Geosynthetic Engineering:

Introduction


Course No: G03-002
Credit: 3 PDH




Yun Zhou, PhD, PE








Continuing Education and Development, Inc.
9 Greyridge Farm Court
Stony Point, NY 10980

P: (877) 322-5800
F: (877) 322-4774

[email protected]



1.0 INTRODUCTION, IDENTIFICATION, AND EVALUATION
1.1 BACKGROUND
This manual was prepared to assist design engineers, specification writers, estimators, construction
inspectors, and maintenance personnel with the design, selection, and installation of geosynthetics.
In addition to providing a general overview of these materials and their applications, step-by-step
procedures are given for the cost-effective use of geosynthetics in drainage and erosion control
systems, roadways, and reinforcement, and in containment applications. Although the title refers
to the general term geosynthetic, specific applications address the appropriate use of subfamilies
of geotextiles, geogrids, geocomposites, and geomembranes.
The basis for much of this manual is the FHW A Geotextile Engineering Manual (Christopher and
Holtz, 1985). Other sources of information include the books by Koerner (1994), John (1987),
and Veldhuijzen van Zanten (1986). If you are not already familiar with geosynthetics, you are
encouraged to read Richardson and Koerner (1990) and Ingold and Miller (1988), especially if you
are attempting to use geosynthetics for the first time. A listing of other geosynthetics literature
can be found in Cazzuffi and Anzani (1992) and Holtz and Paulson (1988), both of which are
reproduced in Appendix A. Comprehensive geosynthetic bibliographies have recently been
prepared by Giroud (1993, 1994). If you are unfamiliar with geosynthetics terminology, see
ASTM (1997) D 4439 Standard Terminology for Geosynthetics. Basic terms are defined in
Appendix B. The authors assume that you are already familiar with the engineering basics of
geotechnical, highway, hydraulic, retaining wall, and pavement design. Common notation and
symbols are used throughout this manual, and a list is provided in Appendix C for easy reference.
These notations and symbols are generally consistent with the International Geosynthetic Society's
(IGS) Recommended Mathematical and Graphical Symbols (1993).
Sample specifications included in this manual were developed in several cases by Task Force 25
Subcommittee of the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials
(AASHTO, 1990), the Association General Contractors (AGC), and the American Road and
Transportation Builders Associations (ARTBA) Joint Committee, along with representatives from
the geosynthetic industry. Important input has also been obtained from the AASHTO-AGC-
ARTBA Task Force 27 Subcommittee (1990). Specifications from the FHWA Guidelines for
Design, Specification, and Contracting of Geosynthetic Mechanically Stabilized Earth Slopes on
Firm Foundations (Berg. 1993) are also used with this manual. Finally, sample specifications
were obtained from some state Departments of Transportation. These specifications are meant
to serve only as guidelines and should be modified as required by engineering judgment and
experience, based upon project specific design and performance criteria.
Introduction, Identification, and Evaluation 1
Chapter 1 introduces you to the functions and applications of geosynthetics, to the identification
of the materials, and to the methods used to evaluate their properties. The remaining nine
chapters give specific details about important application categories of geosynthetics, such as
drainage and roadways. Each chapter provides a systematic approach to applying geosynthetics
so that successful cost-effective designs and installations can be achieved.
1.2 DESIGN APPROACH
We recommend the following approach to designing with geosynthetics:
1. Define the purpose and establish the scope of the project.
2. Investigate and establish the geotechnical conditions at the site (geology, subsurface
exploration, laboratory and field testing, etc.).
3. Establish application criticality, severity, and performance criteria. Determine external
factors that may influence the geosynthetic' s performance.
4. Formulate trial designs and compare several alternatives.
5. Establish the models to be analyzed, determine the parameters, and carry out the
analysis.
6. Compare results and select the most appropriate design; consider alternatives versus cost,
construction feasibility, etc. Modify the design if necessary.
7. Prepare detailed plans and specifications including: a) specific property requirements for
the geosynthetic; and b) detailed installation procedures.
8. Hold preconstruction meeting with contractor and inspectors.
9. Approve geosynthetic on the basis of specimens' laboratory test results and/or
manufacturer's certification.
10. Monitor construction.
11. Inspect after events (e.g., 100 year rainfall) that may tax structure performance.
By following this systematic approach to designing with geosynthetics, cost-effective designs can
be achieved, along with improved performance, increased service life, and reduced maintenance
costs. Good communication and interaction between all concerned parties is imperative
throughout the design and selection process.
1.3 DEFINITIONS, MANUFACTURING PROCESSES, AND IDENTIFICATION
ASTM (1997) has defined a geosynthetic as a planar product manufactured from a polymeric
material used with soil, rock, earth, or other geotechnical-related material as an integral part of
a civil engineering project, structure, or system. A geotextile is a permeable geosynthetic made
2 April 1998
of textile materials. There are a number of other materials available today that technically are not
textiles -- including webs, grids, nets, meshes, and composites -- that are used in combination with
or in place of geotextiles. These are sometimes referred to as geotextile-related materials.
Geotextiles and related materials all fall under the principal category of geosynthetics. Geogrids,
geosynthetics primarily used for reinforcement, are formed by a regular network of tensile
elements with apertures of sufficient size to interlock with surrounding fill material.
Geomembranes are low-penneability geosynthetics used as fluid barriers. Geotextiles and related
products, such as nets and grids, can be combined with geomembranes and other synthetics to
complement the best attributes of each material. These products are called geocomposites, and
they may be geotextile-geonets, geotextile-geogrids, geotextile-geomembranes, geomembrane-
geonets, geotextile-polymeric cores, and even three-dimensional polymeric cell structures. There
is almost no limit to the combinations of geocomposites.
A convenient classification scheme for geosynthetics is provided in Figure 1-1. For details on the
composition, materials, and manufacturing processes, see Koerner (1994), Ingold and Miller
(1988), Veldhuijzen van Zanten (1986), Christopher and Holtz (1985), Giroud and Carroll (1983),
Rankilor (1981), and Koerner and Welsh (1980). Most geosynthetics are made from synthetic
polymers of polypropylene, polyester, or polyethylene. These polymer materials are highly
resistant to biological and chemical degradation. Less-frequently-used polymers include
polyamides (nylon) and glass fibers. Natural fibers, such as cotton, jute, etc., could also be used
as geotextiles, especially for temporary applications, but they have not been researched or utilized
in the U.S. as widely as polymeric geotextiles.
In manufacturing geotextiles, elements such as fibers or yarns are combined into planar textile
structures. The fibers can be continuous filaments, which are very long thin strands of a polymer,
or staple fibers, which are short filaments, typically 20 to 150 mm long. The fibers may also be
produced by slitting an extruded plastic sheet or film to form thin flat tapes. In both filaments and
slit films, the extrusion or drawing process elongates the polymers in the direction of the draw and
increases in the filament strength.
