Introduction to the Environment

Chapter 1

Introduction to the Environment

This book is intended to serve as a reference guide and an introductory textbook on the
science and management of issues related to the environment. When we speak of the
environment, we refer to the living as well as the non-living world around us, including trees,
air, soil, water, plants, animals, rivers, oceans, fish, and insects. The environment also includes
human beings and the creations of human beings – cities, farms, homes, and temples. As
human beings, we are inseparable from our environment and cannot exist without the natural
environment.

Because humans are part of the environment, our activities can greatly change the natural
world. Usually our activities affect the environment in three ways. First, we take resources
from the natural environment, such as fish, minerals, wood, clean water, and gems. Second,
we add things to the environment, such as smoke from fires, plastic bottles, aluminum cans and
plastic bags. Third, we replace the natural environment with something else. An example of
this is the clearing of a forest and replacing it with a road or houses or factories.

When billions of human beings all over the world take things from the environment, add things
to the environment and replace the natural environment with other things, the natural world
can be greatly changed. Most natural resources are limited, so taking too much from the
environment can use up these resources. For example, if we take too many fish from the
Tonle Sap, there will be fewer fish to breed and fewer fish in the lake in the future. Also,
adding too much waste to the environment can have negative effects. In small amounts,
waste is not a serious problem because the natural environment can absorb some waste. But
there is a limit to the amount of waste that the natural environment can accept. If we add too
much waste to the natural environment, the water, air and land become too dirty to use.
Finally, replacing too much of a natural resource with something else can also have negative
effects. The amount of land available to convert to human use is limited. For example, if a
forest is destroyed to create farmland, it can take hundreds of years to regenerate a similar
forest.

Human activities have always changed the environment. In the past, the effects of these
actions were localized – people’s actions would change a small plot of land or a short length of
a stream. Today, however, modern technology makes it possible for people to damage a
country or the entire world very quickly. For example, with modern technology, large forests
can be cleared so rapidly that the weather of the entire planet is changed, resulting in rainfall
changes even in regions that are far from the forest.

Because of our capacity to change the natural environment rapidly and on a large scale, it is
important for us to understand environmental issues and to manage these issues appropriately.
This is a challenge because little is known about all effects of human activities and modern

Chapter 1 3
Environment: ETAP Reference Guide Book

technologies. Everything in the environment is connected, but all of the connections are not
well understood. When people change the environment rapidly and on a large scale, the
environmental interactions become very complex and the impacts of human actions become
less certain. For example, scientists know that when cars, motorcycles and trucks burn
petroleum fuel, pollution is added to the air. The aggregation of millions of people using
petroleum fuel-burning vehicles may change the world’s climate, change sea levels, and make
storms more severe and more frequent. However, scientists do not know exactly what will
happen, where it will happen or when it will happen. For many environmental issues, we are
combining the power of modern technology with considerable ignorance about the effects of
what we are doing.

Because human activities greatly influence the natural environment, it is necessary to manage
these activities in such a way that the environment is preserved for ourselves and for future
generations. Managing these activities is a challenge for several reasons. First, since there is
scientific uncertainty about environmental problems, there is often disagreement regarding the
most appropriate course of action. Second, since natural processes and human actions that
affect these processes are constantly changing, management of issues related to the
environment must be flexible in response to these changes. Third, since humans are part of
the environment and cause environmental damage, people must be involved to find solutions to
these problems. To discover workable solutions, it is important to involve people who impact
on environmental issues, including villagers, government, business, NGOs, and military.
Involving all of these people is a challenge because they have different - and often conflicting
– interests. In addition, environmental issues can be political and controversial, so resolution of
issues can be complicated. In summary, environmental issues are complex and constantly
changing, so there is rarely one simple solution for environmental problems. Environmental
policy and management is about dealing with complexity, in Cambodia and throughout the
world.

In Cambodia, for example, there are many complex environmental problems, including over-
logging, soil erosion, flooding, over-fishing, and water pollution. There is no clear, simple
solution to these problems, but general guidelines and principles can assist people to better
manage issues related to the environment. As mentioned above, solutions must be flexible and
must include people who are involved in the problem, as well as people impacted by the
solutions. Furthermore, it is important for each individual, whether you are a private citizen or
a government official, to take actions that prevent damage or that repair damage to
environmental systems. Additional principles, as well as tools for managing environmental
issues, are described in section five of this book.

