ELECTRONIC

PRODUCTS
REVISION
NOTES
There are two main types of
Multimeter, Analogue (shown
left) and Digital (shown right).
Digital meters are very
accurate but analogue meters
can show a slowly changing
reading more clearly.
Multimeters have many
functions but all can measure
Voltage, Current and
Resistance.
When measuring unknown
quantities, always set the
meter to the highest range
first and work your way down.
MULTIMETERS
Measuring Current Flow
When measuring current flow
the meter is placed in series with
the component so the meter
becomes part of the circuit.
Measuring Resistance or Continuity.
When measuring resistance you
must disconnect any power and
try to have one end of the
component disconnected so that
you get a true reading.
You can also test for continuity or
breaks in a wire or copper track.
Select a low resistance range on
the meter and put the probes on
either end of the item you want to
test.
If the reading is 0.00 then there
is continuity (closed circuit).
If the display flashes a 1 then
there is no continuity (open
circuit).
Measuring
Voltage
Voltage readings
are taken across
the component you
want to measure.
Most readings will
be taken with the
negative lead
connected to 0v of
the circuit.
Resistor Colour Code
The first two bands represent the first two digits.
The third band is the multiplier. An easy way to
think of this is that the colour represents the
number of zeros.
The fourth band states the tolerance, (how
accurate the resistor is):
Red = 2 %
Gold = 5 %
Silver = 10 %
When gold is the third band then divide by 10
When silver is the third band then divide by 100
CALCULATIONS
For two or more resistors in series
=
R1 R2 R1+R2
For two resistors in parallel
R1
R2
=
R1 x R2
R1 + R2
For three or more resistors in parallel
R1
R2
R3
=
1 1 1 1
R
TOT
= R1 + R2 + R3
Colour 1st 2nd 3rd band - no. of zeros
Black 0 0 none
Brown 1 1 0
Red 2 2 0 0
Orange 3 3 0 0 0
Yellow 4 4 0 0 0 0
Green 5 5 0 0 0 0 0
Blue 6 6 0 0 0 0 0 0
Violet 7 7
Grey 8 8
White 9 9
Gold 0. (divide by 10)
Silver 0.0 (divide by 100)
Ohms Law
The relationship between voltage, current and
resistance is shown by Ohms Law:
V
I R
Power Law
The relationship between power, current and
voltage is shown by the Power Law:
P
I V
For three or more capacitors in series
For two or more capacitors in parallel
C1 + R2
=
C1
C2
1 1 1 1
C
TOT
= C1 + C2 + C3
C1 x C2
C1 + C2
For two capacitors in series
=
C1 C2
=
C2 C1 C3
Combining Components
+9V
0V
470
V = 9volts, R = 470ohms
I = = = 0.019A
V
R
9
470
+12V
0V
I
V = 12 volts
I = 0.5 amps
P = 12 x 0.5 = 6 Watts
TRANSISTORS
NPN bipolar
transistor
collector
base
emitter
PNP bipolar
transistor
collector
base
emitter
The standard Bipolar
transistor can be used
as a switch or an
amplifier, depending on
how you connect to it.
There are two polarities
of bipolar transistor,
NPN and PNP.
Transistor Parameters
The diagram shows the basic current flow and voltages when a
transistor is in use. These are called parameters.
V
BE
- The voltage between the base and emitter
V
CE
- The voltage between the collector and emitter.This is
usually the maximum voltage the transistor can tolerate.
I
C
- The amount of current flowing into the collector
I
B
- The amount of current flowing into the base.
h
FE
- The current gain of the transistor = I
C
I
B
I
C
I
B
V
BE
V
CE
+V
0V
c b e
c
b
e c b e
c b e c
b
e
b
e
c
TO18
Case
style
View
from
below
TO92 E-line TO220 TO39 TO3
Maunfacture and Packaging
Below is an extract from a manufacturers catalogue showing the details of various transistors. Notice how
the more you buy of one transistor, the cheaper each transistor becomes. N.B. Power = P
TOT
= I
C
x V
CE
Transistor Polarity Case I
C
(max) V
CE
h
FE
Power
Application
Number Style mA V (min/max) mW 1 - 24 25+ 100+
BC107 NPN TO18 100 45 110-450 300 Audio Driver 0.24 0.20 0.18
BC108 NPN TO18 100 20 110-800 300 General Purpose 0.24 0.20 0.18
2N3904 NPN TO92 200 40 100-300 350 Switching 0.13 0.10 0.08
ZTX300 NPN E-line 500 25 50-300 300 General Purpose 0.17 0.15 0.12
2N3053 NPN TO39 700 40 50-250 5000 General Purpose 0.43 0.33 0.28
BFY51 NPN TO39 1000 30 40 min. 800 General Purpose 0.39 0.31 0.26
TIP31A NPN TO220 3000 60 25 40W Audio Amp 0.58 0.51 0.44
2N3055 NPN TO3 15000 60 20 min. 115W High Power Amp 1.26 0.96 0.78
BC178 PNP TO18 100 25 125-500 300 General Purpose 0.28 0.23 0.17
BC559 PNP TO92 100 30 240 500 Low noise amplifier 0.10 0.05 0.04
ZTX500 PNP E-line 500 25 50-300 300 General Purpose 0.17 0.13 0.10
TIP122 NPN TO220 5000 100 5000 65W Hi-Power Darlington 0.84 0.60 0.44
TIP127 PNP TO220 10000 100 3000 125W Hi-Power Darlington 0.84 0.60 0.44
Price
NOTE: VBE must be 0.6v or more to turn on transistor.
e b c b c e
Tag denotes
emitter
Logic gates can be combined to perform more complex tasks
and decisions.