Geotextile type is detennined by the method used to combine the filaments or tapes into the planar
structure. The vast majority of geotextiles are either woven or nonwoven. Woven geotextiles are
made of monofilament, multifilament, or fibrillated yarns, or of slit films and tapes. The weaving
process is as old as Homo sapiens I textile cloth-making. Nonwoven textile manufacture is a
modern development, a high-tech process industry, in which synthetic polymer fibers or filaments
are continuously extruded and spun, blown or otherwise laid onto a moving belt. Then the mass
of filaments or fibers are either needlepunched, in which the filaments are mechanically entangled
by a series of small needles, or heat bonded, in which the fibers are welded together by heat
and/or pressure at their points of contact in the nonwoven mass.
Introduction, Idelltificatioll, and Evaluatioll 3
I
TEXTILES
I I
WEBBINGS
I
I I
I SYNTHETIC I
I
NATURAL SYNTHETIC
I
NATURAL
I
Various polymers - Collon Steel Palm wood
Polypropylene Jute Polymers Wood
Polyethylene Reeds Bamboo
Polyester, etc. Grass
1 1 I
IMPERMEABLE PERMEABLE
I,
CLOSE-MESH
I
1 I
OPEN-MESH
1
I I I
I I I Nets Geogrids
I I I
I I I
Mats Bar mats
L ________________________
----------, I I
II I
Geomembrane polymers -
II I
I I I
Polyethylene (HOPE, LLOPE, etc.)
I I I
Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC)
Cholorosulphonated Polyethylene (CSPE)
Combination
Ethylene Interpolymer Alloy (EIA) ---,
Rubber, etc. Products
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
I
SHEETS
I
STRIPS
GEOTEXTILES
I
Formed Plastic Reinforced Earth
with pins, etc. York System
I NONWOVEN I
I
KNITTED
l
WOVEN
I
I I
Continuous Filament
I
Combination Products
I
I I
Staple Filament
1... ___________
(Geocomposites)
. _________ .J
1
NEEDLE- CHEMICAL HEAT-
PUNCHED BONDED BONDED
Wet Laid Spunbonded
Resin Bonded
I I I
MONOFILAMENT SLIT FILM FIBRILLATED MULTIFILAMENT
YARNS YARNS YARNS YARNS
Noncalendered Noncalendered
Calendered Calendered
Figure 1-1 Classification of geosynthetics and other soil inclusions (after Rankilor, 1981).
4 April 1998
The manufacture of geotextile-related products is as varied as the products themselves. Geonets,
geosynthetic erosion mats, geogrids, etc., can be made from large and often rather stiff filaments
formed into a mesh with integral junctions or which are welded or glued at the crossover points.
Geogrids with integral junctions are manufactured by extruding and orienting sheets of
polyolefins. These types of geogrids are usually called stiff geogrids. Geogrids are also
manufactured of polyester yams, joined at the crossover points by a knitting or weaving process,
and encased with a polymer-based, plasticized coating. These types of geogrids are generally
called flexible geogrids. Manufacture of geomembranes and other geosynthetic barriers is
discussed in Chapter 10.
Geocomposites result when two or more materials are combined in the geosynthetic manufacturing
process. Most are used in highway drainage applications and waste containment. A common
example of a geocomposite is a prefabricated drain formed by wrapping a fluted or dimpled
polymeric sheet, which acts as a conduit for water, with a geotextile which acts as a filter.
Geosynthetics are generically identified by:
1. polymer (descriptive terms, e.g., high density, low density, etc. should be included);
2. type of element (e.g., filament, yarn, strand, rib, coated rib), if appropriate;
3. distinctive manufacturing process (e.g., woven, needlepunched nonwoven, heatbonded
nonwoven, stitchbonded, extruded, knitted, roughened sheet, smooth sheet), if
appropriate;
4. primary type of geosynthetic (e.g., geotextile, geogrid, geomembrane, etc.);
5. mass per unit area, if appropriate (e.g., for geotextiles, geogrids, GCLs, erosion control
blankets,) and/or thickness, if appropriate (e.g., for geomembranes); and
6. any additional information or physical properties necessary to describe the material in
relation to specific applications.
Four examples are:
polypropylene staple filament needlepunched nonwoven geotextile, 350 g/m
2
;
polyethylene geonet, 440 g/m2 with 8 mm openings;
polypropylene extruded biaxial geogrid, with 25 mm x 25 mm openings; and
high-density polyethylene roughened sheet geomembrane, 1.5 mm thick.
1.4 FUNCTIONS ANt> APPLICATIONS
Geosynthetics have six primary functions:
1. filtration
2. drainage
Introduction, Idellfijicatioll, alld Evaluation 5
3. separation
4. reinforcement
5. fluid barrier, and
6. protection
Geosynthetic applications are usually defined by their primary, or principal, function. For
example, geotextiles are used as filters to prevent soils from migrating into drainage aggregate or
pipes, while maintaining water flow through the system. They are similarly used below riprap
and other armor materials in coastal and stream bank protection systems to prevent soil erosion.
Geotextiles and geocomposites can also be used as drainage, or lateral transmission media, by
allowing water to drain from or through soils of lower permeability. Geotextile applications
include dissipation of pore water pressures at the base of roadway embankments. For situations
with higher flow requirements, geocomposite drains have been developed. These materials are
used as pavement edge drains, slope interceptor drains, and abutments and retaining wall drains.
Filtration and drainage are addressed in Chapter 2 - Geosynthetics in Subsurface Drainage
Systems.
Geotextiles are often used as separators to prevent road base materials from penetrating into the
underlying soft subgrade, thus maintaining the design thickness and roadway integrity. Separators
also prevent fine-grained subgrade soils from being pumped into permeable, granular road bases.
Separators are discussed in Chapter 5 - Geosynthetics in Roadways and Pavements.
Geogrids and geotextiles can also be used as reinforcement to add tensile strength to a soil matrix,
thereby providing a more competent structural material. Reinforcement enables embankments to
be constructed over very soft foundations and permits the construction of steep slopes and
retaining walls. Reinforcement applications are presented in Chapter 7 - Reinforced Embankments
on Soft Foundations; Chapter 8 - Reinforced Slopes; and Chapter 9 - Mechanically Stabilized
Earth Retaining Walls and Abutments.
Geomembranes, thin-film geotextile composites, geosynthetic clay liners, and field-coated
geotextiles are used as fluid barriers to impede the flow of a liquid or gas from one location to
another. This geosynthetic function has wide application in asphalt pavement overlays,
encapsulation of swelling soils, and waste containment. Barrier applications are summarized in
Chapters 6 - Pavement Overlays, and 10 - Geomembranes and Other Geosynthetic Barriers.
In the sixth function, protection, the geosynthetic acts as a stress relief layer. Temporary
geosynthetic blankets and permanent geosynthetic mats are placed over the soil to reduce erosion
caused by rainfall impact and water flow shear stress. A protective cushion of nonwoven
6 April 1998
geotextiles is often used to prevent puncture of geomembranes (by reducing point stresses) from
stones in the adjacent soil or drainage aggregate during installation and while in service. Erosion
control is presented in Chapter 3 - Geotextiles in Riprap Revetments and Other Permanent Erosion
Control Systems; and Chapter 4 - Temporary Runoff and Sediment Control.
