Assemblers Assemblers

Syst em Sof t w ar e Syst em Sof t w ar e yy

by by Lel and L. Bec k Lel and L. Bec k
Chapt er 2 Chapt er 2
1
Role of Assembler Role of Assembler Role of Assembler Role of Assembler
Source
Object
Program
Assembler
Code
Linker
Executable
Code Code
Loader
2
Chapter 2 Chapter 2 -- --Outline Outline Chapter 2 Chapter 2 Outline Outline
Basic Assembler Functions Basic Assembler Functions
Machine-dependent Assembler Features
M hi i d d t A bl F t Machine-independent Assembler Features
Assembler Design Options
3
Introduction to Assemblers Introduction to Assemblers Introduction to Assemblers Introduction to Assemblers
Fundamental functions Fundamental functions
translating mnemonic operation codes to their
machine language equivalents machine language equivalents
assigning machine addresses to symbolic
labels labels
M hi d d Machine dependency
different machine instruction formats and codes
4
Example Program (Fig. 2.1) Example Program (Fig. 2.1) Example Program (Fig. 2.1) Example Program (Fig. 2.1)
Purpose
reads records frominput device (code F1) reads records from input device (code F1)
copies them to output device (code 05)
at the end of the file writes EOF on the output at the end of the file, writes EOF on the output
device, then RSUB to the operating system
5
Example Program (Fig. 2.1) Example Program (Fig. 2.1) Example Program (Fig. 2.1) Example Program (Fig. 2.1)
Data transfer (RD, WD) ( , )
a buffer is used to store record
buffering is necessary for different I/O rates buffering is necessary for different I/O rates
the end of each record is marked with a null
character (00 ) character (00
16
)
the end of the file is indicated by a zero-length
record record
Subroutines (JSUB, RSUB)
RDREC WRREC RDREC, WRREC
save link register first before nested jump
6
Assembler Directives Assembler Directives Assembler Directives Assembler Directives
Pseudo-Instructions Pseudo Instructions
Not translated into machine instructions
Providing information to the assembler Providing information to the assembler
Basic assembler directives
START START
END
BYTE
WORD
RESB
RESW
7
Assemblers functions Assemblers functions Assemblers functions Assemblers functions
Convert mnemonic operation codes to Convert mnemonic operation codes to
their machine language equivalents
C t b li d t th i Convert symbolic operands to their
equivalent machine addresses
Build the machine instructions in the
proper format
Convert the data constants to internal
machine representations p
Write the object program and the
assembly listing
8
assembly listing
Example of Instruction Assemble Example of Instruction Assemble Example of Instruction Assemble Example of Instruction Assemble
STCH BUFFER,X 549039
8 1 15
opcode x address
m
(54)
16
1 (001)
2
(039)
16
m
Forward reference
9
Difficulties: Forward Reference Difficulties: Forward Reference Difficulties: Forward Reference Difficulties: Forward Reference
Forward reference: reference to a label that Forward reference: reference to a label that
is defined later in the program.
Loc Label Operator Operand
1000 FIRST STL RETADR
1003 CLOOP JSUB RDREC 1003 CLOOP JSUB RDREC

1012 J CLOOP

1033 RETADR RESW 1
10
Two Pass Assembler Two Pass Assembler Two Pass Assembler Two Pass Assembler
Pass 1 Pass 1
Assign addresses to all statements in the program
Save the values assigned to all labels for use in Pass 2 Save the values assigned to all labels for use in Pass 2
Perform some processing of assembler directives
Pass 2 Pass 2
Assemble instructions
Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD Generate data values defined by BYTE, WORD
Perform processing of assembler directives not done in
Pass 1
Write the object program and the assembly listing
11
Two Pass Assembler Two Pass Assembler Two Pass Assembler Two Pass Assembler
Read from input line Read from input line
LABEL, OPCODE, OPERAND
Source
P 1 P 2
Intermediate
Object
program
Pass 1 Pass 2
file
Object
codes
OPTAB SYMTAB SYMTAB
12
Data Structures Data Structures Data Structures Data Structures
Operation Code Table (OPTAB)
Symbol Table (SYMTAB) Symbol Table (SYMTAB)
Location Counter(LOCCTR)
13
OPTAB (operation code table) OPTAB (operation code table) OPTAB (operation code table) OPTAB (operation code table)
Content
menmonic, machine code (instruction format,
length) etc.
