Complex Analysis

Anton Deitmar
Contents
1 The complex numbers 3
2 Holomorphy 7
3 Power Series 9
4 Path Integrals 14
5 Cauchys Theorem 17
6 Homotopy 19
7 Cauchys Integral Formula 25
8 Singularities 31
9 The Residue Theorem 34
10 Construction of functions 38
11 Gamma & Zeta 45
1
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 2
12 The upper half plane 47
13 Conformal mappings 50
14 Simple connectedness 53
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 3
1 The complex numbers
Proposition 1.1 The complex conjugation has the
following properties:
(a) z + w = z + w,
(b) zw = z w,
(c) z
1
= z
1
, or
_
z
w
_
=
z
w
,
(d) z = z,
(e) z + z = 2Re(z), and z z = 2iIm(z).
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 4
Proposition 1.2 The absolute value satises:
(a) |z| = 0 z = 0,
(b) |zw| = |z||w|,
(c) |z| = |z|,
(d) |z
1
| = |z|
1
,
(e) |z + w| |z| + |w|, (triangle inequality).
Proposition 1.3 A subset A C is closed i for every
sequence (a
n
) in A that converges in C the limit
a = lim
n
a
n
also belongs to A.
We say that A contains all its limit points.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 5
Proposition 1.4 Let O denote the system of all open sets
in C. Then
(a) O, C O,
(b) A, B O A B O,
(c) A
i
O for every i I implies

iI
A
i
O.
Proposition 1.5 For a subset K C the following are
equivalent:
(a) K is compact.
(b) Every sequence (z
n
) in K has a convergent subsequence
with limit in K.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 6
Theorem 1.6 Let S C be compact and f : S C be
continuous. Then
(a) f(S) is compact, and
(b) there are z
1
, z
2
S such that for every z S,
|f(z
1
)| |f(z)| |f(z
2
)|.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 7
2 Holomorphy
Proposition 2.1 Let D C be open. If f, g are
holomorphic in D, then so are f for C, f + g, and fg.
We have
(f)

= f

, (f + g)

= f

+ g

,
(fg)

= f

g + fg

.
Let f be holomorphic on D and g be holomorphic on E,
where f(D) E. Then g f is holomorphic on D and
(g f)

(z) = g

(f(z))f

(z).
Finally, if f is holomorphic on D and f(z) = 0 for every
z D, then
1
f
is holomorphic on D with
(
1
f
)

(z) =
f

(z)
f(z)
2
.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 8
Theorem 2.2 (Cauchy-Riemann Equations)
Let f = u +iv be complex dierentiable at z = x +iy. Then
the partial derivatives u
x
, u
y
, v
x
, v
y
all exist and satisfy
u
x
= v
y
, u
y
= v
x
.
Proposition 2.3 Suppose f is holomorphic on a disk D.
(a) If f

= 0 in D, then f is constant.
(b) If |f| is constant, then f is constant.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 9
3 Power Series
Proposition 3.1 Let (a
n
) be a sequence of complex
numbers.
(a) Suppose that

a
n
converges. Then the sequence (a
n
)
tends to zero. In particular, the sequence (a
n
) is bounded.
(b) If

|a
n
| converges, then

a
n
converges. In this case we
say that

a
n
converges absolutely.
(c) If the series

b
n
converges with b
n
0 and if there is an
> 0 such that b
n
|a
n
|, then the series

a
n
converges absolutely.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 10
Proposition 3.2 If a powers series

c
n
z
n
converges for
some z = z
0
, then it converges absolutely for every z C
with |z| < |z
0
|. Consequently, there is an element R of the
interval [0, ] such that
(a) for every |z| < R the series

c
n
z
n
converges absolutely,
and
(b) for every |z| > R the series

c
n
z
n
is divergent.
The number R is called the radius of convergence of the
power series

c
n
z
n
.
For every 0 r < R the series converges uniformly on the
closed disk D
r
(0).
Lemma 3.3 The power series

n
c
n
z
n
and

n
c
n
nz
n1
have the same radius of convergence.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 11
Theorem 3.4 Let