A common example
is a bistable latch
using two NOR
gates, also known as a
Set/Reset (S/R) flip-flop.
Pressing Set makes Q
go to 1 and remain in
that state after the switch
is released. Pressing
Reset will make Q
return to 0.
4 input
AND gate
LOGIC GATES
Logic gates are components used to make decisions in circuits. The inputs can be connected to various
sensors, and circuits can be designed to operate when certain conditions are met. When using logic, we
refer to +v as a 1 and zero volts as a 0. Each gate has its own rule it follows to produce an output.
Below is the most basic gate.
BUFFER gate
A circle on the output of the symbol will invert the
output, but the action of the gate stays the same.
NOT gate (INVERTER)
A Q
0 0
1 1
Rule: Output is on if input is on.
A Q
A Q
0 1
1 0
Rule: Output is off if input is on.
A Q
A B Q
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
A B Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0
A B Q
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
A
Q
B
OR gate AND gate
B
A
Q
Rule:
Output is on if A OR B are on
When a NOT gate is added to
the output, the rule is the same
but the output is the opposite - it
is inverted.
Rule:
Output is on if A AND B are on
With a NOT gate added to the
output, it becomes a
EXCLUSIVE OR (XOR) gate
B
A
Q
Rule:
Output is on if A OR B are on
but not both
With a NOT gate added to the
output, it becomes an
Q
NOR gate NAND gate
B
A
Rule:
Output is off if A OR B are on
Rule:
Output is off if A AND B are on
EXCLUSIVE OR (XNOR) gate
B
Rule:
Output is off if A OR B are on
but not both
A B Q
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 0
A
B
All these gates can have 3, 4 and
sometimes 8 or more inputs. The rules
are exactly the same as for their 2 input
version.
3 input
NOR gate
Output is off if A OR B OR C are on
A
B
C
Q
A
B
C
D
Q
Q
+V
Set
Reset
+V
TIMING
CONTROL
The 555 monostable
with timing components
INPUT
This can be any low
input trigger
OUTPUT
Any output device with
or without driver.
The Monostable
A monostable is a device that produces a single timed pulse that can control other devices, (mono meaning
one). The input can be anything that produces an input from high to low. The output can provide about
50mA and can drive low current devices. A transistor driver is used to drive high current devices.
OR
OR
A simple push-
to-make switch
with a pull-up
resistor.
The 555 timer can be connected
as a monostable. The timing is set
by R and C. The formula is
t = 1.1CR
An RC circuit
will produce a
brief low pulse
at power up.
The output can
supply enough
current to drive
an LED.
For a light bulb
output, a
transistor driver
is needed.
+V
0V
7
4 8
6
2
555
1
3
C
R
10K
1uF
10K
470 1K
BFY51
The Astable
An astable is a device that continually produces pulses at a certain rate known as its frequency. The 555
can also be connected as an astable. R2 can be a variable resistor so the frequency can be adjusted.
The frequency is determined
by the following formula:
f =
1.44
(R1+2R2)C
The output can drive an low
current devices. Again a
transistor or Darlington pair
must be used to drive higher
current devices.
A speaker can be
connected through
a capacitor to
produce an audible
tone.
The output is known as a square
wave with equal mark/space ratio.
+
+V
0V
R2
R1
C
7
4 8
6
2
555
1
3
47uF
A common I.C. used for timing is called the 555
timer. It is housed in a standard 8 pin DIL (Dual In
Line) package.
1
4
8
5
Notch shows top
of I.C.
Pin numbers are
placed on the
connections to
the I.C. in circuit
diagrams.
4 8
3
5 1
2
6
7
Most timing circuits are based around a capacitor
charging through a resistor. The graph shows
how the capacitor charges.
The formula t=CR is used to calculate the time it
takes for the capacitor to charge to 2/3 of +V.