This book is intended to assist people in understanding environmental issues and concepts and
in learning tools to resolve these issues. The first section focuses on ecology and ecosystems
and provides an overview of the Earth, climates and global systems. The second section
examines the Earth’s natural resources, including water, soil, land, fish, forests, and minerals.
The third section pertains to environmental problems, such as air pollution, climate change,
water pollution, and pesticides. The fourth section looks at the role of people in changing the

4 Chapter 1
 Introduction to the Environment

environment and in resolving environmental problems. The fifth section provides specific tools
for managing environmental issues, including data collection and analysis, computer-based
mapping, and resource economics. All sections provide specific examples and relate
environmental issues to the context of Cambodia. When reading individual chapters, it is
helpful to remember that all issues are inter-related and should be viewed as part of the larger,
complex environmental system.

It is our hope that this book will improve people’s knowledge about the environment, issues
relating to the environment, and management of these issues. It is also our hope that through
this book, people will become interested in working to improve the environment. If these
hopes are realized, this book will be an invaluable tool to assist in the protection of the
environment for current and future generations.

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Environment: ETAP Reference Guide Book

Chapter 2

The World We Live In

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6 Chapter 2
2.1 The Planet Earth
The planet earth is part of the solar system which has a star called the Sun at its center. The Earth is one
of nine planets orbiting (traveling around) the Sun (Fig 2.1). The Earth is the third closest planet to the
Sun, which provides both heat and light. The Earth is neither too close to be very hot (like Mercury the
closest), nor too far away to be extremely cold (like Uranus, Neptune and Pluto, the three planets
furthest away from the Sun). Some of the planets have satellites (moons) in orbit around them while
others have none. The Earth has one moon.
Fig 2.1 The Planets orbiting the Sun (Sale, 1989)

2.1.1 Shape of the Earth

The Earth is almost completely spherical (round like a ball) in shape. It is about 12,800km in diameter
(Fig 2.2).
Fig 2.2 The Earth’s shape, size and parts (Sale, 1989.)
The north and South Poles are the slightly flattened and the Equator is the imaginary line around the
world half way between the two poles. The Equator divides the Earth into two halves, called
hemispheres. Cambodia lies in the Northern hemisphere.

2.1.2 Movements of the Earth

The Earth has two very important movements which have an influence on life on Earth: it rotates (turns
around or spins) on an axis (Fig 2.3), and revolves (circles or orbits) around the Sun (Fig 2.4). The
Earth’s rotation results in night and day every 24 hours and the Earth’s revolution around the Sun takes
one year to complete.

Fig 2.3 Rotation of the Earth to give night and day (Sale, 1989.)
In the Earth’s revolution around the Sun, its axis is not upright but leaning over
slightly; i.e. the Earth has a tilted axis. It is this tilting of the Earth that gives
seasons - differences between summer and winter in the higher latitudes and wet and
dry seasons in the tropics.

Fig 2.4 Earth’s orbit around the sun takes 365¼ days (Sale, 1989.)

Fig 2.5 The Earth revolves around the sun with a tilted axis (Sale ,1989.)

2.1.4 Composition of the Earth

The Earth is made up of three parts which support life on earth, the atmosphere, the hydrosphere and
the geosphere.

Fig 2.6 The Composition of the Earth (Miller, 1992)

2.1.4.1 Atmosphere
The atmosphere is the thin layer of gas that surrounds the earth. It can be divided into three layers:
• the troposphere, 0-17km above sea level;
• the stratosphere, 17 - 48km above sea level; and
• the mesosphere which lies above the stratosphere.
The troposphere contains about 95% of the planets air. Almost 99% of this air consists of two gases,
nitrogen 78% and oxygen 21%. The remaining 1% is made up of argon, carbon dioxide and water
vapor. The stratosphere contains the ozone layer between 17 and 26Km. This layer is important for
absorbing ultraviolet radiation from the sun. Each zone is characterized by different temperatures.

Fig 2.7 Layers of the Atmosphere (Miller,1992 )

2.1.4.2 Hydrosphere
The hydrosphere is the Earth’s supply of water (liquid and frozen, fresh and salty).
2.1.4.3 Geosphere
The interior core, mantle and crust make up the geosphere. The diameter of the Earth is approximately
13,000 km. The central zone- the core- is made up of mostly molten iron and nickel. The core is
surrounded by a thick solid zone called the mantle which contains a high percentage of iron along with
oxygen, silicon and magnesium. The crust is the zone of the Earth that exists at the surface. It is mostly
made up of eight element - oxygen (present in solid materials), silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium,
sodium, potassium and magnesium.

Fig. 2.8 The Lithosphere (Sale ,1989.)

The crust and the upper layer of the mantle is known as the lithosphere. It is made up of several very
large plates and the theory that explains the movement of these plates is known as plate tectonics.
These plates make up the continents of the world.
Figure 2.9 Diagram of Asian Tectonic Plates and Fault Zones by Cooper et al 1989,

and Hutchison 1989.

