ProfessorA.S.

Mujumdar
NationalUniversityofSingapore
Drying: Principles and Practice
InternationalWorkshoponDryingofFoodand
Biomaterials
Bangkok June67,2011
Contents
Introductiontofoodprocessing;drying Fundamentals
Classificationgeneralideas
Whysomanydryertypes?
Keycriteriaforclassification
Criteriafordryerselection
Differentdryertypes
Energyrelatedissuesindrying
Special/Innovativedryers
Closure
FoodProcessing
Needoffoodprocessing toavoidthespoilageoffoodsduetovarious
reasons;toincreaseshelflife;tomakefoodproductsavailable through
outtheyear
Thespoilagecouldbeduetophysicaldamage,chemicaldamage,
microbialattack
Variousfoodprocessingmethods Freezing,canning,preservingin
syrup,foodirradiation,salting,vacuumpackaging,dehydration
canningandfreezing bestwaytoretainthetaste,appearance,and
nutritivevalueoffreshfood(Costinvolvement)
Drying/Dehydration verymuchcosteffective;producttakesmuch
lessstoragespacethancannedorfrozenfoods;Somedehydrated
productshaveverygoodrehydrationproperties
Drying Fundamentals
Removalofaliquidfromasolid/semisolid/liquidtoproducesolid
product by thermal energy input causing phase change
(Sometimes converts solid moisture into vapor by sublimation eg.
Freezedryingwithapplicationofheat.)
Neededforthepurposesofpreservationandstorage,reductionin
costoftransportation,etc.
Mostcommonanddiverseoperationwithover100typesof
dryersinindustrialuse
Competeswithdistillationasthemostenergyintensive
operation
Drying Fundamentals
Dryingparticle
EnergyInputby MoistureOutputby
Conduction
Convection
Radiation
MicrowaveandRadio
FrequencyFields
Combinedmode
Liquiddiffusion
Vapordiffusion
Capillaryflow(Permeability)
Knudsendiffusion(Meanfree
path<poredia.)
Surfacediffusion
Poiseuille flow
Combinationofabove
DryingaComplexProcess
Chemical/
biochemical
reactions
Phasechange
Multicomponent
Moisturetransport
Changeofphysical
structure
Coupledwith
mass
transfer
Input
Continuous/
intermittent
Changein
quality
Transient
Shrinkage
DRYINGASA
COMPLEX
THERMALPROCESS
Dryingbasedonheatinput
I.Direct(Convective)
Direct
Dryer
Hotgas
Wetproduct
Dryproduct
Humidgas
Dryingmediumdirectlycontactsmaterialtobedriedandcarries
evaporatedmoisture.
II.Indirect(Contact,Conduction)
Gasflow(low)
Wetproduct
Dryproduct
Vacuumorlowgasflow
Heatsupplied
byheatexchanger
(throughmetalwall)
Dryingbasedonheatinput
III.Radiant
Wetfeed
Dryproduct
Vacuumorlowgasflowtocarryevaporatedmoistureaway.
IV.MicrowaveorRF
Electromagneticenergyabsorbedselectivelybywater(volumetric heating)
Heater(radiant)
Typicallylessthan50%oftotalheatsuppliedinmostdirectdryers
isusedforevaporation.Wateristhemostcommonsolventremoved
indryers.
Basicterms
0
100
X, kg water / kg dry solid
Relative
humidity
Non-hygroscopic
Nearly
non-
hygroscopic
Hygroscopic
porous
Colloidal
Colloidal, infinitely swelling
T =CONST.
Equilibrium moisture content curves for various types of
solids
Basicterms
R
,

k
g
/
m

h
2
X, kg water/kg dry solid
0
0
Textbook DRC
X*
SHD
X
crit
Casehardening
Through/impingement
drying
RDF
vapor-lock
Unusual Drying Rate Curves
Basicterms
Reasons for non-textbook shapes
Physical structure
Crystallization
Melting
skinning
glass transition
Puffing
shrinkage
precipitation
C
h
e
m
i
c
a
l

c
h
a
n
g
e
s
change of mass
change of physical
structure
H
e
a
t
i
n
g

p
r
o
c
e
d
u
r
e
s
boundary heating
volumetric heating
D
r
y
i
n
g

m
e
d
i
u
m
SHS
air
hi temp.
low temp.