n
c
n
z
n
have radius of convergence
R > 0. Dene f by
f(z) =

n=0
c
n
z
n
, |z| < R.
Then f is holomorphic on the disk D
R
(0) and
f

(z) =

n=0
c
n
nz
n1
, |z| < R.
Proposition 3.5 Every rational function
p(z)
q(z)
, p, q C[z],
can be written as a convergent power series around z
0
C if
q(z
0
) = 0.
Lemma 3.6 There are polynomials g
1
, . . . g
n
with
1

n
j=1
(z
j
)
n
j
=
n

j=1
g
j
(z)
(z
j
)
n
j
.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 12
Theorem 3.7
(a) e
z
is holomorphic in C and

z
e
z
= e
z
.
(b) For all z, w C we have
e
z+w
= e
z
e
w
.
(c) e
z
= 0 for every z C and e
z
> 0 if z is real.
(d) |e
z
| = e
Re(z)
, so in particular |e
iy
| = 1.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 13
Proposition 3.8 The power series
cos z =

n=0
(1)
n
z
2n
(2n)!
, sin z =

n=0
(1)
n
z
2n+1
(2n + 1)!
converge for every z C. We have

z
cos z = sin z,

z
sin z = cos z,
as well as
e
iz
= cos z + i sin z,
cos z =
1
2
(e
iz
+ e
iz
), sin z =
1
2i
(e
iz
e
iz
).
Proposition 3.9 We have
e
z+2i
= e
z
and consequently,
cos(z + 2) = cos z, sin(z + 2) = sin z
for every z C. Further, e
z+
= e
z
holds for every z C i
it holds for one z C i 2iZ.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 14
4 Path Integrals
Theorem 4.1 Let be a path and let be a
reparametrization of . Then
_

f(z)dz =
_

f(z)dz.
Theorem 4.2 (Fundamental Theorem of Calculus)
Suppose that : [a, b] D is a path and F is holomorphic
on D, and that F

is continuous. Then
_

(z)dz = F((b)) F((a)).

COMPLEX ANALYSIS 15
Proposition 4.3 Let : [a, b] C be a path and
f : Im() C continuous. Then

f(z)dz

_
b
a
|f((t))

(t)| dt.
In particular, if |f(z)| M for some M > 0, then

f(z)dz

Mlength().
Theorem 4.4 Let be a path and let f
1
, f
2
, . . . be
continuous on

. Assume that the sequence f

n
converges
uniformly to f. Then
_

f
n
(z)dz
_

f(z)dz.
Proposition 4.5 Let D C be open. Then D is
connected i it is path connected.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 16
Proposition 4.6 Let f : D C be holomorphic where D
is a region. If f

= 0, then f is constant.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 17
5 Cauchys Theorem
Proposition 5.1 Let be a path. Let be a path with the
same image but with reversed orientation. Let f be
continuous on

. Then
_

f(z)dz =
_

f(z)dz.
Theorem 5.2 (Cauchys Theorem for triangles)
Let be a triangle and let f be holomorphic on an open set
that contains and the interior of . Then
_

f(z)dz = 0.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 18
Theorem 5.3 (Fundamental theorem of Calculus II)
Let f be holomorphic on the star shaped region D. Let z
0
be
a central point of D. Dene
F(z) =
_
z
z
0
f()d,
where the integral is the path integral along the line segment
[z
0
, z]. Then F is holomorphic on D and
F

= f.
Theorem 5.4 (Cauchys Theorem for -shaped D)
Let D be star shaped and let f be holomorphic on D. Then
for every closed path in D we have
_

f(z)dz = 0.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 19
6 Homotopy
Theorem 6.1 Let D be a region and f holomorphic on D.
If and are homotopic closed paths in D, then
_

f(z)dz =
_

f(z)dz.
Theorem 6.2 (Cauchys Theorem)
Let D be a simply connected region and f holomorphic on
D. Then for every closed path in D we have
_

f(z)dz = 0.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 20
Theorem 6.3 Let D be a simply connected region and let
f be holomorphic on D. Then f has a primitive, i.e., there is
F Hol(D) such that
F