The tectonic plates of Southeast Asia are shown in Figure 2.9. Cambodia is located on the Indochina
Plate. A major fault zone, the Mae Ping Fault Zone, passes southeastwards through the country giving
rise to the Tonle Sap basin.
2.1.4.4. Biosphere
The biosphere is the name given to the part of the earth where all life exists. It consists of the inner
layer of the atmosphere, the troposphere, the hydrosphere and the lithosphere. The biosphere extends
from the deepest ocean floors to the tops of the highest mountains, more than 20 km in total.
2.2 Weather and Climate
The temperatures, pressure, precipitation, sunshine, cloud cover, wind speed and direction in the lower
atmosphere are constantly changing. The short term changes in these properties are called weather. If
the weather in one area is studied over many years, patterns in wind direction, rainfall and temperature
are seen. The average weather of an area is called the climate. The two most important aspects of the
climate of an area are its’ temperature and the amount and distribution of rainfall over each year. These
two factors are controlled by global air circulation, ocean currents, topography and the chemical
composition of the atmosphere. Global air circulation is in turn determined by the shape of the earth,
the properties of air and the rotation of the earth on a tilted axis.

Fig 2.10 Map of World Climates (Miller, 1992 )

2.2.1 The Four Main Climatic Zones
The four main climatic zones shown on the map of the world (Fig 2.10) are tropical, dry, temperate and
polar. These climatic zones are described briefly as follows:

2.2.1.1 Tropical Zones

These are very warm and humid regions around the equator. Temperatures average 26°C and there are
relatively small seasonal differences in temperature. Rainfall is more than 2000 mm per year. In areas
where there are two distinct seasons, wet and dry the climate is described as sub-tropical. E.g.
Cambodia’s climate.

2.2.1.2 Dry Zones

These are very hot regions with less precipitation than the tropics. The average temperature is 20°C and
rainfall is less than 200 mm per year. These regions are found in some parts of the world near the tropic
of Cancer and Capricorn. Maximum temperatures are higher and minimum temperatures are lower than
in tropical zones.

Fig 2.11 Affect of angle of sunshine on temperature (Arms, 1990.)

2.2.1.3 Temperate Zones

Generally, these are places with four seasons. The have a cold winter and a warm summer. Average
temperatures are between 5 and 20°C. rainfall is 500 to 1200 mm per year. This climatic zone can be
subdivided into six other zones due to the different weather types.

At the Equator the sun shines straight down and its heat is concentrated. Towards
the poles the sun shines more at an angle, and its heat is spread over a larger area
and temperatures are lower.

2.2.1.4 Polar Zones

These are very dry and cold places around the Arctic and Antarctic circles. Average temperatures are
minus 15°C and precipitation is about 100 mm per year.
2.3 Influence of Climate on the Distribution of Terrestrial Plants
Climate, particularly rainfall, strongly influences the type of vegetation found. Plants can only grow
were the climate suits them, i.e. the climate to which they have adapted.

Deserts normally occur in areas where the average rainfall is very low ( < 250 mm) and where
evaporation is greater than rainfall. Such areas have little vegetation.
Grasslands occur in regions where the average annual rainfall is enough to allow grass and some trees
to grow, but is not enough to allow large numbers of trees to grow. Forests occur in undisturbed areas
with medium to high average yearly rainfall. The type of desert, grassland or forest depends on the
average amount and distribution of rainfall per year, the average temperature and the soil type.

Compare the average annual distribution of rainfall worldwide as shown in Figure 2.12 with the
worldwide distribution of deserts, grasslands and forests as shown in Figure 2.13.

Fig 2.12 Average annual distribution of rainfall worldwide (Raven et al., 1993.)

Fig. 2.13 Worldwide distribution of deserts, grasslands and forests (Raven et al., 1993.)
Vegetation changes as altitude increases similarly to how vegetation changes as distance from the
equator increases. Figure 2.14 illustrates the vegetation found at the various temperatures and rainfall
densities as the distance from the equator or the altitude increases.

Figure 2.14 The relationship between climate and biome (Arms, 1990.)
2.3.1 Deserts
Tropical deserts are found in the dry zones where the daily temperatures are high all year and the night
temperatures are low. There are very few plants and it is mainly sand and rock. The Sahara desert is the
most famous tropical desert.

Fig 2.15 Plants and animals that have adapted to the desert (Miller,1992 )

Temperate deserts occur in dry zones where the daytime temperatures are hot in summer and cool in
winter. The Mojave desert in California and Arizona, USA, is an example of a temperate desert. The
vegetation cover is low and consists mainly of desert cacti. Cold deserts have cold winters and warm to
hot summers. Vegetation consists of small plants that can survive both the extremes of temperature and
scarce water.