In addition to the primary function, geosynthetics usually perform one or more secondary
functions. The primary and secondary functions make up the total contribution of the geosynthetic
to a particular application. A listing of common applications according to primary and secondary
functions is presented in Table 1-1. It is important to consider both the primary and secondary
functions in the design computations and specifications.
1.5 EVALUATION OF PROPERTIES
Today, there are more than 600 different geosynthetic products available in North America.
Because of the wide variety of products available, with their different polymers, filaments,
weaving (or nonwoven) patterns, bonding mechanisms, thicknesses, masses, etc., they have a
considerable range of physical and mechanical properties. Thus, the process of comparison and
selection of geosynthetics is not easy. Geosynthetic testing has progressed significantly since the
first Geotextile Engineering Manual (Christopher and Holtz, 1985) was published. Specific test
procedures are given in AASHTO (1997), ASTM (1997), and GRI (1997). The AASHTO
Standard Specification for Geotextiles, designated M 288, is specifically for highway applications
and addresses subsurface drainage, sediment control, erosion control, separation, and pavement
overlay applications. The AASHTO M 288 specification can be found in Appendix D. Testing
procedures developed by the Geosynthetics Research Institute of Drexel University are considered
only interim standards until an equivalent ASTM standard is adopted. ASTM and GRI standards
are listed in Appendix E.
The particular, required design properties of the geosynthetic will depend on the specific
application and the associated function(s) the geosynthetic is to provide. The properties listed in
Table 1-2 cover the range of important criteria and properties required to evaluate geosynthetic
suitability for most applications. It should be noted that not all of the listed requirements will be
necessary for all applications. For a specific application requirements, refer to the subsequent
chapter covering that application.
All geosynthetic properties and parameters to be considered for specific projects are listed in Table
1-3. Again, see AASHTO (1997), ASTM (1997), and GRI (1997) for test procedures for each
specific property. Manufacturers can provide information on general properties. The December
issue of Geotechnical Fabrics Report magazine, published by the Industrial Fabrics Association
Introduction, Identification, and Evaluation 7
8
PRIMARY
FUNCTION
Separation
Filter
TABLE 1-1
REPRESENT ATIVE APPLICA nONS AND
CONTP.OLLING FUNCTIONS OF GEOSYNTHETICS
APPLICATION SECONDARY FUNCTION(S)
Unpaved Roads (temporary & Filter, drains, reinforcement
permanent) Filter, drains
Paved Roads (secondary & primary) Filter, drains, reinforcement
Construction Access Roads Filter, drains, reinforcement
Working Platforms Filter, drains, reinforcement
Railroads (new construction) Filter, drains, reinforcement
Railroads (rehabilitation) Reinforcement, drains, protection
Landfill Covers Reinforcement, drains
Preloading (stabilization) Filter, drains, reinforcement
Marine Causeways Filter, drains, reinforcement
General Fill Areas Filter, drains, reinforcement
Paved & Unpaved Parking Facilities Filter, drains, reinforcement
Cattle Corrals Filter, drains, reinforcement
Coastal & River Protection Filter, drains, protection
Sports Fields
Trench Drains Separation, drains
Pipe Wrapping Separation, drains, protection
Base Course Drains Separation, drains
Frost Protection Separation, drainage, reinforcement
Structural Drains Separation, drains
Toe Drains in Dams Separation, drains
High Embankments Drains
Filter Below Fabric-Form Separation, drains
Silt Fences Separation, drains
Silt Screens Separation
Culvert Outlets Separation
Reverse Filters for Erosion Control: Separation
Seeding and M uiching
Beneath Gabions
Ditch Armoring
Embankment Protection, Coastal
Embankment Protection, Rivers
& Streams
Embankment Protection, Lakes
Vertical Drains (wicks)
Drainage-Transmission Retaining Walls Separation, filter
Vertical Drains Separation, filter
Horizontal Drains Reinforcement
Below Membranes (drainage of gas & Reinforcement, protection
water)
Earth Darns Filter
Below Concrete (decking & slabs) Protection
April 1998
PRIMARY
FUNCTION
Reinforcement
Fluid Barrier
Protection
TABLE 1-1
REPRESENT ATIVE APPLICATIONS AND
CONTROLLING FUNCTIONS OF GEOSYNTHETICS
(continued)
APPLICATION
SECONDARY FUNCTION(S)
Pavement Overlays ----------
Subbase Reinforcement in Roadways & Filter
Railways
Retaining Structures Drains
Membrane Support Separation, drains, filter, protection
Embankment Reinforcement Drains
Fill Reinforcement Drains
Foundation Support Drains
Soil Encapsulation Drains, filter, separation
Net Against Rockfalls Drains
Fabric Retention Systems Drains
Sand Bags ----------
Reinforcement of Membranes Protection
Load Redistribution Separation
Bridging Nonuniformity Soft Soil Areas Separation
Encapsulated Hydraulic Fills Separation
Bridge Piles for Fill Placement ----------
Asphalt Pavement Overlays ----------
Liners for Canals and Reservoirs ----------
Liners for Landfills and Waste ----------
Repositories ----------
Covers for Landfill and Waste ----------
Repositories ----------
Cutoff Walls for Seepage Control ----------
Waterproofing Tunnels ----------
Facing for Dams ----------
Membrane Encapsulated Soil Layers ----------
Expansive Soils ----------
Flexible Formwork ----------
Geomembrane cushion Drains
Temporary erosion control Fluid barrier
Permanent erosion control Reinforcement, fluid barrier
Illfroductioll, Jdellfijicatioll, alld Evaluation 9
TABLE 1-2
IMPORT ANT CRITERIA AND PRINCIPAL
PROPERTIES REQUIRED FOR GEOSYNTHETIC EVALUATION
FUNCTION
CRrrERIA AND PROPERTY I
PARAMETER Filtration Drainage Separation Reinforcement Barrier
1l'liKIl B'liIl1imm'lllli
Mechanical Strength
Tensile Strength Wide Width Strength - - -
.,. .,.
Tensile Modulus Wide Width Modulus - - -
.,. .,.
Seam Strength Wide Width Strength - - -
.,. .,.
Tension Creep Creep Resistance - - -
.,. .,.
Compression Creep Creep Resistance -
.,.1
- - -
Soil-Geosynthetic Shear Strength - - -
.,. .,.
Friction
Hydraulic
Flow Capacity Penneability
.,. .,. .,. .,. .,.
Transmissivity -
.,.
- - -
Piping Resistance Apparent Opening Size
.,.
-
.,. .,.
-
Clogging Resistance Porimetry
.,.
- - - -
Gradient Ratio or Long-
.,.
- - - -
Tenn Flow

B'liIl1imm'lllli
Tensile Strength Grab Strength
.,. .,. .,. .,. .,.
Seam Strength Grab Strength
.,. .,. .,.
-
.,.
Bursting Resistance Burst Strength
.,. .,. .,. .,. .,.
Puncture Resistance Rod or Pyramid
.,. .,. .,. .,. .,.
Puncture
Tear Resistance Trapezoidal Tear
.,. .,. .,. .,. .,.
1.&IlK,C!:iIX ll1l[lbiliIXl i
Abrasion Resistance) Reciprocating Block
.,.