= f.
Theorem 6.4 Let D be a simply connected region that
does not contain zero. Then there is a function f Hol(D)
such that e
f
(z) = z for each z D and
_
z
z
0
1
w
dw = f(z) f(z
0
), z, z
0
D.
The function f is uniquely determined up to adding 2ik for
some k Z. Every such function is called a holomorphic
logarithm for D.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 21
Theorem 6.5 Let D be simply connected and let g be
holomorphic on D. [Assume that also the derivative g

is
holomorphic on D.] Suppose that g has no zeros in D. Then
there exists f Hol(D) such that
g = e
f
.
The function f is uniquely determined up to adding a
constant of the form 2ik for some k Z. Every such
function f is called a holomorphic logarithm of g.
Proposition 6.6 Let D be a region and g Hol(D). Let
f : D C be continuous with e
f
= g. then f is
holomorphic, indeed it is a holomorphic logarithm for g.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 22
Proposition 6.7 (standard branch of the logarithm)
The function
log(z) = log(re
i
) = log
R
(r) + i,
where r > 0, log
R
is the real logarithm and < < , is a
holomorphic logarithm for C \ (, 0]. The same formula
for, say, 0 < < 2 gives a holomorphic logarithm for
C \ [0, ).
More generally, for any simply connected D that does not
contain zero any holomorphic logarithm is of the form
log
D
(z) = log
R
(|z|) + i(z),
where is a continuous function on D with (z) arg(z).
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 23
Proposition 6.8 For |z| < 1 we have
log(1 z) =

n=1
z
n
n
,
or, for |w 1| < 1 we have
log(w) =

n=1
(1 w)
n
n
.
Theorem 6.9 Let : [a, b] C be a closed path with
0 /

. Then n(, 0) is an integer.

COMPLEX ANALYSIS 24
Theorem 6.10 Let D be a region. The following are
equivalent:
(a) D is simply connected,
(b) n(, z) = 0 for every z / D, closed path in D,
(c)
_

f(z)dz = 0 for every closed path in D and every

f Hol(D),
(d) every f Hol(D) has a primitive,
(e) every f Hol(D) without zeros has a holomorphic
logarithm.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 25
7 Cauchys Integral Formula
Theorem 7.1 (Cauchys integral formula)
Let D be an open disk an let f be holomorphic in a
neighbourhood of the closure

D. Then for every z D we
have
f(z) =
1
2i
_
D
f(w)
w z
dw.
Theorem 7.2 (Liouvilles theorem)
Let f be holomorphic and bounded on C. Then f is constant.
Theorem 7.3 (Fundamental theorem of algebra)
Every non-constant polynomial with complex coecients has
a zero in C.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 26
Theorem 7.4 Let D be a disk and f holomorphic in a
neighbourhood of

D. Let z D. Then all higher derivatives
f
(n)
(z) exist and satisfy
f
(n)
(z) =
n!
2i
_
D
f(w)
(w z)
n+1
dw.
Corollary 7.5 Suppose f is holomorphic in an open set D.
Then f has holomorphic derivatives of all orders.
Theorem 7.6 (Moreras Theorem)
Suppose f is continuous on the open set D C and that
_

f(w)dw = 0 for every triangle which together with its

interior lies in D. Then f Hol(D).
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 27
Theorem 7.7 Let a C. Let f be holomorphic in the disk
D = D
R
(a) for some R > 0. Then there exist c
n
C such
that for z D the function f can be represented by the
following convergent power series,
f(z) =

n=0
c
n
(z a)
n
.
The constants c
n
are given by
c
n
=
1
2i
_
D
r
(a)
f(w)
(w a)
n+1
dw =
f
(n)
(a)
n!
,
for every 0 < r < R.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 28
Proposition 7.8 Let f(z) =

n=0
a
n
z
n
and
g(z) =

n=0
b
n
z
n
be complex power series with radii of
convergence R
1
, R
2
. Then the power series
h(z) =