Unusual Drying Rate Curves*
* Constant drying conditions
Basicterms(wateractivity)
WATER ACTIVITY ( a ):
w
State of water in bio-product:
- Free water - intra-cellular water; nutrients and dissolved
solids needed for living cells
- Bound water - water built into cells or biopolymer structures
Needs additional energy to break "bonds" with solid. Bound
water also resists freezing
For safe storage, bio-products must be dried to appropriate
levels and stored under appropriate conditions
w
a =
Partial pressure of water over wet solid
Equilibrium vapor pressure of water at same temp.
Whysomanydryertypes?
Over500reportedinliteraturestudies;over100commercially
available
Over50,000materialsaredriedcommerciallyatratesofafewkg/hrto
30T/hrormore
Dryingtimes(residencetimeswithindryingchamber)canrangefrom
1/3sec.tomonths
Temperatureandpressurerangefrombelowtriplepointtosuper
critical
Numerousconstraintsonphysical/chemicalpropertiesoffeedaswell
asdriedproductrequireabewilderingarrayofdryerdesigns
Widerangeoffeeds(liquid,solid,semisolid,particulate,pasty;sludge
like;stickyetc);widespecsondriedproduct
Whysomanydryertypes?
Differentsourcesofenergyinput(conduction,convection,
radiation,MW,RFetc)
Energyinputcontinuousorintermittent
Batch,continuousorsemicontinuousoperation
Quality iskeyparameterformanyproducts
Limitednumberusedinpharma industry
Needtoreducethecost
Needtoconsiderdryingsystemratherthandryer,i.e.Pre andpost
dryingstagesareimportantandoftencostmorethandryer
Environmentalregulationsdemandnewdryingtechniques
DryerSelection
Andclassification
Criterionforselectionofdryers
Numerouscriteria,withdifferentweights
Manydryerscantypicallymeetspecs;henceseveraldryerscandoa
givenjobingeneral.
Choicedependsonmodeofoperation,physicalformoffeedand
driedproductdesired;heatsensitivity;qualityrequirements;
productionrate;whethernonaqueoussolventsarepresentinfeed;
whethermaterialistoxic/inflammableorfriableetc
Keycriterion dryermustbeabletohandletheproduct moveit
fromfeedtoexit!Othercriteriafollow
Forpharma products qualityisNO1criterion!
Criterionforselectionofdryers
DryerSelection:Ablackartorscience?
Littlepublishedworkonsubject
Inviewoftremendousdiversityofdryers,buyermustknowmore
aboutdryersanddrying
Mostvendorsspecializeinselecteddryertypes;sobuyerneedsto
makechoice
Multiplechoicesarepossibleandcanmakeselectionprocesscomplex
Expertiseneededtomakerightchoice!
Energy,environment,safetyandcostareimportantconsiderationsin
selection.
Specialcareneededwhenhandlingnonaqueous solventsinwet
material
Whyselectdryercarefully?
Canaffectbottomline..
Productquality,energyusageaffectedbychoice
Chooserightdryingsystemnotjutdryer
Weakestlinkdecidesultimategoodnessofsystemchoice
Surveyof10largestpharma andchemicalcompaniesinEuropein
1990sidentifieddryerselectionasmainproblemfacingindustry!
Expertsystemsexistforselection.Differentexpertsystemsgive
differentselections
Knowproductandprocesswellbeforechoosingdryingsystem;
imitationcancauseproblems!
Simpledecisiontreessuggested(SPS)
Somenotesfordryerselection
Mustexaminedryingsystemcostratherthandryer costforfinal
selection.
Largelyuntestedinindustrialpractice trendistorepeat
history
Donotcopydryerordryersystemusedelsewherewithout
criticalevaluationfromsquare1!