- - - -
Abrasion
UV Stability4 UV Resistance
.,.
- -
.,. .,.
Soil Environment' Chemical
.,. .,.
?
.,. .,.
Biological
.,. .,.
?
.,. .,.
Wet-Dry
.,. .,.
- - -
Freeze-Thaw
.,. .,.
- -
.,.
NOTES
1. See Table 1-3 for specific procedures.
2. Compression creep is applicable to some geocomposites.
3. Erosion control applications annor stone may move.
4. Exposed geosynthetics only.
5. Where required.
10
Protection
-
-
-
-
-
.,.
-
.,.
.,.
.,.
.,.
.,.
-
.,.
.,.
.,.
-
.,.
?
?
.,.
-
April 1998
TABLE 1-3
GEOSYNTHETIC PROPERTIES AND PARAMETERS
PROPERTY TEST METHOD UNITS OF MEASUREMENT
I. GENERAL PROPERTIES (from manufacturers)
Type and Construction N/A
-----
Polymer N/A
-----
Mass per Unit Area ASTM 05261 g/m2
Thickness (geotextiles & geomembranes) ASTM 05199 mm
Roll Length Measure m
Roll Widths Measure m
Roll Weight Measure kg
Roll Diameter Measure m
Specific Gravity & Density ASTM 0 792 and 0 1505 g/m'
Surface Characteristics N/A -----
II. INDEX PROPERTIES
-
a) Tensile Strength (Quality Control)
1) Grab Strength (geotextiles & CSPE ASTM 04632 N
reinforced geomembranes)
2) Single Rib Strength (geogrids) GRI:GGI N
3) Narrow Strip (geomembranes)
- EOPM, CO, JR, CR ASTM 0 412 N
- HOPE ASTM 0638 N
- PVC, VLOPE ASTM 0882 N
b) Tensile Strength (Load-Strain Characteristics)
1) Wide Strip (geotextiles) ASTM 0 4595 N
2) Wide Strip (geogrid) no standard N
3) Wide Strip Strength (geomembranes) ASTM 04885 N
4) 2 % Secant Modulus (PE geomembranes) ASTM 0 882 N
c) Junction Strength (geogrids) GRI:GG2 %
d) Dynamic Loading no standard
e) Creep Resistance ASTM 05262
creep strain: %e/hr
(Note: interpretation required)
creep rupture: kN/m
t) Index Friction GRI:GS7
dimensionless
g) Seam Strength
I) Sewn (geotextiles) ASTM 04884
% efficiency
2) Factory Peel and Shear (geomembranes) ASTM 04545
kg/mm
3) Field Peel and Shear (geomembranes) ASTM 04437
kg/mm
h) Tear Strength
1) Trapezoid Tearing (geotextile) ASTM 0 4533
N
2) Tear Resistance (geomembranes) ASTM 0 1004
N
- R!.!fI!.!RE
a) Burst Strength
1) Mullen Burst (geotextiles) ASTM 03786
Pa
2) CBR (geotextiles, geonets, geomembranes) GRI:GSI
Pa or N
3) Large Scale Hydrostatic (geomembranes and ASTM 0 5514
Pa
geotextiles)
b) Puncture Resistance
I) Index (geotextiles and geomembranes) ASTM 04833
N
2) Pyramid Puncture (geomembranes) ASTM 05494
N
3) CBR (geotextile, geonets, and geomembranes) GRI:GSI
N
c) Penetration Resistance (Dimensional Stability) no standard
Imroduction, Identification, and Evaluation 11
" ......... _. __ ._-----------------------------------
TABLE 1-3 GEOSYNTHETIC PROPERTIES AND PARAMETERS (continued)
PROPERTY TEST METHOD UNITS
II. INDEX PROPERTIES (continued)
- RJ.!fJ].!BE
(cont.)
d) Geosynthetic Cutting Resistance no standard
e) Flexibility (Stiffness) ASTM 01388 mg/cm
l
fRQfERIIES
a) Abrasion Resistance (geotextile) ASTM 04886 %
b) Ultrsviolet (UV) Radiation Stability
1) Xenon-Arc Apparstus (geotextile) ASTM 04355 %
2) Outdoor Exposure ASTM 0 5970 %
c) Chemical Resistance
I) Chemical Immersion ASTM 0 5322 N/A
2) Oxidative Induction Time ASTM 05885 minutes
3) Environmental Exposure EPA 9090 % change
d) Biological Resistance
I) Biological Clogging (geotextile) ASTM 01987 m'/s
2) Biological Degradation ASTM G 21 and G 22
3) Soil Burial ASTM 03083 % change
e) Wet and Dry Stability no standard
f) Tempersture Stability
1) Tempersture Stability (geotextile) ASTM 04594 % change
2) Dimensional Stability (geomembrane) ASTM 01204 % change
UY12B.6J.!LI!:;;
a) Opening Characteristics (geotextiles)
I) Apparent Opening Size (AOS) ASTM 0 4751 mm
2) Porimetry (pore size distribution) Use AOS for 0." 0." 0"" mm
0", and 0,
3) Percent Open Area (POA) (see Christopher & Holtz, 1985) %
4) Porosity (n)
(VYOKls/V,rul) 100
%
b) Permeability (k) and Permittivity ( tp) ASTM 04491 rnls and s-'
c) Soil Retention Ability Empirically Related to Opening
Characteristics
d) Clogging Resistance ASTM 0 5101 and GRI:GT8
e) In-Plane Flow Capacity (Trsnsmissivity, 6) ASTM 0 4716 ml/s
III. PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES
Slllm-Slll1iu kN/mand % strain
a) Tension Test in Soil (see McGown, et aI., 1982)
b) Triaxial Test Method (see Holtz, et aI., 1982)
c) CBR on Soil Fabric System (see Christopher & Holtz, 1985)
d) Tension Test in Shear Box (see Christopher & Holtz, 1985)
CrellD IIlS1S; kN/m and % strain
a) Extension Test in Soil (see McGown, et aI., 1982)
b) Triaxial Test Method (see Holtz, et aI., 1982)
c) Extension Test in Shear Box (see Christopher & Holtz, 1985)
d) Pullout Method (see Christopher, et aI., 1990)
12 April 1998
TABLE 1-3 GEOSYNTHETIC PROPERTIES AND PARAMETERS (continued)
PROPERTY TEST METHOD UNITS
ID. PERFORMANCE PROPERTIES (conI.)
Friction/Adhesion:
a) Direct Shear (soil-geosynthetic) ASTM D 5321 degrees (0)
b) Direct Shear (geosynthetic-geosynthetic) ASTM D 5321 degrees (0)
c) Pullout (geogrids) GRI:GG5 dimensionless
d) Pullout (geotextiles) GRI:GT6 dimensionless
e) Anchorage Embedment (geomembranes) GRI:GM2 kN/m
loll C):l<lil< L21111iol: no standard procedures N/A

a) Gravel, truncated cone or pyramid ASTM D 5494 kPa
Chemil<11 ReiSll!Ol<e;
a) In Situ Immersion Testing ASTM D 5496 N/A
loll EilllJlliQO [QRlOoisa;
a) Gradient Ration Method - for noncohesive ASTM D 5101 dimensionless
sand and silt type soils
b) Hydraulic Conductivity Ratio (HCR) - for fine-grained ASTM D 5567 dimensionless
soils
c) Slurry Method - for silt fence applications ASTM D 5141 %
International (IFAI), is formatted as a Specifier's Guide. General and some index properties are
listed according to product type and manufacturer. The Specifier's Guide also contains a directory
of product manufacturers, product distributors, geosynthetic installers, design engineers and
testing laboratories, with contact person, address, telephone and facsimile numbers noted.