Characteristic
static table
Implementation Implementation
array or hash table, easy for search
14
SYMTAB (symbol table) SYMTAB (symbol table) SYMTAB (symbol table) SYMTAB (symbol table)
Content
COPY 1000
Content
label name, value, flag, (type, length) etc.
Characteristic
COPY 1000
FIRST 1000
CLOOP 1003
ENDFIL 1015
Characteristic
dynamic table (insert, delete, search)
ENDFIL 1015
EOF 1024
THREE 102D
Implementation
hash table, non-random keys, hashing function
ZERO 1030
RETADR 1033
LENGTH 1036
y g
BUFFER 1039
RDREC 2039
15
Object Program Object Program Object Program Object Program
Header
Col 1 H Col. 1 H
Col. 2~7 Program name
Col. 8~13 Starting address (hex) g ( )
Col. 14-19 Length of object program in bytes (hex)
Text
Col.1 T
Col.2~7 Starting address in this record (hex)
C l 8 9 L h f bj d i hi d i b (h ) Col. 8~9 Length of object code in this record in bytes (hex)
Col. 10~69Object code (69-10+1)/6=10 instructions
End End
Col.1 E
Col 2~7 Address of first executable instruction (hex)
16
Col.2 7 Address of first executable instruction (hex)
(END program_name)
Fig. 2.3 Fig. 2.3 Fig. 2.3 Fig. 2.3
H COPY 001000 00107A
T 001000 1E 141033 482039 001036 281030 301015 482061 ...
T 00101E 15 0C1036 482061 081044 4C0000 454F46 000003 000000
T 002039 1E 041030 001030 E0205D 30203F D8205D 281030 T 002039 1E 041030 001030 E0205D 30203F D8205D 281030
T 002057 1C 101036 4C0000 F1 001000 041030 E02079 302064
T 002073 07 382064 4C0000 05
E 001000
17
Homework #1 Homework #1 Homework #1 Homework #1
SUM START 4000
FIRST LDX ZERO FIRST LDX ZERO
LDA ZERO
LOOP ADD TABLE,X ,
TIX COUNT
JLT LOOP
STA TOTAL STA TOTAL
RSUB
TABLE RESW 2000
COUNT RESW 1
ZERO WORD 0
TOTAL RESW 1 TOTAL RESW 1
END FIRST
18
Assembler Design Assembler Design Assembler Design Assembler Design
Machine Dependent Assembler Features ac e epe de t sse b e eatu es
instruction formats and addressing modes
program relocation p g
Machine Independent Assembler Features
literals
symbol-defining statements
expressions
program blocks
control sections and program linking
19
Machine Machine--dependent dependent Machine Machinedependent dependent
Assembler Features Assembler Features
Sec . 2 Sec . 2--22
I nst r uc t i on f or mat s and addr essi ng modes I nst r uc t i on f or mat s and addr essi ng modes
Pr ogr am r el oc at i on Pr ogr am r el oc at i on
20
Instruction Format and Addressing Mode Instruction Format and Addressing Mode Instruction Format and Addressing Mode Instruction Format and Addressing Mode
SIC/XE SIC/XE
PC-relative or Base-relative addressing: op m
I di t dd i @ Indirect addressing: op @m
Immediate addressing: op #c
Extended format: +op m Extended format: +op m
Index addressing: op m,x
register-to-register instructions register-to-register instructions
larger memory -> multi-programming (program allocation)
Example program Example program
Figure 2.5
21
Translation Translation Translation Translation
Register translation g
register name (A, X, L, B, S, T, F, PC, SW) and their
values (0,1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9)
preloaded in SYMTAB
Address translation
Most register-memory instructions use program
counter relative or base relative addressing
Format 3: 12-bit address field
base-relative: 0~4095
pc relative: 2048~2047 pc-relative: -2048~2047
Format 4: 20-bit address field
22
PC PC--Relative Addressing Modes Relative Addressing Modes PC PCRelative Addressing Modes Relative Addressing Modes
PC-relative
10 0000 FIRST STL RETADR 17202D
op(6) n I xbp e disp(12)
(14)
16
1 1 0 0 1 0 (02D)
16
displacement= RETADR - PC = 30-3 = 2D
40 0017 J CLOOP 3F2FEC
op(6) n I xbp e disp(12)
(3C)
16
1 1 0 0 1 0 (FEC)
16
op(6) n I xbp e disp(12)
23
displacement= CLOOP-PC= 6 - 1A= -14= FEC
Base Base--Relative Addressing Modes Relative Addressing Modes Base BaseRelative Addressing Modes Relative Addressing Modes
Base relative Base-relative
base register is under the control of the programmer
12 LDB #LENGTH 12 LDB #LENGTH
13 BASE LENGTH
160 104E STCH BUFFER X 57C003 160 104E STCH BUFFER, X 57C003
op(6) n I xbp e disp(12)
( 54 )
16
1 1 1 1 0 0 ( 003 )
16
(54) 1 1 1 0 1 0 0036-1051= -101B
16
p( ) p p( )
( )
16
displacement= BUFFER - B = 0036 - 0033 = 3
NOBASE is used to inform the assembler that the contents
24
of the base register no longer be relied upon for addressing
Immediate Address Translation Immediate Address Translation Immediate Address Translation Immediate Address Translation
Immediate addressing
55 0020 LDA #3 010003
( 00 )
16
0 1 0 0 0 0 ( 003 )
16
op(6) n I xbp e disp(12)
133 103C +LDT #4096 75101000
( 74 )
16
0 1 0 0 0 1 ( 01000 )
16
op(6) n I xbp e disp(20)
25
Immediate Address Translation Immediate Address Translation(Cont.) (Cont.) Immediate Address Translation Immediate Address Translation(Cont.) (Cont.)