Nickeloreconcentrateisdriedindifferentplacesusingspray,
fluidbed,rotaryandflashdryers/WhichonedoyouCOPY?
Localfuelavailabilityandrelativecostsofdifferentenergy
sources,environmentalrequirementsaswellaslegislationcan
changeselectionofdryerforsameapplication
Maindryerclassificationcriteria
Criterion Types
Modeofoperation Batch
Continuous*
Heatinputtype Convection*,conduction,radiation,
electromagneticfields,combinationofheat
transfermodes
Intermittentorcontinuous*
Adiabaticornonadiabatic
Stateofmaterialindryer Stationary
Moving,agitated,dispersed
Operatingpressure Vacuum*
Atmospheric
Dryingmedium
(convection)
Air*
Superheatedsteam
Fluegases
Maindryerclassificationcriteria
Criterion Types
Dryingtemperature Belowboilingtemperature*
Aboveboilingtemperature
Belowfreezingpoint
Relativemotionbetween
dryingmediumand
dryingsolids
Cocurrent
Countercurrent
Mixedflow
Numberofstages Single*
Multistage
Residencetime Short(<1minute)
Medium(1 60minutes)
Long(>60minutes)
*Mostcommoninpractice
Typicalchecklistforselectionofindustrialdryers
Physicalformoffeed Granular,particulate,sludge,crystalline,liquid,pasty,
suspension,solution,continuoussheets,planks,oddshapes
(small/large)
Sticky,lumpy
Averagethroughput kg/h(dry/wet);continuous
kgperbatch(dry/wet)
Expectedvariationin
throughput
(turndownratio)
Fuelchoice Oil
Gas
Electricity
Pre andpostdrying
operations
(ifany)
Forparticulatefeed
products
Meanparticlesize
Sizedistribution
Particledensity
Bulkdensity
Rehydrationproperties
Typicalchecklistforselectionofindustrialdryers
Chemical/biochemical/
microbiologicalactivity
Heatsensitivity Meltingpoint
Glasstransitiontemperature
Inlet/outletmoisture
content
Drybasis
Wetbasis
Sorptionisotherms
(equilibriummoisture
content)
Dryingtime Dryingcurves
Effectofprocessvariables
Specialrequirements Materialofconstruction
Corrosion
Toxicity
Nonaqueoussolution
Flammabilitylimits
Firehazard
Color/texture/aromarequirements(ifany)
More guidelines for
Dryer Selection
PrincipalDataNeeded
Solidsthroughput MassflowW
s
Turndownratio
Moisturecontent InletX1,
OutletX0,variation
Particleproperties Size,sizedistribution
Density,r
p
,r
s
Dryingkinetics Dryingcurves
E.M.C.data
Temperaturelimits longterm
Instantaneous
Gasandsolvent Identity
Physicalproperties
Otherfeatures Safety,easeofhandling,attrition,etc.