The tests listed in Table 1-3 include index tests and peiformance tests. Index tests do not produce
an actual design property in most cases, but they do provide a general value from which the
property of interest can be qualitatively assessed. Index tests are primarily used by manufacturers
for quality control purposes. When determined using identical test procedures, index tests can be
used for product comparison, specifications, and quality control evaluation.
On the other hand, performance tests require testing of geosynthetic with its companion material
(e.g., soil) to obtain a direct assessment of the property of interest. Since perfonnance tests
should be perfonned under specific design conditions with soils from the site, manufacturers
should no be expected to have the capability or the responsibility to perfonn such tests.
These tests should be performed under the direction of the design engineer. Performance tests are
not normally used in specifications; rather, geosynthetics should be preselected for performance
testing based on index values, or performance test results should be correlated to index values for
use in specifications.
Brief descriptions of some of the basic properties of geosynthetics (after Christopher and
Dahl strand , 1989) are presented below.
Introduction, Identification, and Evaluation 13
Mass per Unit Area: The unit weight of a geosynthetic is measured in terms of area as opposed
to volume due to variations in thickness under normal stress. This property is mainly used to
identify materials.
Thickness: Thickness is not usually required information for geotextiles except in permeability-
flow calculations. It is used as a primary identifier for geomembranes. When needed, it can be
simply obtained using the procedure in Table 1-3, but it must be measured under a specified
normal stress. The nominal thickness used for product comparison is measured under a normal
stress of 2 kPa for geotextiles and 20 kPa for geogrids and geomembranes.
Tensile Stren&th: To understand the load-strain characteristics, it is important to consider the
complete load-strain curve. It is also important to consider the nature of the test and the testing
environment. With most materials, it is usual to use stress in strength and modulus determination.
However, because of the thin, two-dimensional nature of geosynthetics, it is awkward to use
stress. Therefore, it is conventional with geosynthetics to use force per unit length along the edge
of the material. Then, strength and modulus have units of FL-
l
(i.e., kN/m).
There are several types of tensile strength tests. Specific geosynthetic specimen shapes and
loadings are indicated by the referenced procedures in Table 1-3. These tests all give different
results.
The plane-strain test represents the loading for many applications, but because it is complicated
to perform, it is not a practical test for many routine applications. Therefore, it is approximated
by a strip tensile test. Since many narrow strip geosynthetic specimens neck when strained, most
applications use wide, . short specimens. This is called a wide strip tensile test.
Geosynthetics may have different strengths in different directions. Therefore, tests should be
conducted in both principal directions.
The grab tensile test is typically used in the specification of geotextiles and is an unusual test. It
is widely used and almost universally misused. The grab test may be useful in some applications,
but it is difficult, if not impossible, to relate to actual strength without direct correlation tests.
The grab tensile test normally uses 25 mm jaws to grip a 100 mm specimen. The strength is
reported as the total force needed to cause failure -- not the force per unit width. It is not clear
how the force is distributed across the sample. The effects of the specimen being wider than the
grips depend on the geotextile filament interaction. In nonwoven geotextiles, these effects are
large. In woven geotextiles, they are small.
14 April 1998
The burst test is performed by applying a normal pressure (usually by air pressure) against a
geosynthetic specimen clamped in a ring. The burst strength is given in pascals. This is not the
stress in the specimen - it is the normal stress against the geosynthetic at failure. The burst
strength depends on the strength in all directions and is controlled by the minimum value. Burst
strength is a function of the diameter of the test specimen; therefore, care must be used in
comparing tests.
Creep is a time-dependent mechanical property. It is strain at constant load. Creep tests can be
run for any of the tensile test types, but are most frequently performed on a wide strip specimen
by applying a constant load for a sustained period. Creep tests are influenced by the same factors
as tensile load-strain tests - specimen length to width ratio, temperature, moisture, lateral restraint,
and confinement.
Short-term creep strain is strongly influenced by the geosynthetic structure. Geogrids and woven
geotextiles have the least; heat-bonded geotextiles have intermediate; and needled geotextiles have
the most. Longer-term creep rates are controlled by structure and polymer type. Of the most
common polymers, polyester has lower creep rates than polypropylene. The creep limit is the
most important creep characteristic. It is the load per unit width above which the geosynthetic
will creep to rupture. The creep limit is controlled by the polymer and ranges from 20% to 60%
of the material's ultimate strength.
Friction: Soil-geosynthetic and geosynthetic-geosynthetic friction are important properties. It is
common to assume a soil-geotextile friction value between 0/3 and 1 of the soil angle of friction.
For geogrid materials, the value approaches the full friction angle. Caution is advised for
geomembranes where soil-geosynthetic friction angle may be much lower than the soil angle of
friction. For important applications, tests are justified.
The direct friction test is simple in principle, but numerous details must be considered for accurate
results. Recent procedures proposed by ASTM indicate a minimum shear box size of 300 mm by
300 mm to reduce boundary effects. For many geosynthetics, the friction angle is a function of
the soils on each side of the geosynthetic and the normal stress; therefore, test conditions must
model the actual field conditions.
Durability Properties: Other properties that require consideration are related to durability and
longevity. Exposure to ultraviolet light can degrade some geosynthetic properties. The
geosynthetic polymer must be compatible with the environment chemistry. The environment
should be checked for such items as high and low pH, chlorides, organics and oxidation agents
such as ferroginous soils which contain F ~ S 0 3 calcareous soils, and acid sulfate soils that may
deteriorate of the geosynthetic in time. Other possible detrimental environmental factors include
Introduction, Identification, and Evaluation 15
chemical solvents, diesel, and other fuels. Each geosynthetic is different in its resistance to aging
and attack by chemical and biological agents. Therefore, each product must be investigated
individually to determine the effects of these durability factors. The geosynthetic manufacturer
should supply the results of product exposure studies, including, but not limited to, strength
reduction due to aging, deterioration in ultraviolet light, chemical attack, microbiological attack,
environmental stress cracking, hydrolysis, and any possible synergism between individual factors.
Guidelines on soil environments and on geosynthetics properties are presented in the FHW A
Corrosion/Degradation of Soil Reinforcements for Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls and
Reinforced Soil Slopes (Elias, 1997). This research has been summarized and numeric
recommendations for selecting aging reduction factors for reinforcement applications is presented
in an FHWA Geotechnology Technical Note (1997); attached in Appendix F. A durability
reduction factor as low as 1.1 is recommended with supporting data.