Immediate addressing
12 0003 LDB #LENGTH 69202D
( 68)
16
0 1 0 0 1 0 ( 02D )
16
op(6) n I xbp e disp(12)
( 68)
16
0 1 0 0 0 0 ( 033)
16
690033
the immediate operand is the symbol LENGTH the immediate operand is the symbol LENGTH
the address of this symbol LENGTH is loaded into
register B register B
LENGTH=0033=PC+displacement=0006+02D
if immediate mode is specified the target address
26
if immediate mode is specified, the target address
becomes the operand
Indirect Address Translation Indirect Address Translation Indirect Address Translation Indirect Address Translation
Indirect addressing Indirect addressing
target addressing is computed as usual (PC-
relative or BASE-relative) relative or BASE relative)
only the n bit is set to 1
70 002A J @RETADR 3E2003 70 002A J @RETADR 3E2003
op(6) n I xbp e disp(12)
( 3C )
16
1 0 0 0 1 0 ( 003 )
16
TA=RETADR=0030 TA RETADR 0030
TA=(PC)+disp=002D+0003
27
Program Relocation Program Relocation
Example Fig. 2.1
Absolute program, starting address 1000
e.g. 55 101B LDA THREE 00102D
Relocate the program to 2000 p g
e.g. 55 101B LDA THREE 00202D
Each Absolute address should be modified
Example Fig. 2.5:
Except for absolute address the rest of the instructions Except for absolute address, the rest of the instructions
need not be modified
not a memory address (immediate addressing)
PC-relative, Base-relative
The only parts of the program that require modification at
load time are those that specify direct addresses
28
load time are those that specify direct addresses
Example Example Example Example
29
Relocatable Program Relocatable Program Relocatable Program Relocatable Program
Modification record
Col 1 M
Col 2-7 Starting location of the address field to be
modified, relative to the beginning of the program
Col 8-9length of the address field to be modified, in half-
bytes
30
Object Code Object Code Object Code Object Code
31
Machine Machine--Independent Assembler Independent Assembler Machine MachineIndependent Assembler Independent Assembler
Features Features
Li t er al s Li t er al s
Symbol Def i ni ng St at ement Symbol Def i ni ng St at ement
Ex pr essi ons Ex pr essi ons
Pr ogr am Bl oc k s Pr ogr am Bl oc k s
Cont r ol Sec t i ons and Pr ogr am Cont r ol Sec t i ons and Pr ogr am
Li nk i ng Li nk i ng
32
Literals Literals
Design idea
Let programmers to be able to write the value Let programmers to be able to write the value
of a constant operand as a part of the
instruction that uses it. instruction that uses it.
This avoids having to define the constant
elsewhere in the programand make up a label elsewhere in the program and make up a label
for it.