Qualityaspects
Toxicity,flammability
Includeasmuchrelevantdataaspossible
AdditionalQualitativeDataNeeded
Firesanddustexplosions
Toxicity
Potentialforenvironmentaldamage
Productvalue
Needforcontainment
Capitalcost
Attrition,hardnessandfriability
Cohesion,adhesion,agglomeration
Operatingtime
Needforsizereduction/enlargement
PostdryingoperationsandPredryingfactors
SmallScaleLabTests
Smallscaletestsgivevaluableinformation:
Dryingkinetics dryingrates(parametriceffects)
Equilibriummoisturecontent effectofT,humidity
Microscopicexamination surface,agglomeration
Labscalerotaryevaporator overheating,balling,adhesion
Rotatingdrumtester attrition,dustiness
Cohesionandadhesion handling,stickypoint
Vitaltohavearepresentativesampleoffinalmaterial
Notnecessarytocarryoutallofabovetestsinallcases
BasicChoice:FormofFeed
Feedandproductcanbeinoneofthesemainbasic
forms:
Particulatesolids(bed/layer/ordispersed)
Sheetorfilm
Blockorslab
Slurryorsolution(feedonly)orpaste
Mostlyrequirecompletelydifferenttypesofdryer
Widestchoiceavailableforparticulatesolids
Specificationoffinalproductalsocriticalinselection
BasicChoice:BatchorContinuous
Batchdryersfavoredby:
Lowthroughput(under50kg/h)
Longresidencetime(i.e.mainlyfallingratedrying)
Batchequipmentupstreamanddownstream
Requirementforbatchintegrity
Continuousdryersfavoredby
oppositeconditions
Matchproductionmadeoffeedwherepossible
BasicChoice:InformationFromKineticData
Interpretationofdryingcurvesassistschoice:
Unhindereddryingperiod favorsconvective/dispersion
Longhindereddryingperiod favorscontactdrying
Estimateofrequiredsolidsresidencetime
Maximumlikelydryingrate
Indicationofmechanismscontrollingdrying
Differencebetweeninitialandfinaldryingrates *
*(Ifhigh,favorswellmixed,parallelflowortwostage)
Dryers:SolidExposuretoHeatConditions

Dryers Typicalresidencetimewithindryer
010
sec
1030
sec
510
min
1060
min
16
hr
Convection
Beltconveyordryer X
Flashdryer X
Fluidbeddryer X
Rotarydryer X
Spraydryer X
Traydryer(batch) X
Traydryer(continuous) X
Conduction
Drumdryer X
Steamjacketrotarydryer X
Steamtuberotarydryer X
Traydryer(batch) X
Traydryer(continuous) X
ProductClassificationandDryerTypes
Dryers Evap.Rate
(kg/m
2
/h
r)
Fluid,
liquid
suspensio
n
Pastes Powders Granule
s,pellets
Operation
Forced
Convection
(through
flow)
7.5 Good Batch
DoubleCone 10 Poor Fair Poor Batch
FBD 130 Good Good Continuous
Band 30 Fair Good Continuous
FilmDrum 22 Good Fair Continuous
Flash 750 Fair Good Fair Continuous
Rotary
(indirect)
33 Poor Good Fair Continuous
SpinFlash 185 Good Good Fair Continuous
Spray 15 Good Continuous
Different Industrial Dryer Types
TurboTrayDryers
Suitableforgranularfeeds,operatewithrotatingshelvesand force
convectionofairabovetheshelves.
TheDryercanhave30+traysandprovidelargeresidencetime.
Hermeticsealingispossibleforsolventrecovery.
RotaryDryer
Combinedcascademotion
withheat&masstransfer.
Largecapital&operatingcost.
Usedinfertilizers,
pharmaceutical,lead&zinc
concentrateforsmelting,
cement.
Size0.3to5mdiameter&
2to90mlength.
SteamTubeRotaryDryer
FluidBedDryers Variations
FluidBedDryers Modifications
HomogeneousFBwithoutchannelingorbubbles;
highgasvelocitypossible
Deeperbeddepthispossibleifthebedis
agitatedNotcommonlyused
Centrifugal/rotatingFB flowing
gasradially rotatingcylindrical
perforateddistributor.
promisingcontactingU
mf
andU
t
canbecontrolled
Rotocone Dryers(Batch)
Dryingofpharmaceuticals tableting formulation
Maximumcapacity10m
3
.
Evaporationrate27kg/hr.m
2
MicrowaveDryers
Usedinceramicsindustries,
foods&pharmaceuticalsto
driveofffinaltracesof
moisture.