Hydraulic Properties: Hydraulic properties relate to the pore size distribution of the geosynthetic
and correspondingly its ability to retain soil particles over the life of the project while allowing
water to pass. Hydraulic properties may also be affected by chemical and biological agents. Ionic
deposits as well as slime growth have been known to clog filter systems (granular filters as well
as geotextiles).
The ability of a geotextile to retain soil particles is directly related to its apparent opening size
(AOS) which is the apparent largest hole in the geotextile. The AOS value is equal to the size of
the largest particle that can effectively pass through the geotextile in a dry sieving test.
The ability of water to pass through a geotextile is determined from its hydraulic conductivity
(coefficient of permeability, k), as measured in a permeability test. The flow capacity of the
material can then be determined from Darcy's law. Due to the compressibility of geotextiles, the
permittivity, l\1 (permeability divided by thickness), is often determined from the test and used to
directly evaluate flow capacity.
The ability of water to pass through a geotextile over the life of the project is dependent on its
filtration potential or its ability not to clog with soil particles. Essentially, if the finer particles
of soil can pass through the geotextile, it should not clog. Effective filtration can be evaluated
through relations between the geotextile' s pore size distribution and the soil's grain size
distribution; however, such formulations are still in the development phase. For a precise
evaluation, laboratory performance testing of the proposed soil and candidate geotextile should
be conducted.
16 April 1998
One popular filtration test is the gradient ratio test (ASTM D 5101). This test is primarily suitable
for sandy and silty soils (k 10-
7
m/s). In this test, a rigid wall permeameter, with strategically
located piezometer ports, is used to obtain a ratio of the head loss in the soil to the head loss at
the soil-geotextile interface under different hydraulic gradients. Although the procedure indicates
that the test may be terminated after 24 hours, to obtain meaningful results, the test should be
continued until stabilization of the flow has clearly occurred. This may occur within 24 hours,
but could require several weeks. A gradient ratio of 1 or less is preferred. Less than 1 is an
indication that a more open filter bridge has developed in the soil adjacent to the geotextile.
However, a continued decrease in the gradient ratio indicates piping, and an alternate geotextile
should be evaluated. A high gradient ratio indicates a flow reduction at the geotextile. If the
gradient ratio approaches 3 (the recommended maximum by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers,
1977), the flow rate through the system should be carefully evaluated with respect to design
requirements. A continued increase in the gradient ratio indicates clogging, and the geotextile is
unacceptable.
For fine-grained soils, the hydraulic conductivity ratio (HCR) test (ASTM D 5567) should be
considered. This test uses a flexible wall permeameter and evaluates the long-term permeability
under increasing gradients with respect to the short-term permeability of the system at the lowest
hydraulic gradient. A decrease in HCR indicates a flow reduction in the system. Since
measurements are not taken near the geotextile-soil interface and soil permeability is not
measured, it is questionable whether an HCR decrease is the result of flow reduction at the
geotextile or blinding within the soil matrix itself. An improvement to this method would be to
include piezometer or transducers within these zones (after the gradient ratio method) to aid in
interpretation of the results.
Other filtration tests for clogging potential include the Caltrans slurry filtration test (Hoover,
1982), which was developed by Legge (1990) into the Fine Fraction filtration (F
3
) test (Sansone
and Koerner, 1992), and the Long-Term Flow (LTF) test (Koerner and Ko, 1982; GRI Test
Method GT1). According to Fischer (1994), all of these tests have serious disadvantages that
make them less suitable than the Gradient Ratio (GR) test for determining the filtration behavior
of the soil-geotextile system. The GR test must be run longer than the ASTM-specified 24 hours,
and proper attention must be paid to the test details (Mare, 1994) to get reproducible results.
Some additional hydraulic properties often required in filtration design are the Percent Open Area
(POA) and the porosity. As noted in Table 1-3, there are no standard tests for these properties,
although there is a suggested procedure for POA given by Christopher and Holtz (1985), which
follows Corps of Engineers procedures. Basically, POA is determined on a light table or by
projection enlargement. Porosity is readily calculated just as it is with soils; that is, porosity is
the volume of the voids divided by the total volume. The total volume is, for example, 1 m
2
,
Introduction, Identification, and Evaluation 17
times the nominal thickness of the geotextile. The volume of voids is the total volume minus the
volume of the fibers and filaments (solids), or the mass of 1 m
2
divided by the specific gravity of
the polymer.
1.6 SPECIFICATIONS
Specifications should be based on the specific geosynthetic properties required for design and
installation. Standard geosynthetics may result in uneconomical or unsafe designs. To specify
a particular type of geosynthetic or its equivalent can also be very misleading. As a result, the
contractor may select a product that has completely different properties than intended by the
designer. In almost every chapter of this manual, guide specifications are given for the particular
application discussed in the chapter. See Richardson and Koerner (1990) and Koerner and Wayne
(1989) for additional guide specifications.
All geosynthetic specifications should include:
general requirements
specific geosynthetic properties
seams and overlaps
placement procedures
repairs, and
acceptance and rejection criteria
General requirements include the types of geosynthetics, acceptable polymeric materials, and
comments related to the stability of the material. Geosynthetic manufacturers and representatives
are good sources of information on these characteristics. Other items that should be specified in
this section are instructions on storage and handling so products can be protected from ultraviolet
exposure, dust, mud, or any other elements that may affect performance. Guidelines concerning
on-site storage and handling of geotextiles are contained in ASTM D 4873, Standard Guide for
Identification, Storage, and Handling of Geotextiles. If pertinent, roll weight and dimensions may
also be specified. Finally, certification requirements should be included in this section.
Specific geosynthetic physical, index, and perfonnance properties as required by the design
must be listed. Properties should be given in terms of minimum (or maximum) average roll values
(MARYs), along with the required test methods. MARYs are simply the smallest (or largest)
anticipated average value that would be obtained for any roll tested (Koerner, 1994). This
average property value must exceed the minimum (or be less than the maximum) value specified
for that property based on a particular test. Ordinarily it is possible to obtain a manufacturer's
certification for MARYs.
18 April 1998
If performance tests have been conducted as part of the design, a list of approved products could
be provided. The language or equal and or equivalent should be avoided within the
specification, unless equivalency is spelled out in terms of the index properties and the
perfonnance criteria that were required to be included on the approved list. Approved lists
can also be developed based on experience with recurring application conditions. Once an
approved list has been established, new geosynthetics can be added as they are approved.
Manufacturer's samples should be periodically obtained so they can be examined alongside the
original tested specimens to verify whether the manufacturing process has changed since the
product was approved. Development of an approved list program will take considerable initial
effort, but once established, it provides a simple, convenient method of specifying geosynthetics
with confidence.
Seam and overlap requirements should be specified along with the design properties for both
factory and field seams, as applicable. A minimum overlap of 0.3 m is recommended for all
geotextile applications, but overlaps may be increased due to specific site and construction
requirements. Sewing of seams, discussed in Section 1.8, may be required for special conditions.
Also, certain geotextiles may have factory seams. The seam strengths specified should equal the
required strength of the geosynthetic, in the direction perpendicular to the seam length, using the
same test procedures. For designs where wide width tests are used (e.g., reinforced embankments
on soft foundations), the required seam strength is a calculated design value. Therefore, seam
strengths should not be specified as a percent of the geosynthetic strength.