Example Example
e.g. 45 001A ENDFILLDA =CEOF 032010
93 LTORG
002D * =CEOF 454F46
e.g. 215 1062 WLOOP TD =X05 E32011
33
Literals vs. Immediate Operands Literals vs. Immediate Operands pp
Immediate Operands Immediate Operands
The operand value is assembled as part of the
machine instruction machine instruction
e.g. 55 0020 LDA #3 010003
Literals Literals
The assembler generates the specified value
as a constant at some other memory location as a constant at some other memory location
e.g. 45 001A ENDFILLDA =CEOF 032010
Compare (Fig 2 6) Compare (Fig. 2.6)
e.g. 45 001A ENDFIL LDA EOF 032010
80 002D EOF BYTE CEOF454F46
34
80 002D EOF BYTE C EOF 454F46
Literal Literal --Implementation (1/3) Implementation (1/3) Literal Literal Implementation (1/3) Implementation (1/3)
Literal pools Literal pools
Normally literals are placed into a pool at the
end of the program end of the program
see Fig. 2.10 (END statement)
In some cases it is desirable to place literals In some cases, it is desirable to place literals
into a pool at some other location in the object
program program
assembler directive LTORG
reason: keep the literal operand close to the reason: keep the literal operand close to the
instruction
35
Literal Literal --Implementation (2/3) Implementation (2/3)
Duplicate literals
e g 215 1062 WLOOP TD =X05 e.g. 215 1062 WLOOP TD =X05
e.g. 230 106B WD =X05
The assemblers should recognize duplicate
literals and store only one copy of the specified
d t l data value
Comparison of the defining expression
S lit l ith diff t l Same literal name with different value, e.g.
LOCCTR=*
Comparison of the generated data value Comparison of the generated data value
The benefits of using generate data value are usually
not great enough to justify the additional complexity in
th bl
36
the assembler
Literal Literal --Implementation (3/3) Implementation (3/3)
LITTAB
li l h d l dl h h dd literal name, the operand value and length, the address
assigned to the operand
Pass 1 Pass 1
build LITTAB with literal name, operand value and length,
leaving the address unassigned g g
when LTORG statement is encountered, assign an address to
each literal not yet assigned an address
Pass 2
search LITTAB for each literal operand encountered
generate data values using BYTE or WORD statements
generate modification record for literals that represent an
addressintheprogram
37
address in the program
Symbol Symbol--Defining Statements Defining Statements Symbol Symbol Defining Statements Defining Statements
Labels on instructions or data areas Labels on instructions or data areas
the value of such a label is the address
assigned to the statement assigned to the statement
Defining symbols
b lEQU l symbolEQU value
value can be: constant, other symbol,
i expression
making the source program easier to
d t d understand
no forward reference
38
Symbol Symbol--Defining Statements Defining Statements Symbol Symbol Defining Statements Defining Statements
Example 1 Example 1
MAXLEN EQU 4096
+LDT #MAXLEN
+LDT #4096
LDT #MAXLEN
Example 2
BASE EQU R1 BASE EQU R1
COUNT EQU R2
INDEX EQU R3 INDEX EQU R3
Example 3
MAXLEN EQU BUFEND-BUFFER MAXLEN EQU BUFEND-BUFFER
39
ORG (origin) ORG (origin) ORG (origin) ORG (origin)
Indirectly assign values to symbols d ect y ass g a ues to sy bo s
Reset the location counter to the specified value
ORG value
Value can be: constant, other symbol,
expression
No forward reference
Example
SYMBOL: 6bytes
VALUE: 1word
SYMBOL VALUE FLAGS
STAB
VALUE: 1word
FLAGS: 2bytes
LDA VALUE X
STAB
(100 entries)
40
LDA VALUE, X
. . .
. . .
. . .
