly had to have at least 6,000 citizens in attendance. If

not enough citizens showed up, 300 specially trained slaves would go through the

town with a rope dipped in red paint. Anyone hit by the paint had to pay a fine for

not doing his civic duty.

"Development of Democracy in Athens." Development of Democracy in Athens. N.p.,

n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2014.

<http://historylink101.com/2/greece3/democracy_athens.htm>. The founder of

Athenian democracy was Cleisthenes, who divided Attica into ten tribes. The

tribes then send 50 citizen for the assembly. This set up the foundation of

democracy. Democracy was fully established in Athens once the Areopagus lost

power. Along with the assembly, there was the Council of 500, strategoi and

archons.

Dowling, Mike. "Athens and Democracy." Athens and Democracy. N.p., n.d. Web. 17

Nov. 2013. <http://www.mrdowling.com/701-athens.html>. Democracy in slowly

within hundreds of years. Athens developed as a merchant city whose ships

traded with many faraway places.Traders were exposed to many new ideas, which

helped influence new rule. The Athenian army fought in a pahlanx. There was no

need for horses, so anyone could join the army.Leaders had to be concerned with

each individual need, so they wouldn't lose the support. Solon became the leader

in 594 B.C. He repealed Draco's harsh laws and created a democracy, where
 people ruled the polis. Only adult men born in Athens were allowed to participate

in the assembly. This accounted for only one-fourth of the total population. The

assembly met 40 times a year.The boule was called before the assembly to

account for their work. Member of the boule were chosen randomly, so everyone

had the same opportunity to serve on the council. Athens relied on citizens to

participate. Because Athens was a small city-state, direct democracy was possible.

Democracy was limited, but introduced the idea of participation of the common

man.

"Ecclesia (ancient Greek Assembly)." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia

Britannica, n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. Ekklesia means "gathering of the

summoned". It's roots lay the Homeric era, with the meeting of the people. The

Athenian ekklesia was not the only ekklesia in the world. Most city-states had

some sort of ekklesia to make decisions and to help the city run.

"The Ekklesia (Citizens' Assembly)." Birth of Democracy: The Ekklesia. N.p., n.d. Web.

31 Jan. 2014. The Ekklesia met once every 10 days. All decrees that were ratified

by the Ekklessia became laws. Held on the Pnyx, and structure built on a hillside

that resembles an auditorium and could seat, at it's biggest, about 13,500 people,

people were paid for attending the Ekklesia, so therefore working citizens could

attend and participate and still not lose any money for not working that day.

"The Final End of Athenian Democracy." PBS. PBS, n.d. Web. 26 Nov. 2013.

<http://www.pbs.org/empires/thegreeks/background/48.html>. After defeating

Athens in 404 BC, the Spartans allowed the Athenians to replace their

government with a new form.Their previous government ruler, a tyrant, had been
 a terrible and failed, and even the Spartans thought that a form of democracy

would be more preferable. It then talks about how Alexander the Great took the

throne and that was the end of Athenian democracy.

Fotopoulos, Takis. "Direct and Economic Democracy in Ancient Athens." TAKIS

FOTOPOULOS - Direct and Economic Democracy in Ancient Athens. N.p., n.d.

Web. 18 Nov. 2013.

<http://www.democracynature.org/vol1/fotopoulos_athens.htm>. The failure of

Athenian democracy was not due to the direct participation, but rather the always

partial participation, with only the citizens of Athens, who did not make up most

of the population, who could vote and serve in the democracy. Another reason

that Athenian democracy failed was because even though politically the systems

were there, economically the city could not support such a system. The wealth in

the city was still in the hands of the rich, and the poor still kept getting poorer,

which does not minimize the socio-economic differences in between the classes.

Fox, Robin Lane. The Classical World: An Epic History from Homer to Hadrian. New

York: Basic, 2006. Print. Athenian democracy was not at all kind-hearted. Near

the end of it, before the rule of Pericles, the ostracism power invested into the

Ekklesia was being exploited, as nobles and people in power were getting exiled.

They even tried to exile a hero named Miltiades, who ran the marathon.