VacuumDryers HeatSensitiveMaterials
YamatoTACORotaryDryer
SuperheatedSteamDrying
Closed steam
drying system
Recycled steam
Fan/blower
Direct use of
steam
Energy recovery via
heat exchanger
Removal of
condensate
Heater
purged steam
steam from boiler
TypicalSSDset-up
SuperheatedSteamDrying
SaturatedSteamFeed
Assume100C,1bar;H=
2,690kJ/kg
Steam
Superheater
SuperheatedSteam
Assume110C,1bar;H=2,720kJ/kg
Dryingchamber
SaturatedSteamExhaust
Backto100C,1bar;H=2,690kJ/kg
Bleedingofffor
otheruses
SuperheatedSteamDrying
Flash dryers with or without indirect
heating of walls
FBDs with or without immersed heat
exchangers
Spray dryers
Impinging jet dryers
Conveyor dryers
Rotary dryers
Impinging stream dryers
Rotary
S
p
r
a
y
Fluid bed
F
la
s
h
Conveyor
PossibleTypesofSSD
Selection of Fluid Bed Dryer
Some case studies
FBDSelection ComplexProcedure
GroupA,B
Goodfluidization
quality
GroupC,D
Poorfluidization
quality
Solutions,Pastes
Liquid
Crystalline
Surfacemoisture
Fragile Colloidal,Porous
Surface+internal
moisture
Fine
GroupC
Large
GroupD
Liquids Pastes/Slurries
Heat
sensitive
Heat
resistant
Heat
sensitive
Heat
resistant
Surface
moisture
Surface+
internal
moisture
PFFBD
SBD
VFBD
WMFBD
SBD
VFBD
VFBD
MSFBD
VFBD
SBD
WMFBD
VFBD
SBD
VFBD
AFBD
ITFBD
Spray FBD
AFBD
SBD
ISFBD
SBD
VFBD
PFBD
BFBD
MSFBD
SBD
FBDSelectionExample DryingofYeast
Goodfluidizationqualitywhendry
Containssurfaceandinternalmoistures
Heatsensitive
Monosized,particlesize=200m(aeratable)
Noteotherdryertypescanalsobeusedforthisapplication
FBDSelectionExample DryingofYeast
GroupA,B
Goodfluidization
quality
GroupC,D
Poorfluidization
quality
Solutions,Pastes
Liquid
Crystalline
Surfacemoisture
Fragile Colloidal,Porous
Surface+internal
moisture
Fine
GroupC
Large
GroupD
Liquids Pastes/Slurries
Heat
sensitive
Heat
resistant
Heat
sensitive
Heat
resistant
Surface
moisture
Surface+
internal
moisture
PFFBD
SBD
VFBD
WMFBD
SBD
VFBD
VFBD
MSFBD
VFBD
SBD
WMFBD
VFBD
SBD
VFBD
AFBD
ITFBD
Spray FBD
AFBD
SBD
ISFBD
SBD
VFBD
PFBD
BFBD
MSFBD
SBD
FBDSelectionExample DryingofYeast
FBDtobeselectedfromfollowingalternates:
Multistagefluidizedbeddryer
VibratedFluidizedbeddryer
SpoutedFluidizedbeddryer
Monosized,
Particlesize=200m(aeratable);density=???
Useamultistagefluidizedbeddryer
Canconsiderwellmixedfluidizedbeddryerfollowedbyplug
flowfluidizeddryerandcooleratthefinalstage
FBDSelectionExample DryingofDairyProducts
Solution
Liquid
Note:Asidefromphysicalform,modeofoperation,capacity
required,heatsensitivityaffectthedryerchoice.Infactthe
initialandfinalM.C.,dryingkinetics,toxicity,fragilityof
materialalsoinfluencedryerselection.
FBDSelectionExample DryingofDairyProducts
GroupA,B
Goodfluidization
quality
GroupC,D
Poorfluidization
quality
Solutions,Pastes
Liquid
Crystalline
Surfacemoisture
Fragile
Colloidal,Porous
Surface+internal
moisture
Fine
GroupC
Large
GroupD
Liquids Pastes/Slurries
Heat
sensitive
Heat
resistant
Heat
sensitive
Heat
resistant
Surface
moisture
Surface+
internal
moisture
PFFBD
SBD
VFBD
WMFBD
SBD
VFBD
VFBD
MSFBD
VFBD
SBD
WMFBD
VFBD
SBD
VFBD
AFBD
ITFBD
Spray FBD
AFBD
SBD
ISFBD
SBD
VFBD
PFBD
BFBD
MSFBD
SBD
FBDSelectionExample DryingofDairyProducts
FBDtoselect:
Spray FBD
WhattypeofFBD?