ORG Example ORG Example ORG Example ORG Example
Using EQU statements Using EQU statements
STAB RESB 1100
SYMBOL EQU STAB SYMBOL EQU STAB
VALUE EQU STAB+6
FLAG EQU STAB+9
Using ORG statements
STAB RESB 1100 STAB RESB 1100
ORG STAB
SYMBOL RESB 6
VALUE RESW1
FLAGS RESB 2
41
ORG STAB+1100
Expressions Expressions Expressions Expressions
Expressions can be classified as absolute p ess o s ca be c ass ed as abso ute
expressions or relative expressions
MAXLEN EQU BUFEND-BUFFER
BUFEND and BUFFER both are relative terms,
representing addresses within the program
H h i BUFEND BUFFER However the expression BUFEND-BUFFER represents
an absolute value
When relative terms are paired with opposite When relative terms are paired with opposite
signs, the dependency on the program starting
address is canceled out; the result is an absolute ;
value
42
SYMTAB SYMTAB SYMTAB SYMTAB
None of the relative terms may enter into a o e o t e e at e te s ay e te to a
multiplication or division operation
Errors:
BUFEND+BUFFER
100-BUFFER
3*BUFFER
The type of an expression
keep track of the types of all symbols defined in
the program
Symbol Type Value y yp
RETADR R 30
BUFFER R 36
BUFEND R 1036
43
BUFEND R 1036
MAXLEN A 1000
Example 2.9 Example 2.9 Example 2.9 Example 2.9
N V l
SYMTAB LITTAB
Name Value
COPY 0
FIRST 0
C'EOF' 454F46 3 002D
X'05' 05 1 1076
CLOOP 6
ENDFIL 1A
RETADR 30
X'05' 05 1 1076
LENGTH 33
BUFFER 36
BUFEND 1036
MAXLEN 1000
RDREC 1036
RLOOP 1040
EXIT 1056
INPUT 105C
WREC 105D
44
WREC 105D
WLOOP 1062
Program Blocks Program Blocks gg
Program blocks
f t t f d th t d refer to segments of code that are rearranged
within a single object program unit
S USE [blockname]
At the beginning, statements are assumed to
be part of the unnamed (default) block
If no USE statements are included, the entire
program belongs to this single block
Example: Figure 2.11
Each program block may actually contain
several separate segments of the source
45
program
Program Blocks Program Blocks --Implementation Implementation Program Blocks Program Blocks Implementation Implementation
Pass 1
each program block has a separate location counter
each label is assigned an address that is relative to the
start of the block that contains it
at the end of Pass 1, the latest value of the location
counter for each block indicates the length of that block counter for each block indicates the length of that block
the assembler can then assign to each block a starting
address in the object program j p g
Pass 2
The address of each symbol can be computed by y p y
adding the assigned block starting address and the
relative address of the symbol to that block
46
Figure 2.12 Figure 2.12 Figure 2.12 Figure 2.12
Each source line is given a relative address Each source line is given a relative address
assigned and a block number
Block name Block number Address Length Block name Block number Address Length
(default) 0 0000 0066
CDATA 1 0066 000B
CBLKS 2 0071 1000
For absolute symbol, there is no block number
CBLKS 2 0071 1000
y ,
line 107
Example Example
20 0006 0 LDA LENGTH 032060
LENGTH=(Block 1)+0003= 0066+0003= 0069
47
( )
LOCCTR=(Block 0)+0009= 0009
Program Readability Program Readability
Program readability
N t d d f t i t ti li 15 No extended format instructions on lines 15,
35, 65
f ( No needs for base relative addressing (line 13,
14)
LTORG is used to make sure the literals are
placed ahead of any large data areas (line 253)
Object code
It is not necessary to physically rearrange the
generated code in the object program
see Fig. 2.13, Fig. 2.14
48
g g
Control Sections Control Sectionsand Program Linking and Program Linking
Control Sections
are most often used for subroutines or other are most often used for subroutines or other
logical subdivisions of a program
the programmer can assemble load and the programmer can assemble, load, and
manipulate each of these control sections
separately separately
instruction in one control section may need to
refer to instructions or data located in another refer to instructions or data located in another
section
because of this there should be some means because of this, there should be some means
for linking control sections together
Fig 2 15 2 16
49
Fig. 2.15, 2.16
External Definition and References External Definition and References
External definition
EXTDEF name [, name] [, ]
EXTDEF names symbols that are defined in this
control section and may be used by other sections
External reference
EXTREF name [,name] [, ]
EXTREF names symbols that are used in this
control section and are defined elsewhere
Example
15 0003 CLOOP +J SUB RDREC 4B100000
160 0017 +STCH BUFFER,X 57900000
190 0028 MAXLEN WORD BUFEND-BUFFER 000000
50
Implementation Implementation Implementation Implementation
The assembler must include information in the object
program that will cause the loader to insert proper values
where they are required
Define record
Col. 1 D
C l 2 f l b l d fi di hi l i Col. 2-7 Name of external symbol defined in this control section
Col. 8-13Relative address within this control section (hexadeccimal)
C l 14 73R t i f ti i C l 2 13f th t l b l Col.14-73 Repeat information in Col. 2-13 for other external symbols
Refer record
Col 1 R Col. 1 R
Col. 2-7 Name of external symbol referred to in this control section
Col 8-73Nameof other external referencesymbols
51
Col. 8-73Name of other external reference symbols
Modification Record Modification Record
Modification record
Col. 1 M
Col. 2-7 Starting address of the field to be modified
(hexiadecimal)
C l 8 9 L th f th fi ldt b difi d i h lf b t Col. 8-9 Length of the field to be modified, in half-bytes
(hexadeccimal)
Col.11-16 External symbol whose value is to be added to or y
subtracted from the indicated field
Note: control section name is automatically an external symbol,
i e it isavailablefor useinModificationrecords i.e. it is available for use in Modification records.