Gill, N. S. "7 Stages in Athenian Democracy." About.com Ancient / Classical History.

N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2013.

<http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/governmen1/qt/7stagesdemocrat.htm>. The

Athenian institution is believed to have emerged in seven distinct stages in

 response to political, social, and economical conditions. Solon was the first stage,

where debt was building up and loss of holding to creditors led to political unrest.

Solon was, then, elected to be archon (ruler) to reform laws in 594 B.C. Solon

failed to succeed in his compromise, so benevolent despots took control. This

period was called the Tyranny of the Pisistratids. Modern democracy was the

third stage, where Cleisthened ends the aristocracy. Radical democracy emerges

when Pericles introduces pay for public office (jury duty). Oligarchy happens

when Sparta defeats Athens and two oligarchic counter- revolutions tried to

destroy democracy. A stable time comes and orators Lysias, Demosthnes,

Aeschines converse on what was best for the city. The final stage of Athenian

democracy is Macedonian and Roman domination. Athenian ideals continue even

though outside powers dominated.

Gill, N. S. "Ecclesia." About.com Ancient / Classical History. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan.

2014. <http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/greekpolitics/p/Ecclesia.htm>. The

ecclesia was a meeting place where citizens could debate about issues. They

would often try to influence one another to their opinions. They met on a place

called the Pnyx, which was an opened roofed auditorium. Once an Athenian male

turned 18, they were put on the citizens list and became eligible to join the

Assembly, unless they were not allowed due to debt or other reasons. The

Assembly met 40 times a year, and those who attended would be payed 1 to 3

obols.

Gill, N.S. "Cleisthenes and the 10 Tribes of Athens." About.com Ancient / Classical

History. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. A very descriptive analysis of Cliesthenes
 reforms, including where it came from and how it happened. From this we

learned the names of the ten tribes that Cliesthenes made. They were called:

Erechthesis, Aegeis, Pandianis, Leontis, Acamantis, Oeneis, Cecropis

Hippothontis, Aeantis, Antiochis, who were all local heros. Also described the

struggle that Cliesthenes went through to achieve his leadership, including

overthrowing a tyrant.

"Government in Ancient Greece." ThinkQuest. Oracle Foundation, n.d. Web. 18 Nov.

2013. <http://library.thinkquest.org/6132/government.html>. Athens, according

to Pericles, the leader of Athens, was democratic city. Athens had a government

that was ran by the citizens of Athens. The citizens of Athens was limited to only

a selected few. Like all of Greece, citizens were only male. Women, slaves, and

some children were not considered citizens of Athens.

"Greece Timeline." Greece Timeline. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013.

<http://www.ancient-greece.org/resources/timeline.html>. A timeline showing

under what kind of influences and conditions the Athenian democracy was made.

Also provides a nice history of Athens.

Gress, David. From Plato to NATO: The Idea of the West and Its Opponents. New York:

Free, 1998. Print. Though this book is not entirely about Athenian democracy, it

does give us valuable insight upon this matter. Athenian democracy was tested

when one of it's leading philosophers was called into court in 399 B.C. under the

charges of blasphemy and impiety, both religious reasons. When Socrates was in

court, he called into question the fitness and ability of the common man to rule

the government; he turned towards Sparta and said that that type of government
 would work in Athens as well. However, in the end, Athenian democracy won out

and still gave power to the common man, who they believed had virtue due to his

class.

Harper, Douglas. "Online Etymology Dictionary." Online Etymology Dictionary. N.p.,

n.d. Web. 26 Jan. 2014. It gave us a background of how the word "democracy"

came about. It informs us that the word "democracy" derives from the two Greek

words "demos-" and "-kratia". "Demos-" meaning the people and "-kratia"

meaning rule and strength

Harrison, Theresa. "Why Ancient Greece's Democracy Was Important." The Classroom.

Demand Media, n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. "It is true that we (Athenians) are called

a democracy, for the administration is in the hands of the many and not the few,

with equal justice to all alike in their private disputes,” said the Greek General

Pericles. This website provides a nice summary of everything that we've learned

throughout all our research.

"History of Democracy." Http://library.thinkquest.org. N.p., 26 Jan. 2014. Web. 1999.