All desert plants have adapted to capture and keep as much water as possible. Examples of such
adaptations are very long roots that grow deep into the ground to collect groundwater or wax coating
on leaves that prevent evaporation. Desert animals have also adapted to living in the desert. They are
normally only active at night, staying underground during the day.

Water shortages, low species diversity and low growth rate of plants means that deserts are quite fragile
ecosystems. If the vegetation is destroyed by humans, it may take twenty to thirty years to grow back.
2.3.2 Grassland
Grasslands occur naturally in regions of the world where there is a medium supply of rain fall. The type
of grassland varies with temperature.

2.3.2.1 Tropical Grasslands

Tropical grasslands are found in areas with high average temperatures and low to medium rainfall.
They occur in areas close to the equator. A grassland with some trees is known as savanna. Savannas
consist of open plains covered by low or high grasses and occasional small trees or shrubs. The trees
shed their leaves during the dry season to avoid water loss. African tropical savannas are famous
because they are inhabited by large numbers of animals - giraffe, zebra, antelopes, etc. Tropical
savannas are threatened because of the conversion of large areas of savanna into ranches and farms for
beef production. The animals of the savannas are threatened because people kill them for their skins,
horns (rhinoceros) or tusks (elephant).

Fig 2.16 Plants and animals of tropical grasslands (Sale, 1989.)

2.3.2.2 Temperate Grassland

Temperate grasslands are found in areas where the winters are very cold and the summers are hot and
dry. Tall or short grasses cover the flatland or rolling hills. Trees are only found close to rivers.
Temperate grasslands are known as prairies in North America, Pampas in South America, and Steppes
in Asia where they stretch from the Ukraine to Mongolia. The soils of temperate grasslands are very
fertile and therefore many have been cleared for growing crops. Intensive production, mismanagement
and drought can lead to erosion and top soil loss which can convert grasslands to deserts.

2.3.2.3 Polar Grasslands

Polar grasslands or tundra grow in regions south of the Arctic polar ice caps and on high elevations
where the temperature is very low, with icy, strong winds and snow and ice cover the ground for most
of the year. Winters are long and dark and average annual rainfall is low and occurs mostly as snow.
The vegetation is mainly lichens, sedges, mosses, grasses and shrubs. Most growth occurs during the
three months of summer. The low rate of decomposition, shallow soil and slow growth rate of plants
make the arctic tundra one of the earth’s most fragile ecosystems. Vegetation destroyed by human
activities can take decades to recover.
Fig 2.17 Tundra (Sale, 1989)
2.3.3 Forests
Forests naturally occur in regions of the world where there is a high supply of rainfall and as with
deserts and grasslands the type of forest varies with temperature or altitude.

2.3.3.1 Tropical and Sub-Tropical Forests

Tropical and sub-tropical forests are found near the equator where the humidity is high and
temperatures average 26ºC year round. The tropical forest has mainly evergreen trees whereas the sub
tropical forest has deciduous trees because it grows in an area where there are two seasons, wet and
dry.

Fig. 2.18 Sub-tropical forest in Northern Thailand

Tropical and sub-tropical forests have the greatest diversity of plants and animals species per unit area.
Forests can exist indefinitely if they are undisturbed by humans. However, once forests are cleared, the
land becomes grassland or desert.

2.3.3.2 Temperate Forests

Temperate evergreen forests grow in areas where rainfall is plentiful all year, the summers are warm
and the winters are cool but not too cold. The trees do not lose their leaves and the main species are
oak, pine and cedars. Many temperate evergreen forests have been clear cut for their valuable wood and
have been replaced by forest plantations.

Temperate deciduous forests grow in areas with moderate average temperatures that change during four
seasons. Temperatures are high in summer and low in winter, and rainfall is spread evenly throughout
the year. Some of the main species are oak, poplar, sycamore and beech. Deciduous temperate forests
have been cut for their valuable wood and cleared for farms and orchards because of their rich soils.
Compared with tropical forests, temperate forests have very few species of plants and animals.
Fig 2.19 Park Area in a Temperate Forest

2.3.3.3 Coniferous Forests.

Forests, know as taiga are found in northern regions of the world where the winters are very long with

low temperatures and the number of daylight hours is 6-8. Summers are short with mild to warm
temperatures and there are 18-20 hours of daylight. Taiga consist almost exclusively of pine forests and
the soils are very poor. These northern forests have the lowest species diversity of all the forests.
Loggers have cut much of the taiga of North America, Sweden and Norway and replaced it with
plantations. Taiga forests are very vulnerable to the problems of acid rain because the naturally acidic
soils of these forests cannot neutralize the acid compounds which weaken the trees.

Fig. 2.20 Coniferous Forest (Raven et al., 1993.)