n=0
c
n
z
n
, where c
n
=
n

k=0
a
k
b
nk
has radius of convergence at least R = min(R
1
, R
2
) and
h(z) = f(z)g(z) for |z| < R.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 29
Theorem 7.9 (Identity theorem for power series)
Let f(z) =

n=0
c
n
(z z
0
)
n
be a power series with radius of
convergence R > 0. Suppose that there is a sequence z
j
C
with 0 < |z
j
| < R and z
j
z
0
as j , as well as
f(z
j
) = 0. Then c
n
= 0 for every n 0.
Corollary 7.10 (Identity theorem for holomorphic
functions)
Let D be a region. If two holomorphic functions f, g on D
coincide on a set A D that has a limit point in D, then
f = g.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 30
Theorem 7.11 (Local maximum principle)
Let f be holomorphic on the disk D = D
R
(a), a C, R > 0.
If |f(z)| |f(a)| for every z D, then f is constant.
A holomorphic function has no proper local maximum.
Theorem 7.12 (Global maximum principle)
Let f be holomorphic on the bounded region D and
continuous on

D. Then |f| attains its maximum on the
boundary D =

D \ D.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 31
8 Singularities
Theorem 8.1 (Laurent expansion)
Let a C, 0 < R < S and let
A = {z C : R < |z a| < S}.
Let f Hol(A). For z A we have the absolutely
convergent expansion (Laurent series):
f(z) =

n=
c
n
(z a)
n
,
where
c
n
=
1
2i
_
D
r
(a)
f(w)
(w a)
n+1
dw
for every R < r < S.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 32
Proposition 8.2 Let a C, 0 < R < S and let
A = {z C : R < |z a| < S}.
Let f Hol(A) and assume that
f(z) =

n=
b
n
(z a)
n
.
Then b
n
= c
n
for all n, where c
n
is as in Theorem 8.1.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 33
Theorem 8.3
(a) Let f Hol(D
r
(a)). Then f has a zero of order k at a i
lim
za
(z a)
k
f(z) = c,
where c = 0.
(b) Let f Hol(D

r
(a)). Then f has a pole of order k at a i
lim
za
(z a)
k
f(z) = d,
where d = 0.
Corollary 8.4 Suppose f is holomorphic in a disk D
r
(a).
Then f has a zero of order k at a if and only if
1
f
has a pole
of order k at a.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 34
9 The Residue Theorem
Lemma 9.1 Let D be simply connected and bounded. Let
a D and let f be holomorphic in D \ {a}. Assume that f
extends continuously to D. Let
f(z) =

n=
c
n
(z a)
n
be the Laurent expansion of f around a. Then
_
D
f(z)dz = 2i c
1
.
Theorem 9.2 (Residue Theorem)
Let D be simply connected and bounded. Let f be
holomorphic on D except for nitely many points
a
1
, . . . , a
n
D. Assume that f extends continuously to D.
Then
_
D
f(z)dz = 2i
n

k=1
res
z=a
k
f(z) = 2i

zD
res
z
f(z).
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 35
Proposition 9.3 Let f(z) =
p(z)
q(z)
, where p, q are
polynomials. Assume that q has no zero on R and that
1 + deg p < deg q. Then
_

f(x)dx = 2i

z:Im(z)>0
res
z
f(z).
Theorem 9.4 (Counting zeros and poles)
Let D be simply connected and bounded. Let f be
holomorphic in a neighbourhood of

D, except for nitely
many poles in D. Suppose that f is non-zero on D. Then
1
2i
_
D
f

(z)
f(z)
dz =

zD
ord
z
f(z) = N P,
where N is the number of zeros of f, counted with
multiplicity, and P is the number of poles of f, counted with
multiplicity.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 36
Theorem 9.5 (Rouche)
Let D be simply connected and bounded. Let f, g be
holomorphic in