<http://library.thinkquest.org/26466/history_of_democracy.html>. This website

provided us with the how the word, "democracy" came about. It also discusses

how democracy has changed over time. It states what it was at first and how it has

evolved through time. Like going through the Romans, the middle ages, England,

and lastly the United States. It also discussing some specific people and how they

tried to promote this type of government which included the names of Jean

Jacques Rousseau and John Locke .

"History of GreeceA Brief Outline of Athenian Democracy." History of Greece:

 Athenian Democracy. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013.

<http://www.ahistoryofgreece.com/athens-democracy.htm>. Athenian Democracy

happened due to Cleisthenes. Cleisthenes redrew the political-social landscape of

Athens. This allowed Athens, as a whole, stay focus on affairs and getting things

done, instead of fighting with one another. The government in Athens composed

of many things. The Assembly had the final decision on policies and issues

created by the Council of 500. The chief of the city, called Archon eponymous,

conducted investigations of legal cases. The archon basileus was an elected and

ceremonial office in charge of religious matters. Athens had trials that were based

on mass participation. Also, the military was ran like the boule or council of 500.

Hughes, Bettany. "Athens: The Truth about Democracy." Top Documentary Films RSS.

N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Nov. 2013. Athens followed an aggressive overseas expansion

and persecuted some of its leading intellectuals. Democracy did not flourish and

quickly died. Democracy, liberty, and freedom of speech triumphed as the basis

in the Western civilization. Athens was built on slave labor, manipulated by

aristocrats, where women wore the veil and men pursued a bloody foreign policy.

Participation was a big part of society. Those who did not vote were known as

idiotes.

"Introduction." Birth of Democracy: Democracy. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013.

<http://www.agathe.gr/democracy/>. Not only did Athens give us philosophy,

theater, painting, sculpture, and architecture, but among those the most important

is democracy. Democracy is a form of government ruled by the people. Indeed, it

can be convincingly argued that all the other achievements depended first on how
 the city was governed, on the open and free society that respected the dignity,

rights, and aspirations of the individual.

Jones, Jim. "Background to Solon and the Origins of Athenian Democracy by Aristotle."

Http://courses.wcupa.edu/. West Chester University of Pennsylvania, 2002. Web.

14 Jan. 2014. <http://courses.wcupa.edu/jones/his101/web/05athens.htm>. The

website gave us a background knowledge of Solon, Aristotle and the origin of

Democracy. It answered many of our questions like: "On what basis did Solon's

constitution organize Athenian society?", "How did some people try to take

advantage from the "Shaking-off of Burdens" declared by Solon?", and "What

were the consequences?" What social divisions existed in Athens before the time

of Solon?

Kreis, Steven. "Lecture 6: The Athenian Origins of Direct Democracy." Lecture 6: The

Athenian Origins of Direct Democracy. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Nov. 2013.

<http://www.historyguide.org/ancient/lecture6b.html>. Around 460 B.C., Pericles

used the power of the people in the law courts and the Assembly to break up the

Council of Five Hundred. Under Pericles, Athenian democracy came to mean the

equality of justice and the equality of opportunity. The equality of justice was

secured by the jury system, which ensured that slaves and resident aliens were

represented through their patrons. The equality of opportunity did not mean that

every man has the right to everything. What it did mean is that the criteria for

choosing citizens for office was merit and efficiency and not wealth. Whereas

Solon had used the criterion of birth for his officials and Cleisthenes had used

wealth, Pericles now used merit. This was the ideal for Pericles. What indeed
 happened in practice was quite different. The Greek historian Thucydides

commented on the reality of democracy under Pericles when he wrote: "It was in

theory, a democracy but in fact it became the rule of the first Athenian." And the

historian Herodotusadded that "nothing could be found better than the one man,

the best." This "one man, the best," was the aristoi, the word from which we get

the expression aristocracy. So, what began as Greek democracy under Cleisthenes

around 500 B.C., became an aristocracy under Pericles by 430 B.C.