2.4 Geography of Cambodia
Cambodia lies in continental Southeast Asia, between the latitudes 10.5 and 14.5 North. It covers an
area of 181,035 km2 . Geographically the country is mainly flat in the central area and is surrounded by
mountains n the border of Thailand, Laos and Vietnam.

The topography of Cambodia is dominated by a large, low-lying alluvial plain that surrounds the Tonle
Sap lake and occupies most of the central part of the country. A hilly plateau region lies to east of the
plain in Mondulkiri and Rattanakiri. On the southwest, mountain ranges fringe the plain; the Phnom
Krâvanh forms a physical barrier along the country’s coast. To the north is the Phnom Dângrêk Range.

The Mekong River flows from north to south through Cambodia. The Tonle Sap (Great Lake) covers
an area of about 2,600 square kilometres in the dry season, but as much as 10,400 square kilometres in
the rainy season. The outlet of Tonle Sap Lake is the Tonle Sap river which flows south into the
Mekong during the dry season. The floodwaters of the Mekong reverse their flow into the Tonle Sap
during the rainy season, flooding the central region of the country.
 Fig. 2.21Map of Cambodia

2.4.1 Climate of Cambodia

The climate is monsoonal; rain falls from May to October, a cool season occurs from November to
January and this is followed by a hot season. The average rainfall is 1,200 to 1,875 mm but this figure
is considerably higher in the coastal zone and the upland regions. Average temperatures generally vary
between 20 and 30°C, but temperatures of up to 40ºC occur during April and May. Three climatic
zones have been defined for the country: the coastal and mountainous area of the southwest, central
plains which include the Mekong and the Tonle Sap and thirdly the North and Northeastern region. A
link between the climates and the ecology of the regions is discussed in chapter 4.
References

Allaby, M. 1996. Basics of Environmental Science

Arms, K. 1990. Environmental Science

Cooper et al. 1989, and Hutchinson, 1989. Asian Tectonic Plates and Fault Zones

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

Raven, P., Berg, L. and Johnson, G., 1993. Environment

Sale, C. 1989. Our Wonderful World

 General Ecological Principles

Chapter 3

General Ecological Principles

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Chapter 3 21
3.1 Introduction
Biology is the study of life on earth at all possible organizational levels, ranging from the simplest
components such as molecules and cells up to highly complex structures such as ecosystems. Ecology
is the study of the interactions of living organisms with one another and with their nonliving
environment of matter and energy.

Science organizes all matter into levels according to size and function. One system classifies matter of
increasing complexity as follows:
Sub atomic particles Least Complex
Atoms
Molecules
Cells
Tissues
Organs
Organ Systems
Organisms
Populations
Communities
Ecosystems
Biosphere
Earth
Planet
Solar System
Universe Most Complex

3.1.1 Levels of Organization Studied by Ecologists

3.1.1.1 Organism
Ecology is concerned with the five shaded levels above: organisms, populations,
communities, ecosystems and biosphere. An organism is any form of life. Examples of
organisms include one amoeba, moss, one rice plant, a tree, a pig, a turtle, one fish, one
person. Organisms are classified into a number of major kingdoms, the best known of which
are animals and plants. Others include bacteria, protists and fungi.

3.1.1.2 Species
All Earth’s organisms are classified into species. A species is a group of organisms
that resemble each other in appearance, behavior, chemical make up and genetic
structure. Organisms that reproduce sexually are classified as members of the same
species only if they can interbreed successfully. Examples of species found include
catfish, irrawaddy dolphins, sun bears, kouprey, gaur and humans.

Figure 3.1a Leopard (WPO/WWF) Figure 3.1b Hibiscus rosa-sinensis

(Mc Makin 1993.)
3.1.1.3 Population
A population is a group of individuals of the same species living in the same area at
the same time. The place where a population (or an organism ) lives is a habitat. Examples
of populations are all the Ir rawaddy dolphins in the Mekong River, the pine trees in
Kirirom National Park and the people of a country .

3.1.1.4 Community
A community is made up of all the populations of all species occupying a particular
geographic region. A community could be an entire lake , a forest, or one tree.

3.1.1.5 Ecosystem
An ecosystem is a community of different species interacting together and with their
non-living environment in a particular geographic region.

3.1.1.6 Biosphere
The biosphere is made up of all the ecosystems on earth.
3.2 Biological Diversity
It is not known exactly how many species exist, but most biologists estimate that
there are at least 5 - 10 million different species. The variation among living
organisms is referred to as biological diversity or biodiversity. The concept of
biodiversity includes three parts; species diversity, genetic diversity and ecological
diversity.

3.2.1 Species Diversity

Species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region. The number of
species in a region is one measure of species diversity, but it is also important to
consider the relationship of the species to each other. For example, an island with 2
species of birds and one species of lizard has greater diversity than the same island
with 3 species of birds and no lizards.