D and suppose that |f(z)| > |g(z)| on D.
Then f and f + g have the same number of zeros in D,
counted with multiplicities.
Lemma 9.6 If f has a simple pole at z
0
, then
res
z
0
f(z) = lim
zz
0
(z z
0
)f(z).
If f has a pole at z
0
of order k > 1. then
res
z
0
f(z) =
1
(k 1)!
g
(k1)
(z
0
),
where g(z) = (z z
0
)
k
f(z).
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 37
Lemma 9.7 Let f have a simple pole at z
0
of residue c. For
> 0 let

(t) = z
0
+ e
it
, t [t
1
, t
2
],
where 0 t
1
< t
2
2. Then
lim
o
_

f(z)dz = ic(t
2
t
1
).
Proposition 9.8
_

0
sin x
x
dx =

2
.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 38
10 Construction of functions
Lemma 10.1 If

j
z
j
exists and is not zero, then z
n
1.
Proposition 10.2 The product

j
z
j
converges to a
non-zero number z C if and only if the sum

j=1
log z
j
converges. In that case we have
exp(
_
_

j=1
log z
j
_
_
=

j
z
j
= z.
Proposition 10.3 The sum

n
log z
n
converges absolutely
if and only if the sum

n
(z
n
1) converges absolutely.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 39
Lemma 10.4 If |z| 1 and p 0 then
|E
p
(z) 1| |z|
p+1
.
Theorem 10.5 Let (a
n
) be a sequence of complex numbers
such that |a
n
| as n and a
n
= 0 for all n. If p
n
is
a sequence of integers 0 such that

n=1
_
r
|a
n
|
_
p
n
+1
<
for every r > 0, then
f(z) =

n=1
E
p
n
_
z
a
n
_
converges and is an entire function (=holomorphic on entire
C) with zeros exactly at the points a
n
. The order of a zero at
a equals the number of times a occurs as one of the a
n
.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 40
Corollary 10.6 Let (a
n
) be a sequence in C that tends to
innity. Then there exists an entire function that has zeros
exactly at the a
n
.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 41
Theorem 10.7 (Weierstra Factorization Theorem)
Let f be an entire function. Let a
n
be the sequence of zeros
repeated with multiplicity. Then there is an entire function g
and a sequence p
n
0 such that
f(z) = z
m
e
g(z)

n
E
p
n
_
z
a
n
_
.
Theorem 10.8 Let D be a region and let (a
j
) be a
sequence in D with no limit point in D. then there is a
holomorphic function f on D whose zeros are precisely the a
j
with the multiplicities of the occurrence.
Theorem 10.9 For every principal parts distribution (h
n
)
on C there is a meromorphic function f on C with the given
principal parts.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 42
Theorem 10.10 Let f Mer(C) with principal parts (h
n
).
then there are polynomials p
n
such that
f = g +

n
(h
n
p
n
)
for some entire function g.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 43
Theorem 10.11 For every z C we have
cot z =
1
z
+

n=1
_
1
z + n
+
1
z n
_
=
1
z
+

n=1
_
2z
z
2
n
2
_
and the sum converges locally uniformly in C \ Z.
Lemma 10.12 If f Hol(D) for a region D and if
f(z) =

n=1
f
n
(z),
where the product converges locally uniformly, then
f

(z)
f(z)
=

n=1
f

n
(z)
f
n
(z)
,
and the sum converges locally uniformly in D \ {zeros of f}.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 44
Theorem 10.13
sin z = z

n=1
_
1
z
2
n
2
_
.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 45
11 Gamma & Zeta
Proposition 11.1 The Gamma function extends to a
holomorphic function on C \ {0, 1, 2, . . . }. At z = k it
has a simple pole of residue (1)
k
/k!.
Theorem 11.2 The -function satises
(z) =
e
z
z

j=1
(1 +
z
j
)
1
e
z/j
.
Theorem 11.3

(z) =
1
z
+

n=1
z
n(n + z)
.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 46
Theorem 11.4 The function (s) extends to a
meromorphic function on C with a simple pole of residue 1 at
s = 1 and is holomorphic elsewhere.
Theorem 11.5 The Riemann zeta function satises
(s) =

p prime
(1 p
s
)
1
We have the functional equation
(1 s) = (2)
s
cos(
s
2
)(s)(s).
(s) has no zeros in Re(s) > 1. It has zeros at
s = 2, 4, 6, . . . called the trivial zeros. All other zeros
lie in 0 Re(s) 1.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 47
12 The upper half plane
Theorem 12.1 Every biholomorphic automorphism of H is
of the form z g.z for some g SL
2
(R).
Lemma 12.2 (Schwarzs Lemma)
Let D = D
1
(0) and let f Hol(D). Suppose that
(a) |f(z)| 1 for z D,
(b) f(0) = 0.
Then |f