Loflin, Lewis. "Democracy and the Origins of the US Constitution." Democracy and the

Origins of the US Constitution. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. Defines a

democracy clearly to us. In a democracy, Citizens elect their leaders People have

a right to change their leaders People choose their leaders through elections which

are held frequently. Elections are free and fair People have civil rights. Athenian

democracy only worked because the city-state of Athens was small enough to

have a direct democracy. Another qualification that Athenian democracy doesn't

meet is the citizenship because women, slaves, and foreigners were excluded

from the process.

Long, Roderick T. "The Athenian." The Athenian. Libertarian Nation Foundation, 1996.

Web. 30 Jan. 2014. <http://www.constitution.org/elec/f41l1.html>. Athenian

democracy was considered one of the most extreme and purest forms of

democracy. The Athenians defined liberty as "living as one pleased". Because of

this, Athens was considered one of the freest countries in the world. They

exercised intellectual freedom. society was separated into three classes. The

"Horsemen", the "Yokemen", and the "Menials". The "Horsemen" were the
 richest, followed by the "Yokemen, then the "Menials". All three contributed to

the construction of Democracy, which contained two branches: the legislative

branch and the judicial branch.

Mark, Joshua J. "Athens." Ancient History Encyclopedia. Ancient History Encyclopedia

Limited, 28 Apr. 2011. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.

<http://www.ancient.eu.com/Athens/>. Before democracy was established in

Attica, Athens' poor were often put into slavery due to debt. To fix these

problems, Draco, an Athenian statesman, established laws to prevent it from

happening, but these laws were considered to harsh. Solon was sent to revise

Draco's law and thus, created the foundation of democracy. As time went on,

Solon's laws were modified into the world's first democracy. After Athens

defeated the Persians at the Battle of Marathon, Athens flourished, only to be

defeated by Sparta during the Peloponnesian War.

Meiggs, Russell. "Cleisthenes Of Athens (Greek Statesman)." Encyclopedia Britannica

Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. Describes how

Cliesthenes came into power and his family life. Also has some information about

the important events that happened to him and what drove him to develop

democracy. This website gives us important background knowledge and context

as to what the leaders of Attica thought.

"Notes." Notes. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Jan. 2014.

<http://mkatz.web.wesleyan.edu/10.neaira/neaira_notes.htm>. A picture of a

water-clock, which was used to time the people in the diskasteria on the amount

they had to talk so that they would each get an equal say. This gives us insight on
 the way that people used to think back then compared to now.

"Online Etymology Dictionary." Online Etymology Dictionary. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Jan.

2014. The Greek used to the word "demokratia" ( popular government ) to mean

democracy. The word is made up with "demos" ( common people ) and "kratos" (

rule/strength ).

"The Peisistratid Tyranny at Athens: Conflicting Sources and Revisionist History

At Work." Aleph Journal. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Jan. 2014. A picture of the city. It

gives us insight on how the structure of the city was linked to the changes in

power. As we can see from the picture, there seems to be only a single road

leading up to the building on top, which might have been a strategic point.

"The Peloponnesian War - World History For Kids - By KidsPast.com." The

Peloponnesian War - World History For Kids - By KidsPast.com. N.p., n.d. Web.

26 Jan. 2014. The Peloponnesian War was instigated by an Athenian general

named Pericles, and the result of the war left Greece very weak, and thusly

Alexander the Great could then come by and conquer them.

"Pericles And Rise Of Democracy." Pericles And Rise Of Democracy. N.p., n.d. Web. 31

Jan. 2014. Explained how Pericles was in charge of the Delian league, which

impacted how Athens would run it's political government. He built a powerful

navy and army which he used to protect his city, and thus Athenian democracy

too. He paid citizens who participated in the direct democracy. A quote from him

is: "Having knowledge but lacking the power to express it clearly is no better than

never having any ideas at all."

"Pericles." Pericles. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. Pericles was one of the leaders of
 Athens. He had a significant impact on raising Athens to its golden times. In fact,

ancient great Greek historian Thucydides praised Pericles, naming him "as the

first citizen of Athens."

"PERICLES." PERICLES. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. An important statesman to

Athens, Pericles led Athens to it's height in political power and arts, leading to the

Periclean Age. He was related to the democratic reformer Cliesthenes, and

continued Cliesthenes' policies after he died. This website gives us more insight

on the leaders of Athens, and how they handled democracy.