3.2.2 Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity refers to the variation of genes within a species. This covers
distinct populations of the same species - such as the thousands of traditional rice
varieties in Cambodia.

3.2.3 Ecosystem Diversity

Ecosystem diversity is the variation among living things in natural communities. For
example a forest community with its trees, shrubs, vines, herbs, insects, worms,
vertebrate animals, fungi, bacteria and other micro-organisms has a greater
ecosystem diversity than a rice field. Ecosystem diversity also means the variety of
ecosystems found on earth: the forests, prairies, deserts, coral reefs, lakes, coastal
estuaries, and other ecosystems of the planet.

3.3 Non-Living and Living Components

Ecosystems consist of various living (biotic ) and non-living (abiotic) components.

3.3.1 Non-Living Components

The non-living components of an ecosystem include various physical and chemical
factors. The physical factors include sunlight and shade, average temperature and
temperature range, average rainfall and its distribution throughout each year, wind,
latitude, longitude, type of soil and water currents. The most important chemical
factors are the percentage of water and air in the soil, the level of dissolved
nutrients, the level of toxic substances, pH (acidity), salinity and dissolved oxygen.

3.3.2 Living Components

Organisms that make up the living components of an ecosystem are usually
classified as producers, consumers and decomposers. This classification is based on
how they get their food.

3.3.2.1 Producers and Consumers

Producers are organisms that can make food by photosynthesis. All other organisms
are consumers. They get the organic nutrients they need by feeding on the tissues of
producers or other consumers. Consumers can then be classified depending on their
food sources. Primary consumers (herbivores) feed directly on plants, secondary
consumers (carnivores) feed on primary consumers, tertiary or higher level
consumers feed on animal-eating animals. Omnivores can eat both plants and
animals.
3.3.2.2 Decomposers
Besides producers and consumers there is a third class of organisms which feed on
parts of dead organisms and wastes of living organisms by breaking down
(decomposing) the complex organic molecules into simpler organic and inorganic
compounds and absorbing soluble nutrients. They are called decomposers and they
play an important role in the cycle of materials on earth.
3.4 Energy Flow
All life on earth depends on two process es :
1. the one-way flow of energy from the sun through plants to living things and then
into the environment and back into space again (Figure 3.2);
2. the cycling of matter required by living organisms through parts of the
biosphere (Figure 3.3).

Figure 3.2 One way flow of Energy from the Sun (Arms ,1990)

Figure 3.3 Cycling of Matter (Miller,1992)

3.4.1 Energy Flow in Ecosystems
The flow of energy from the sun gives light and heat to the earth and supplies the
energy used by green plants and some bacteria to synthesize the compounds that keep
them alive and serve as food for all other organisms. The plants prepare their own food
by a process called photosynthesis. Plants absorb carbon dioxide from the medium in
which they live. They absorb water through their roots and using green pigments called
chlorophyll they capture sunlight to produce carbohydrates.
6CO2 + 6 H 2 O + sunlight ------> C 6 H12 O6 + 6O2
Plants which produce their own food through photosynthesis are called primary
producers.
3.4.2 Food Chains
Energy flow in an ecosystem occurs in food chains, in which energy passes from one
organism to the next in a sequence. Producers start the food chain by capturing the
sun’s energy through photosynthesis. Herbivores eat the plants obtaining building
materials and the chemical energy. These herbivores are then eaten by carnivores
(omnivores). At the end of the food chain are decomposers which breakdown the
organic molecules in the remains of dead plants and animals or wastes of all members
of the food chain.

Figure 3.4 Food Chain ( Raven et al., 1993.)

For example a cricket eats a leaf of rice, a rat eats the cricket, an eagle eats the rat (Fig
3.4) . So the energy from the sun enters the living world through the photosynthetic
plant (grass) and passes on from one organism to another in the form of food (rice-->
cricket ---> rat ----> eagle). The energy always travels in one direction from
producers to consumers.
3.4.2.1 Food Webs
Natural ecosystems consist of many interconnected food chains, called food webs.

Figure 3.5 Food web (Raven et al., 1993)

3.4.3 Trophic Levels

Each step in the food chain is called a trophic level. Plants / Primary producers
belong to the first trophic level. Primary consumers, herbivores, make-up the second
trophic level. Carnivores that eat herbivores make up the third trophic level, and so
on. The most important thing to remember about energy flow in ecosystems is that it
is one-way. Energy can move along a food chain or food web from one organism to
the next as long as it is not used. When energy is used it becomes unavailable for
use by another organism in the ecosystem.
3.4.4 Energy Flow Pyramids
An important feature of energy flow is that most of the energy going from one
trophic level to another in a food chain or food web is lost into the environment.
Only a small portion of the energy trapped can be taken up by the primary
consumers. Similarly the primary consumers also use much of the energy acquired
before the remainder can be consumed by the secondary consumers. So at each stage
of energy transfer, a considerable amount of energy is given out as heat. The
relative energy values of trophic levels are often graphically represented by
ecological pyramids. A pyramid of numbers (Fig 3.6) shows the number of organisms
at each trophic level in a given ecosystem. In most pyramids of numbers, each
successive trophic level is occupied by fewer organisms.