(0)| 1 and |f(z)| |z| for every z D. Moreover,

if |f

(0)| = 1 or if |f(z)| = |z| for some z D, z = 0, then

there is a constant c, |c| = 1 such that f(z) = cz for every
z D.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 48
Proposition 12.3 If |a| < 1, then
a
is a biholomorphic
map of D onto itself. It is self-inverse, i.e.,
a

a
= Id.
Theorem 12.4 Let f : D D be holomorphic and
bijective with f(a) = 0. Then there is a c C with |c| = 1
such that f = c
a
.
Lemma 12.5 The map (z) =
zi
z+i
maps H
biholomorphically to D. Its inverse is
1
(w) = i
w+1
w1
.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 49
Proposition 12.6 F is a fundamental domain for the
action of on H. This means
(a) For every z H there is such that z F.
(b) If z, w F, z = w and there is with z = w, then
z, w F.
Proposition 12.7 Let k > 1. The Eisenstein series G
k
(z)
is a modular form of weight 2k. We have G
k
() = 2(2k),
where is the Riemann zeta function.
Theorem 12.8 Let f = 0 be a modular form of weight 2k.
Then
v

(f) +

z\H
1
e
z
v
z
(f) =
k
6
.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 50
13 Conformal mappings
Theorem 13.1 Let D be a region and f : D C a map.
Let z
0
D. If f

(z
0
) exists and f

(z
0
) = 0, then f preserves
angles at z
0
.
Lemma 13.2 If f Hol(D) and is dened on D D by
(z, w) =
_
f(z)f(w)
zw
w = z,
f

(z) w = z,
then is continuous.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 51
Theorem 13.3 Let f Hol(D), z
0
D and f

(z
0
) = 0.
then D contains a neighbourhood V of z
0
such that
(a) f is injective on V ,
(b) W = f(V ) is open,
(c) if g : W V is dened by g(f(z)) = z, then
g Hol(W).
Theorem 13.4 Let D be a region, f Hol(D).
non-constant, z
0
D and w
0
= f(z
0
). Let m be the order of
the zero of f(z) w
0
at z
0
.
then there exists a neighbourhood V of z
0
, V D, and
Hol(D), such that
(a) f(z) = z
0
+ (z)
m
,
(b)

has no zero in V and is an invertible mapping of V

onto a disk D
r
(0).
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 52
Theorem 13.5 Let D be a region, f Hol(D), f injective.
Then for every z D we have f

(z) = 0 and the inverse of f

is holomorphic.
Theorem 13.6 Let F Hol(D) and assume that F is
uniformly bounded on every compact subset of D. Then F is
normal.
Theorem 13.7 (Riemann mapping theorem)
Every simply connected region D = C is conformally
equivalent to the unit disk D.
COMPLEX ANALYSIS 53
14 Simple connectedness
Theorem 14.1 Let D be a region. The following are
equivalent:
(a) D is simply connected,
(b) n(, z) = 0 for every z / D, closed path in D,
(c)

C \ D is connected,
(d) For every f Hol(D) there exists a sequence of
polynomials p
n
that converges to f locally uniformly,
(e)
_

f(z)dz = 0 for every closed path in D and every

f Hol(D),
(f) every f Hol(D) has a primitive,
(g) every f Hol(D) without zeros has a holomorphic
logarithm,
(h) every f Hol(D) without zeros has a holomorphic square
root,
(i) either D = C or there is a biholomorphic map f : D D,
(j) D is homeomorphic to the unit disk D.