"Philip of Macedon." Philip of Macedon. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Jan. 2014. An engraving of

Philip II of Macedon. He raised Alexander the Great and took control of a

seriously weakened country. He reorganized the army, which led them to have a

huge advantage over the others in the formation of the phalanx.

"Ploigos πλοηγός." Ploigos. N.p., 8 Oct. 2010. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. The picture of the

Boule displayed how the Athens were organized. The Boule was the "police

force" of Athens. Membership was exclusive to only 50 random members of each

of the ten tribes. Members would serve once year and were not allowed to serve

again in the next year. They were not allowed any more than to serve twice in a

lifetime.

"Political Organization of Attica: Demes and Tribal Representation." Birth of

Democracy: Political Organization of Attica. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2014.

<http://www.agathe.gr/democracy/political_organization_of_attica.html>. The

ten tribes of Attica were separated into thirds called trittys, which were then

separated into demes. The demes sent a number of representatives to the council
 of 500, or the boule, based on the size of the deme. In the juries, each tribe had an

equal number of jurors. This ensured equal representation to all of Attica.

"The Popular Courts." Birth of Democracy:. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2014.

<http://www.agathe.gr/democracy/the_popular_courts.html>. The popular courts

contained no less than 201 jurors. They wielded unlimited power in the court

cases. Every citizen was allowed to become a juror. Most cases came to the jurors

to decide, but before this, the case would be heard by the magistrate. During that

trial, the evidence used would be sealed for the popular jury.

"The Prytaneis (Executive Committee)." Birth of Democracy: The Prytaneis. N.p., n.d.

Web. 30 Jan. 2014. <http://www.agathe.gr/democracy/the_prytaneis.html>. The

prytaneis was the Executive Committee. It consisted of senators in the boule or

Council of 500 that were in the same tribe. They served for around 35 days before

they were rotated. They were responsible for the day-to-day administrations,

schedules, and order of businesses. The prytaneis met in the tholos, a round

building near the bouleuterion. There was always senators posted in the tholos in

case of emergencies.

"The Reforms of Cliesthenes." PBS. PBS, n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. Cliesthenes created

many reforms, including seperating the 4 tribes of Athenians into 10 total tribes,

each who had 6 demes, or local courts. In order to encourage unity, he also

balanced the demes in comparison to the Attica. This website provides

information on what Cliesthenes actually did.

"Solon." Greece. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Jan. 2014. Solon was on of the Seven Wise Men of

Ancient Greece. He was also an important Athenian legislator, philosopher, and

 poet. He was Archon at one point, and made very bold and radical laws.

"Solon the Lawgiver." Birth of Democracy:. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. This website

describes Solon's achievements and contributions to Athenian society, notably

"I[Solon] stood with a mighty shield in front of both classes, and allowed neither

of them to prevail unjustly". He also created the foundation for Athenian

democracy, but not the actual thing. This website allows us to see how a great

archon of Athens was able to start the city down the road of democracy.

"Sources of Ideas That Shaped the American Plan of Government." Dsusd.k12.ca.us.

N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. Athens used to be governed by the rich class, and

they called themselves the Great Council. Not surprisingly, they passed laws that

favored the wealthy. Seeking to change, the poor farmers and peasants of Athens

began to protest, and managed to convince Athenian leaders to create a

democracy, where they could vote and participate in the government. However,

the right to participate was still restricted to a small percent of the population.

"The Speakers." Birth of Democracy:. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2014.

<http://www.agathe.gr/democracy/the_speakers.html>. The speakers of the juries

usually spoke on their own behalves. Occasionally, the speakers prepared

speeches before hand. No trials lasted more than a day. The speaker's time was

managed through schedules and water clocks called klepsydrai. The speaker

would have to end his speech before the water clock ran out. Showed the

responsibility of the speaker during the Athenian court case.