Figure 3.6 Pyramid of Numbers ( Raven et al., 1993)

Biomass is a quantitative estimate of the total mass, or amount, of living material.

Its units of measure vary: biomass may be represented as dry weight or as live
weight. A pyramid of biomass illustrates the total biomass at each successiv e trophic
level. It is clear from Fig 3.7 that although carnivores might not eat many plants, a
large mass of plants is required to support them.

Figure 3.7 Pyramid of biomass ( Raven et al., 1993.)

A pyramid of energy illustrates the energy relationships of an ecosystem by

indicating the energy content of the biomass of each trophic level. Energy is
normally represented in calories or kilo joules. Figure 3.8 compares the amount of solar
energy needed to produce enough food for a human who eats only vegetables with a person who
eats meat. Vegetarians will get about 10 kilojoules of energy from every 100
kilojoules that are fixed by plants in photosynthesis. A meat-eater gets only about 1
kilojoule of energy from the 100 kilojoules fixed by the plants that the cattle
consumed. The energy flow pyramid explains why a larger population of people can
be supported if people eat at lower trophic levels by consuming plants (rice -
person), rather than eating animals (rice - pig - person).

Figure 3.8 A much larger population can survive by consuming food at a lower trophic level.
(Raven et al., 1993)
3.4.5 Variation in Productivity of Ecosystems
The total (gross) primary productivity of an ecosystem is the rate at which energy
builds up as biomass during photosynthesis - the total amount of photosynthesis in a
given period of time. Plants must also use energy for life processes (respiration).
Energy that remains as biomass after respiration is called net primary productivity.
Net primary productivity is the rate at which organic matter is incorporated into
plant bodies so as to produce growth.
Plant growth = total photosynthesis - plant respiration
Net primary productivity = gross primary productivity - plant respiration
Only the energy represented by net primary productivity is available for nutrition of
consumers.

3.4.5.1 What Determines Productivity?

A number of factors may interact to determine productivity. The type of plant is
important as some are more efficient photosynthesizers than others. Environmental
factors that are important are the availability of incoming solar radiation,
availability of mineral nutrients, availability of water, other climatic factors, the age
of the community and the amount of change that humans have caused.

Ecosystems differ greatly in their productivity. Normally terrestrial ecosystems are

more productive than aquatic ones, however coral reefs systems are highly
productive and complex (see Chapter 9). Reasons for this include more light and more
nutrients are available on land. However, lack of water and extreme temperatures
can limit productivity of some land ecosystems.
3.5 Material Flow
Any chemical element an organism needs to live, grow and reproduce is called a nutrient. Oxygen and
water are essential substances in a lot of chemical processes that are needed to keep us alive. Nitrogen
is a component of all proteins that sustain living cells. Phosphorous is essential in energy
transformation such as photosynthesis and respiration. Calcium is found in structures that provide
strength, such as bones and shells in animals, and cell walls in plants.

Chemical elements and their compounds that are required as nutrients are
continuously cycled in the biosphere. Cycling of nutrients from the non-living
environment to living organisms, and back to non-living environments takes place in
biogeochemical cycles. The following section looks at five cycles: water, carbon,
oxygen, phosphorous and nitrogen.

3.5.1. The Water Cycle

Life cannot exist without water. About 65 to 80 per cent or even a higher
percentage of living matter is made up of water. Water is not only essential to
organisms as a constituent of the body or as an important nutrient, but it also
influences the life of the organisms through weather and climate. Water is the
exclusive source of hydrogen (H) for the living organisms. It is also the medium in
which a large number of organisms live.
There are two overlapping water cycles in nature: one is the larger basic cycle
(global water cycle), not involving life, and the other, the smaller cycle through the
living world.