Geogrids and geonets may be connected by mechanical fasteners, though the connection may be
either structural or a construction aid (i. e., strength perpendicular to the seam length is not
required by design). Geomembranes are normally thermally bonded and specified in terms of
peel and shear seam strengths, as discussed in Chapter 10.
For sewn geotextiles, geomembranes, and structurally connected geogrids, the seaming material
(thread, extrudate, or fastener) should consist of polymeric materials that have the same or greater
durability as the geosynthetic being seamed. For example, nylon thread, unless treated, which
is often used for geotextile seams may weaken in time as it absorbs water.
Placement procedures should be given in detail within the specification and on the construction
drawings. These procedures should include grading and ground-clearing requirements, aggregate
specifications, aggregate lift thickness, and equipment requirements. These requirements are
especially important if the geosynthetic was selected on the basis of survivability. Detailed
placement procedures are presented in each application chapter.
Introduction, Identification, and Evaluation 19
Repair procedures for damaged sections of geosynthetics (i.e., rips and tears) should be detailed.
Such repairs should include requirements for overlaps, sewn seams, fused seams, or replacement
requirements. For overlap repairs, the geosynthetic should extend the minimum of the overlap
length requirement from all edges of the tear or rip (i. e., if a 0.3 m overlap is required, the patch
should extend at least 0.3 m from all edges of the tear).
Acceptance and rejection criteria for the geosynthetic materials should be clearly and concisely
stated in the specifications. It is very important that all installations be observed by a designer
representative who is knowledgeable in geotextile placement procedures and who is aware of
design requirements. Sampling (e.g., ASTM D 4354, Standard Practice for Sampling of
Geosynthetics for Testing) and testing requirements be required during construction should also
be specified. Guidelines for acceptance and rejection of geosynthetic shipments are contained in
ASTM D 4759, Standard Practice for Determining the Specification Conformance of
Geosynthetics.
For small projects, the cost of ASTM acceptance/rejection criterion testing is often a significant
portion of the total project cost and may even exceed the cost of the geosynthetic itself. In such
cases, a manufacturer's product certification specification requirement or an approved product list
type specification may be satisfactory.
1.7 SPECIFICATION CONFORMANCE EXAMPLE
DEFINITION OF EXAMPLE
Project Description: a geotextile separator will be used in construction of a roadway
GIVENDAIA
a Class 2 (AASHIO M 288) geotextile was specified for survivability
110 rolls of geotextile are required for the project, and have arrived on site in one shipment
geotextile is a nonwoven, with an elongation at failure (per ASIM D 4632) of greater than 50%
test results for the samples are presented in the table below
the coefficient of variation for the test laboratory is undefined
20 April 1998
DETERMINE
whether the geotextile meets the required grab tensile strength of 700 N
SOLUTION
A. What is the lot size?
The lot size is 110, the number of rolls shipped to this project.
B. How many units, or number of rolls, should be selected for as samples for conformance testing?
The total number of units, or rolls, in this lot is 110. The number of rolls to take lot samples from is 5, per
ASTM D 4354, Standard Practice for Sampling of Geosynthetics for Testing.
c. How many sampling units should be take from each roll?
One laboratory sampling unit should be taken from each roll (lot sampling unit), per ASTM D 4632,
Standard Test Method for Grab Breaking Load and Elongation of Geotextiles.
D. How many test specimens per laboratory sampling unit, in each direction, are required?
Since the coefficient of variation is undefined for the test laboratory (in this example), specify the fixed
number of 10 specimens per roll, in both the machine and cross-machine directions, are required. This is
based upon an assumed v = 9.5%, which is somewhat larger than usually found in practice.
The number of tests may be reduced, with the following equation, when the laboratory's coefficient of
variation is defined. Test Method D 4632 defines the following number of test specimens per laboratory
sampling unit in each direction:
where:
n = (tv/A)2
n = number of test specimens per laboratory sampling unit (rounded upward to the
next whole number);
v = reliable estimate of the coefficient of variation for individual observations based
on similar materials in the user's laboratory under conditions of single-operator
precision, %;
t = the value of Student's t for one-sided limits, a 95 % probability level, and the
degrees of freedom associated with the estimate of v; and
A = 5.0 % of the average, the value of allowable variation.
Imroduction, Identification, and Evaluation 21
22
Per Test Method D 4632 if there is no reliable estimate of v for the user's laboratory, the equation above
should not be used directly. Instead, specify the fixed number of 10 specimens for the machine direction
tests and 10 specimens for the cross-machine direction test.
Test Results - Machine Direction
Roll Number
Specimen 1 2 3 4 5
1 720 733 687 702 693
2 713 715 715 689 701
3 715 721 717 707 698
4 708 719 706 716 711
5 707 707 724 730 707
6 700 713 699 724 720
7 699 720 705 717 725
8 711 703 712 712 720
9 717 700 717 707 718
10 703 712 722 716 715
Average 709.3 714.3 710.4 712.0 710.8
Test Results - Cross-Machine Direction
Roll Number
Specimen 1 2 3 4 5
1 715 723 683 699 690
2 708 710 710 687 700
3 710 711 707 701 691
4 703 717 707 706 701
5 709 709 713 723 706
6 703 715 688 719 718
7 689 710 701 707 721
8 701 708 700 702 719
9 707 707 693 707 713
10 700 710 701 710 711
Average 704.5 712.0 700.3 706.1 707.0
All roll averages exceed the specification value of 700 N. Therefore, the grab strength of this lot is
acceptable.
April 1998
1.8 FIELD INSPECTION
Problems with geosynthetic applications are often attributed to poor product acceptance and
construction monitoring procedures on the part of the owner, and/or inappropriate installation
methods on the part of the contractor. A checklist for field personnel responsible for observing
a geosynthetic installation is presented in Table 1-4. Recommended installation methods are
presented in the application chapters.
1.9 FIELD SEAMING
Some form of geosynthetic seaming will be utilized in those applications that require continuity
between adjacent rolls. Seaming techniques include overlapping, sewing, stapling, tying, heat
bonding, welding and gluing. Some of these techniques are more suitable for certain types of
geosynthetics than others. For example, the most efficient and widely used methods for
geotextiles are overlapping and sewing, and these techniques are discussed first.
The first technique, the simple overlap, will be suitable for most geotextile and biaxial geogrid
projects. The minimum overlap is 0.3 m. Greater overlaps are required for specific applications.
If stress transfer is required between adjacent rolls, the only strength provided by an overlap is
the friction between adjacent sheets of geotextiles, and by friction and fill strike-through of
substantial apertures of biaxial geogrids. Unless overburden pressures are large and the overlap
substantial, very little stress can actually be transferred through the overlap.
The second technique, sewing, offers a practical and economical alternative for geotextiles when
overlaps become excessive or stress transfer is required between two adjacent rolls of fabric. For
typical projects and conditions, sewing is generally more economical when overlaps of 1 m or
greater are required. To obtain good-quality, effective seams, the user should be aware of the
following sewing variables (Koerner, 1994; Diaz and Myles, 1990; Ko, 1987):
Thread type: Kevlar aramid, polyethylene, polyester, or polypropylene (in approximate
order of decreasing strength and cost). Thread durability must be consistent with project
requirements.