"Thomas R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History from Mycenae to

Alexander." Thomas R. Martin, An Overview of Classical Greek History from

 Mycenae to Alexander,The Late Archaic City-State, Persuasion and Cleisthenic

Democracy. N.p., n.d. Web. 31 Jan. 2014. The content includes how Cliesthenes

developed Athenian Democracy by using Solon's basis for democracy. As an

aristocrat looking for popular support, he developed a system that he thought the

ordinary man wanted. This website gives us the context and the gears in which

Athenian democracy was first officially developed.

"Winged Sandals: History: Athenian Politics and Government." Winged Sandals:

History: Athenian Politics and Government. N.p., n.d. Web. 17 Nov. 2013.

<http://www.abc.net.au/arts/wingedsandals/history5.htm>. Athens was a direct

democracy, in which all citizens took place in all governmental decision. Athens

had a council of 500 called "boule". The boule was picked through a lottery of all

citizens. The job of the boule was to make laws for Athens. These laws were then

put to vote by the Assembly. The Assembly composed of all citizens over 20. In

addition, juries were picked through lottery. Like today, these juries decided

whether a person was guilty or not. If found guilty, the person had to pay a fine or

be put to death. Also, Athenian Democracy had ostracism. The citizens would put

names of people who they wanted to get rid of on piece of pottery. If there were

more than 6000 pieces of pottery submitted, the name if the most votes had to

leave the country for 10 years.

Zivkovic, Damir S. "History in the Classroom." Ð?СТÐ?Ð Ð?Ð?Ð? У УЧÐ?Ð?

Ð?Ð?ЦÐ?. N.p., 24 Dec. 2011. Web. 30 Jan. 2014. The six-part video explains the

emergence of democracy in Athens. The idea of democracy flourished, but

eventually came to an end. Today's democracy is based on the three main ideals
 that give all citizens liberty, equality, and freedom of speech.This is what became

known as the first direct democracy. The Athens replaced a set of rulers with the

ruling by the people. Equality was emphasized greatly.The chairs for the

assembly did not depend on a certain class, but welcomed all citizens to a certain

amount. The boule welcomed 500 men, which would then create an agenda for

the assembly to discuss. They developed a lottery system that would give

everyone an equal chance and created secret ballots to avoid bribery.

Pictures

"Ancient Greek Democracy Photos." History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web.

31 Jan. 2014. A picture of the city of Athens which helps us visualize our

democracy.

"Counterlight's Peculiars." : October 2011. N.p., n.d. Web. 07 Apr. 2014. A picture of

the Athenian lot system, the way it was before democracy.

"Democracy, a Brief History." No Candidate. N.p., n.d. Web. 19 Jan. 2014.

<http://www.nocandidate.org.uk/democracy-a-brief-history/>. The picture depicts

a man reading a scroll containing laws and such for the assembly do decide upon.

The pictures helps visualizes the meetings the Athenians held.

"Democracy In Athens." Byrneathens. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Jan. 2014.

<http://byrneathens.wordpress.com/democracy-in-athens/>. This is the boule, or

the council of 500. They would meet to discuss important and daily government

activities, and kept the country running day to day. This picture helped us

envision how they would meet.

"Ecclesia (ancient Athens)." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 24 Jan. 2014. Web. 26

 Jan. 2014. <http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ecclesia_(ancient_Athens)>. This is a

picture of the Pnyx, which the ekklesia met on. It helped us envision what kind of

open-air environment the citizens of ancient Athens debated in. Imagine the

raised voices in such a clear place, and one can see why they chose that hill to debate on.

"Gerúsia.jpg :: Jcmontteiro." Gerúsia.jpg :: Jcmontteiro. N.p., n.d. Web. 30 Jan. 2014.

The picture of the Dikasteria illustrates the citizens of Athens in a court house and

how the citizens were organized. This provided us with a picture approximately

how many people there were and how the citizens would part-take in these

meetings.

"Google Image Result for Http://www.greenewave.com/wp-

content/uploads/2012/06/Peisistratos.jpg." Google Image Result for

Http://www.greenewave.com/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/Peisistratos.jpg. N.p.,

n.d. Web. 21 Jan. 2014. This was a picture of a statue of Peisistratos. Peisistratos

was the one who became the first tyrant of Athens. This picture allowed up to get

a better view of the man who took over Solon's political system.