Notefollowing:
Powderscontaininternalmoisture,porous
Heatsensitive
FBDSelectionExample DryingofDairyProducts
GroupA,B
Goodfluidization
quality
GroupC,D
Poorfluidization
quality
Solutions,Pastes
Liquid
Crystalline
Surfacemoisture
Fragile Colloidal,Porous
Surface+internal
moisture
Fine
GroupC
Large
GroupD
Liquids Pastes/Slurries
Heat
sensitive
Heat
resistant
Heat
sensitive
Heat
resistant
Surface
moisture
Surface+
internal
moisture
PFFBD
SBD
VFBD
WMFBD
SBD
VFBD
VFBD
MSFBD
VFBD
SBD
WMFBD
VFBD
SBD
VFBD
AFBD
ITFBD
Spray FBD
AFBD
SBD
ISFBD
SBD
VFBD
PFBD
BFBD
MSFBD
SBD
FBDSelectionExample DryingofDairyProducts
FBDtoselect:
Multistagefluidizedbeddryer
Vibratedfluidizedbeddryer
Spoutedbeddryer
Polydispersed
Usevibratedfluidizedbeddryer
Needtosieveproducts;finesrecycled,coarsecrushedand
recycled,sizedproductcollected
AdvancedDryingMethods
Atmosphericfreezedrying
Heatpumpdrying
Hybriddrying
Intermittentdrying
Sprayfreezedrying
Pulsecombustiondryers
Multistagedryers
Multiprocessingdryers
AdvancedDryingMethods
HybridDryingTechnologies

Fluidizedbed
dryers
Combined
modeofheat
transfer
Convective/conduction
(Agitatedfluidbeddryer)
Convectivewith MW/RF/IR
Continuousorintermittent
Eachstagewithsamedryertype
(Twostagefluidbed)
Differentdryersateachstage
(Sprayandfluidbeddryeror
flashandfluidbeddryer)
Multistage
drying
systems
Multiprocess
ingdryers
Differentdryingtechnologies
ateachstage(superheated
steamdrying/byairdrying)
Filtercumdryer
Dryingandagglomeration(spray
followedbyfluidbed)
Drying&cooling(inplugflow
fluidbeddryer
Closure
Veryimportantstep(afterestablishingneedtodryandoptimalflowsheet
fornonthermaldewatering)
Wrongchoiceleadstoseverepenalties startupcosts,downtimeandneed
toreplace
Usermustdohomework fist;vendorsvaluablethereafter
Severaldryersmaydothejob samequality,costetc.
Selectiondoesdependoncostoffuel,relativecostofdifferentenergy
sources;geographicallocation;legislativeregulations;emissioncontrol;
safety,etc.
Considernewtechnologiesaswell whenavailableandproven
Expertsystemsnowavailable(e.g.SPS)toaidinselection stilla
combinationofart(experience)andscience!
Selectionmaybedominatedbyjustonecriterioninsomecasese.g.quality
forpharma products
Severaldifferentdryerscandosamejobatsamecostinsomecases
Choicecandependongeographiclocation,costofenergyetc
Closure
Energyisaimportantpointtobeconsideredindryingwhichishighly
energyintensiveunitoperation
Differentroutescanbeusedtominimizetheenergylosses
Carbonfootprintscanbeminimizedbymakingthedryingsystemenergy
efficient
Developingenergyintensivemethodswithsustainability needtodevelop
innovativedryingtechniques
Someoftheadvanced/innovativewaysofdryingarediscussed
Books/monographsbyProf.
ArunS.Mujumdar
During2010
Visitusat:
http://serve.me.nus.edu.sg/arun
Selectedbooksandjournalsin
dryingandtransportphenomena
edited/authoredbyProf.Arun
S.Mujumdar,
Visitusat:
http://serve.me.nus.edu.sg/arun
Visitusat
http://serve.me.nus.edu.sg/arun/
http://www.mujumdar.net78.net/