Thread tension: Usually adjusted in the field to be sufficiently tight; but not cut the
geotextile.
Stitch density: Typically, 200 to 400 stitches per meter are used for lighter-weight
geotextiles, while heavier geotextiles usually allow only 150 to 200 stitches per meter.
Stitch type: Single- or double-thread chainstitch, Types 101 or 401; with double-thread
chain- or lock-stitch preferred because it is less likely to unravel (Figure 1-2(a)).
Number of rows: Usually two or more parallel rows are preferred for increased safety.
Seam type: Flat or prayer seams, J- or Double J-type seams, or butteifly seams are the
most widely used (Figure 1-2(b)).
Introduction, Identification, and Evaluation 23
TABLE 1-4
GEOSYNTHETIC FIELD INSPECTION CHECKLIST
D 1. Read the specifications; determine if geosynthetic is specified by (a) specific
properties or (b) an approved products list.
D 2. Review the construction plans.
D 3. (a) For specification by specific properties, check listed material properties of
supplied geosynthetic, from published literature, against the specific property
values specified.
OR
(b) Obtain the geosynthetic name(s), type, and style, along with a small
sample(s) of approved material(s) from the design engineer. Check supplied
geosynthetic type and style for conformance to approved material(s). If the
geosynthetic is not listed, contact the designer with a description of the
material and request evaluation and approval or rejection.
D 4. On site, check the rolls of geosynthetics to see that they are properly stored;
check for any damage.
D 5. Check roll and lot numbers to verify whether they match certification
documents.
o 6. Cut two samples 100 mm to 150 mm square from a roll. Staple one to your
copy of the specifications for comparison with future shipments and send one
to the design engineer for approval or information.
D 7. Observe materials in each roll to make sure they are the same. Observe rolls
for flaws and non uniformity .
D 8. Obtain test samples according to specification requirements from randomly
selected rolls. Mark the machine direction on each sample and note the roll
number.
D 9. Observe construction to see that the contractor complies with specification
requirements for installation.
D 10. Check all seams, both factory and field, for any flaws (e.g., missed stitches in
geotextile). If necessary, either reseam or reject materials.
D 11. If possible, check geosynthetic after aggregate or rip rap placement for possible
damage. This can be done either by constructing a trial installation, or by
removing a small section of aggregate or riprap and observing the geosynthetic
after placement and compaction of the aggregate, at the beginning of the
project. If perforations, tears, or other damage has occurred, contact the
design engineer.
D 12. Check future shipments against the initial approved shipment and collect
additional test samples. Collect samples of seams, both factory and field, for
testing. For field seams, have the contractor sew several meters of a dummy
seam(s) for testing and evaluation.
24 April 1998
When constructed correctly, sewn seams can provide reliable stress transfer between adjacent
sheets of geotextile. However, there are several points with regard to seam strength that should
be understood, as follows.
1. Due to needle damage and stress concentrations at the stitch, sewn seams are weaker than
the geotextile (good, high-quality seams have only about 50% to 80% of the intact
geotextile strength based on wide width tests).
2. Grab strength results are influenced by the stitches, so the test yields artificially high seam
strengths. Grab test should only be used for quality control and not to determine strength.
3. The maximum seam strengths achievable at this time are on the order of 200 kN/m under
factory conditions, using 330 kN/m geotextiles.
4. Field seam strengths will most likely be lower than laboratory or factory seam strengths.
5. All stitches can unravel, although lock-type stitches are less likely to.
6. Unraveling can be avoided by utilizing high-quality equipment and proper selection of
needles, thread, seam and stitch type, and by using two or more rows of stitches.
7. Careful inspection of all stitches is essential.
Field sewing is relatively simple and usually requires two or three laborers, depending on the
geotextile, seam type, and sewing machine. Good seams require careful control of the operation,
cleanliness, and protection from the elements. However, adverse field conditions can easily
complicate sewing operations. Although most portable sewing machines are electric, pneumatic
equipment is available for operating in wet environments.
Since the seam is the weakest link in the geotextile, all seams, including factory seams, should be
carefully inspected. To facilitate inspection and repair, the geotextile should be placed (or at least
inspected prior to placement) with all seams up (Figure. 1-2(c. Using a contrasting thread color
can facilitate inspection. Procedures for testing sewn seams are given in ASTM D 4884, Standard
Test Method for Seam Strength of Sewn Geotextiles.
Seaming of biaxial geogrids and geocomposites is most commonly achieved by overlaps, and the
remarks above on overlap of geotextiles are generally appropriate to these products. Uniaxial
geogrids are normally butted in the along-the-roll direction. Seams in the roll direction of uniaxial
geogrids are made with a bodkin joint for HDPE geogrids, as illustrated in Figure 1-3, and may
be made with overlaps for coated PET geogrids.
Seaming of geomembranes and other geosynthetic barriers is much more varied. The method of
seaming is dependent upon the geosynthetic material being used and the project design. Overlaps
of a designated length are typically used for thin-film geotextile composites and geosynthetic clay
liners. Geomembranes are seamed with thermal methods or with solvents.
Illfroduction, Idelltificatioll, alld Evaluatioll 25
(a) Type of stitches
-
-
Direction of successive
stitch formation
Type 101:
Single Thread Chain Stitch
(b) Type of seams
C

-
(
~
~
-
Direction of successive
stitch formation
Type 401:
Double Thread Chain
or "Lock "Stitch
L.OLZ_
-
-
-
95mm L I 1-'"
2 2 2 rS $ S S
25mm
5 m m ~
26
Flat or "prayc. Scam
Type SSa-2
(c) Improper placement
J Seam
Type SSn-2
Cannot Inspect or Repair
"Butterfly" Seam
Type SSd-2
Figure 1-2 Types of (a) stitches and (b) seams, according to Federal Standard No.
751a (1965); and (c) improper seam placement.
April 1998
HDPE uniaxial
geogrid
38 mm x 6 mm
HDPE bar (typ.)
Figure 1-3 Bodkin connection of HDPE uniaxial geogrid.
1.10 REFERENCES
References quoted within this section are listed below. The Holtz and Paulson and the Cazzuffi
and Anazani lists of geosynthetic literature are attached as Appendix A. Detailed lists of specific
ASTM and GRI test procedures are presented in Appendix E. The Koerner (1994) is a recent,
comprehensive textbook on geosynthetics and is a key reference for design. The bibliographies
by Giroud (1993, 1994) comprehensively contain references of publications on geosynthetics
before January 1, 1993. These and other key references are noted in bold type.
AASHTO, StandLlrd Specifications/or GeotextiJes - M 288, Standard Specifications for Transportation Materials
and Methods of Sampling and Testing, 18
th
Edition, American Association of State Transportation and Highway
Officials, Washington, D.C., 1997.
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Introduction, Identification, and Evaluation 27
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Introduction, Identification, and Evaluation 29