"History of Democracy." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 21 Jan. 2014. Web. 30 Jan.

2014. A picture of the Acropolis with some people meeting on an open-air

platform. This shows us the beauty of Athenian structure.

"Ionian Revolt." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 24 Dec. 2013. Web. 25 Jan. 2014. A

Greek hoplite and a Persian warrior are battling it out on an engraving. It's a

Persian piece of art because the Persian warrior is winning, and the Greek hoplite

is losing the battle.

Josh. "Josh's Blog." Ancient Greece. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Jan. 2014.
 <http://joshdwe.edublogs.org/>. A picture of a courtroom that the diskasteria

might have debated in. It gives us insight on what type of building that the old

men would have debated in, and the stout structure and raised roof signifies how

much weight their words carried.

"Kleroteria. Athens Agora Museum." Kleroteria. Athens Agora Museum. N.p., n.d. Web.

06 Apr. 2014. A picture of the kleroteria, the voting machine that Athenians used.

Books

Carradice, Ian.Coinage and Administration in the Athenian and Persian Empires: The

Ninth Oxford Symposium on Coinage and Monetary History. Oxford, England:

B.A.R., 1987. Print.Talks about the effects of the government on the coinage

circulating throughout the kingdom mainly. However, reading through it, it

provides hints at the structure and culture of Athens and the influences of

Athenian Democracy at the time.

Hansen, Mogens Herman. The Athenian Assembly in the Age of Demosthenes. Oxford: B.

Blackwell, 1987. Print. The Athenian democracy of the fifth and fourth centuries

B.C. is the most famous and perhaps most nearly perfect example of direct

democracy. Covering the period 403-322 B.C., Mogens Herman Hansen focuses

on the crucial last thirty years, which coincided with the political career of

Demosthenes. Hansen distinguishes between the city's seven political institutions:

the Assembly, the nomothetai, the People's Court, the boards of magistrates, the

Council of Five Hundred, the Areopagos, and ho boulomenos. He discusses how

Athenians conceived liberty both as the ability to participate in the decision-

making process and as the right to live without oppression from the state or other
 citizens. Equality was conceived of as an equality not of nature but of

opportunity.

Jones, A. H. M. Athenian Democracy. Oxford: B. Blackwell, 1957. Print. A classic brief

account of the workings of the Athenian Democracy in the age of Pericles and

after.

Kirby, John T. World Eras, Volume 6: Classical Greek Civilization, 800-323 B.C.E.

Detroit: Gale Group, 2001. Print. Describes Athens as a limited democracy; the

first democracy in the world. Every male citizen over age twenty after two years

of military service could serve in the Ekklesia, who made decisions regarding

laws by electing panels to make them, elect generals, and initiate political trials..

Another institution of the democracy was the Boule, which consisted of 50 men

from each of the ten tribes of Athens, and they met every day to oversee all that

went on in the city, from plays and entertainment to markets and economics. The

third and final political assembly was the Dikasteria, and they were the courts of

Athens, but not all cases were put through as they could choose which ones they

wanted to judge.

Nardo, Don. Ancient Civilizations. Vol. 1. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven, 2002. Print.

Nardo's book provides a brief overview of ancient Greece from 4,000 B.C.E to

485 B.C.E. The Stone Age was considered one of the most stressful times in

history. Humans struggled to survive in hostile conditions, while keeping their

traditions.

Nardo, Don. Classical Greece and Rome. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven, 2002. Print.

Sparta and Athens led the Greeks through a successful invasion against the
 Persians. Because of their leading role Greece became imperial. After the

Peloponnesian War, Macedonia spontaneously rose to power. Alexander carries

out Philip's plan of invading Persia. Numerous victories later, Alexander created

the largest empire the world's ever seen.

Powell, Anton. Athens and Sparta: Constructing Greek Political and Social History from

478 BC. Portland, Or.: Areopagitica, 1988. Print. A handbook to the main topics

of Greek history in the classical period. It deals not only with the established

areas of political history, but also with some of the most important aspects of Greek

social history and historical methods to the main topics of Greek history in the

classical period.