8
6
4
2
t
2/3 of +V
supply voltage
C
R
VOUT
0V
+V
CIRCUIT SYMBOLS
Single
Cell
Multiple Cells
- Battery
Transformer Fuse
V
Voltmeter
A
Ammeter

Ohm-
meter
Earth
POWER AND MEASUREMENT
Moisture
Sensor
LDR - Light
Dependent Resistor
Thermistor Microphone Magentic
Reed Switch
Photo
Transistor
e
c
Photo
Diode
cathode
INPUT DEVICES - SENSORS
anode
anode
cathode
Diode
b
c
e
NPN
Transistor
b
c
e
PNP
Transistor
anode
cathode
Zener
Diode
gate
anode
cathode
Thyristor
gate
drain
source
FET - Field
Effect Transistor
SEMI-CONDUCTORS
Push-To-Break
Switch
4 Way Rotary
Switch
Relay switch,
SPDT
DPDT-Double
Pole Double throw
SPDT -
Single Pole
Double Throw
Push-To-Make
Switch
SWITCHES
RESISTORS & CAPACITORS
Fixed
Resistor
Variable Resistors
- Potentiometers
Preset
Resistor
Capacitor Polarised
Capacitor
Variable
Capacitor
+
OUTPUT DEVICES
LED - Light
Emitting Diode
Light
Bulb
Buzzer Bell Transducer Loudspeake
r
CONNECTIONS
Wires crossing, no
connection
Wire, connection
Terminal
Wire
Operational Amplifier
These devices have two inputs, inverting and non-inverting.
The way they work is as follows.
The difference between the voltages at the two inputs is
amplified to the output by about 10,000 times!
If VI is greater than VN then the output is negative.
If VI is less than VN then the output is positive.
If VI equals VN then the output is zero.
They usually use split power supplies, (+V, 0V, -V)
but can also be used with a normal battery.
SENSING CIRCUITS
Voltage Dividers
A voltage divider is simply a way of connecting
two resistances in series to produce a fraction of
the input voltage. The output is at the junction of
the two resistances and is determined by:
Vout = Vin x
R2
R1 + R2
1K
1K
0V
V
Voltmeter
reads 4.5v
9V
TIP! If the two resitors are the same value,
then the output will be exactly half the input.
0V
Vout
Vin
R1
R2
Sensing
One of the resistances can be
replaced with a sensor that
changes its resistance. When a
change in condition happens, the
output voltage changes. The
other resistor can be replaced by
a variable resistor giving the
sensor circuit some adjustment.
These components can be
placed in either order to produce
the opposite change in output.
0V
+V
Vout
Light detector
Vout
Dark detector
0V
+V
Vout Vout
Heat detector Frost detector
1K
BFY51
Output
This is the output from a light detector
circuit. The output voltage is
constantly changing and cannot be
used to drive any output devices.
The output from the sensor can be
connected to the base of a transistor as
shown. When the input voltage rises above
0.6v, then the output is switched on.
1
4
8
5
Here the operational amplifier has been used as a
comparator. It compares between the input sensor
voltage and a reference voltage from another voltage
divider. The output switches a relay to operate a
heater. When the heat rises the relay switches off until
the temperature drops again, switching the heater
back on. This is an example of sensor feedback.
47K
10K
10K
1K
BFY51
+9V
0V
3
2
7
4
6
741
+
-
8 pin DIL package of 741 device
+V
0V
VI VN
Inverting
input
Non-inverting
input
-V VO
+
-
741
2
3
7
4
6
RLY
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
volts
2
4
6
8
10
volts
dark light
0V
+V
from
sensor
V
on off
DRIVING OUTPUTS
Relays
A relay is a device that can
activate a switch using an
electro-magnet. This is useful
when devices need to be isolated
from the control circuitry. For
example a battery controlled
temperature sensor could activate
the relay which switches on a
240v mains fan.
The most basic type has just two
contacts (SPST) that connect
when the relay is energised. The
coil is connected to the battery
circuit and draws around 150mA.
Some contacts can have ratings
up to 16 Amps for car
accessories.
Coil
When energised, the coil becomes an
electro magnet, attracting the metal
lever, pushing the contacts together.
Relay energised.
Coil
connections
Switch
contacts
Metal armature
Some relays have 3 contacts,
(SPDT). When the relay is at
rest, the common and
normally-closed contacts
connect. When the relay is
energised, the common contact
is pushed against the normally-
open contact, forming a new
connection. The diagrams show
a single pole relay, meaning
one set of contacts. Relays with
2, (DPDT), 3 and 4 poles are
readily available
NC
COM
NO
These contacts are sometimes
known as changeover contacts.
Darlington Pair
Generally transistors have
either high power
capability, or high gain, but
not both. To over come
this, two transistors can be
connected together as
shown to form a Darlington
pair. The first transistor has
high gain, the second has
high current capability.
The final gain is the product
of the two.
eg.
T1 = BC108 - hfe = 400
T2 = TIP31 - hfe = 50
Overall gain =
400 x 50 = 20,000
The current capability is
that of T2. Best of both
worlds!
Two transistors wired as a
Darlington Pair to drive a bell.
T1
T2
collector
base
emitter
Darlington pairs can come in
single packages, eg. TIP122
Note: VBE
must be at
least 1.2v
to switch
on both
transistors.
(2 x 0.6v)
VBE
+V
0V
Thyristors
Thyristors are a semi-conductor
device that can switch on and latch
output devices.
Output
Input
10K
Once an input is sent to the gate,
the thyristor conducts and latches
on. The only way to switch off the
output is either disconnect the power
or short out the thyristor using a
push switch. Some thyristors can
switch up to 30 Amps.
0V
+V
Phil 97