Example
Figure 2.17 g
M00000405+RDREC
M00000705+COPY
52
External References in Expression External References in Expression
Earlier definitions
required all of the relative terms be paired in an
expression (an absolute expression), or that all
except one be paired (a relative expression)
N t i ti New restriction
Both terms in each pair must be relative within
the same control section the same control section
Ex: BUFEND-BUFFER
Ex: RDREC-COPY Ex: RDREC-COPY
In general, the assembler cannot determine
whether or not the expression is legal at whether or not the expression is legal at
assembly time. This work will be handled by a
linking loader.
53
Assembler Design Options Assembler Design Options
One One--pass assembl er s pass assembl er s One One pass assembl er s pass assembl er s
Mul t i Mul t i --pass assembl er s pass assembl er s
Tw o Tw o--pass assembl er w i t h over l ay pass assembl er w i t h over l ay Tw o Tw o pass assembl er w i t h over l ay pass assembl er w i t h over l ay
st r uc t ur e st r uc t ur e
54
Two Two- -Pass Assembler with Overlay Pass Assembler with Overlay
Structure Structure Structure Structure
For small memory For small memory
pass 1 and pass 2 are never required at the
same time same time
three segments
root: driver programand shared tables and root: driver program and shared tables and
subroutines
pass 1 pass 1
pass 2
tree structure tree structure
overlay program
55
One One--Pass Assemblers Pass Assemblers One OnePass Assemblers Pass Assemblers
Main problem Main problem
forward references
data items data items
labels on instructions
S l ti Solution
data items: require all such areas be defined
b f th f d before they are referenced
labels on instructions: no good solution
56
One One--Pass Assemblers Pass Assemblers One OnePass Assemblers Pass Assemblers
Main Problem Main Problem
forward reference
data items data items
labels on instructions
T t f bl Two types of one-pass assembler
load-and-go
produces object code directly in memory for
immediate execution
the other
produces usual kind of object code for later
ti
57
execution
Load Load--and and--go Assembler go Assembler Load Loadand andgo Assembler go Assembler
Characteristics Characteristics
Useful for program development and testing
Avoids the overhead of writing the object Avoids the overhead of writing the object
program out and reading it back
Both one pass and two pass assemblers can Both one-pass and two-pass assemblers can
be designed as load-and-go.
H l id th h d However one-pass also avoids the over head
of an additional pass over the source program
F l d d bl th t l For a load-and-go assembler, the actual
address must be known at assembly time, we
can use an absolute program
58
can use an absolute program
Forward Reference in One Forward Reference in One--pass Assembler pass Assembler pp
For any symbol that has not yet been
defined defined
1. omit the address translation
2. insert the symbol into SYMTAB, and mark this 2. insert the symbol into SYMTAB, and mark this
symbol undefined
3. the address that refers to the undefined
symbol is added to a list of forward references
associated with the symbol table entry
4. when the definition for a symbol is
encountered, the proper address for the
symbol is then inserted into any instructions symbol is then inserted into any instructions
previous generated according to the forward
reference list
59
Load Load--and and--go Assembler (Cont.) go Assembler (Cont.) Load Loadand andgo Assembler (Cont.) go Assembler (Cont.)
At the end of the program At the end of the program
any SYMTAB entries that are still marked with *
indicate undefined symbols indicate undefined symbols
search SYMTAB for the symbol named in the
ENDstatement and jump to this location to END statement and jump to this location to
begin execution
The actual starting address must be The actual starting address must be
specified at assembly time
Example Example
Figure 2.18, 2.19
60
Producing Object Code Producing Object Code g j g j
When external working-storage devices are not
available or too slow (for the intermediate file available or too slow (for the intermediate file
between the two passes
Solution: Solution:
When definition of a symbol is encountered, the
assembler must generate another Tex record with the
correct operand address
The loader is used to complete forward references that
could not be handled by the assembler could not be handled by the assembler
The object program records must be kept in their
original order when they are presented to the loader g y p
Example: Figure 2.20
61
Multi Multi--Pass Assemblers Pass Assemblers Multi Multi Pass Assemblers Pass Assemblers
Restriction on EQU and ORG Restriction on EQU and ORG
no forward reference, since symbols value
cant be defined during the first pass cant be defined during the first pass
Example
U li k li t t k t k f h l Use link list to keep track of whose value
depend on an undefined symbol
Fi 2 21 Figure 2.21
62