Fig 3.9 The Water Cycle (Raven et al., 1993)

The global water cycle is an observable and familiar process (Fig 3.9) . It consists of
evaporation of water into the atmosphere from the oceans, seas, rivers and lakes
which form the hydrosphere. The water vapor subsequently cools and condenses to
form clouds and water. The water comes down to the earth as rain and snow or it
may fall directly into the ocean. If it falls on the land mass it again flows back into
seas and oceans through rivers and underground movement. A large amount of water
remains underground and in permanent snow in the poles and mountain peaks above
the snow-line.
The entrance of water into the living systems and its return to surroundings is also a
massive cycle differing considerably from the global water cycle. Aquatic organisms
absorb water directly from the surroundings and release it back in the form of
excretion (urine, feces) during their lifetime. After death, the water returns to the
surrounding medium through the decay of organisms. The land animals get water from
their food and by drinking water; the plants absorb water from the soil. The
organisms retain some amount of water in their body and the remainder is excreted.
Water evaporates into the air from the leaves of plants. This may raise the humidity
of the atmospher e. The movement of water from the hydrosphere through direct
evaporation and through the living organisms affects the climate. The trees of the
tropical forest areas keep the atmospheric humidity high and cause more rainfall.
After the death and decomposition of land organisms the water in their bodies is
released back to the water cycle.
3.5.2 The Oxygen Cycle
Oxygen is another essential element both for the living body and its life processes
such as respiration. During respiration high energy molecules (e.g. sugar) react with
oxygen to release energy which can be used to perform activities.

Oxygen required for respiration in plants and animals enters the body directly from
the surrounding medium, that is, from air in the atmosphere or that dissolved in
water. Oxygen returns to the surroundings in the form of carbon dioxide (combined
with carbon) and water (combined with
hydrogen). Oxygen as an element also enters
the body of plants as carbon dioxide and
water during photosynthesis and is released
in the form of molecular oxygen as a product
of photosynthesis.
The chemical reaction of respiration is:
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O
+ energy
Figure 3.10 The Oxygen Cycle (UNDP/CEAT)

3.5.3. The Carbon Cycle

Carbon, which is an essential component of all living things, is cycled into food webs from
the atmosphere as shown in Fig 3.11. Green plants obtain carbon dioxide from the air and
transform it into sugar. The sugar is employed to manufacture many other organic
compounds, including carbohydrates, fat, and proteins. Both producers
 Figure 3.11 The Carbon Cycle (Arms, 1990.)
and consumers transform a part of the carbon in food back into carbon dioxide, as a
by-product of respiration. This carbon dioxide is released into the atmosphere.

Carbon in dead animals and plants is eventually returned to the atmosphere through
the respiration of detritus feeders (decomposers). Some dead animals are buried into
sediments before decomposition is complete. This happened to a large extent 280-
345 million years ago (Carboniferous Period) when trillions of tonnes of organic
materials were buried below the earth's surface. We are now burning this material
that has become natural gas, oil and coal, and thereby we are releasing carbon
dioxide into the atmosphere.
3.5.4. The Phosphorous Cycle

Figure 3.12 The Phosphorous Cycle (Raven et al., 1993.)

Plants can take up phosphorous (P) directly from the soil, mainly in the form of
phosphate. P is incorporated in a variety of organic compounds, including fats. The
concentrations of P in plants can be several thousands times greater than that in the
soil: plants thus concentrate P. When plants (and animals) die, they are broken down
by decomposers and their P is returned to the soil.

3.5.5. The Nitrogen Cycle

The N cycle is one of the most complex cycles (Fig 3.13.). Although 79% of the
atmosphere is composed of nitrogen gas ( N 2 ), plants and animals cannot use this N
directly to construct proteins and other essential compounds.

Two processes change nitrogen into forms that can be used by plants: biological
fixation and atmospheric fixation:
• in biological fixation, specialized microorganisms (bacteria, blue-green algae)
combine nitrogen with hydrogen gas to form ammonia (NH 3 ). Some plants
absorb the produced ammonia and convert it to other forms of nitrogen which
can be used by consumers;
• atmospheric fixation occurs during thunderstorms. Here, high temperatures that
are associated with lightning, cause N2 to combine with oxygen gas to form
nitrate(N0-).
Once within plants and animals, N travels through the food web in proteins and other
compounds. When plants and animals die and decompose, N is converted back to ammonia, and
it is returned to the soil. In the soil, ammonia can be converted to nitrate by microbial action.
Nitrate can be lost from terrestrial ecosystems through two major pathways: denitrification
(bacteria that convert nitrate back to N2 ) and transport by water to aquatic ecosystems.

Figure 3.13 The Nitrogen Cycle (Arms, 1990.)

3.6 Species Found in an Ecosystem
The various species found in an ecosystem can be placed in four categories:
• Native species - species which normally live successfully in the ecosystem
• Immigrant or alien species - species which migrate into the ecosystem or which
have been deliberately introduced into an ecosystem by humans. Some may be
beneficial and others harmful.
• Indicator species - species which serve as a sign that the ecosystem or
community is experiencing stress or change.
• Keystone Species - species which affect many other organisms in an ecosystem.
The loss of a keystone species can lead to the decline in numbers or extinction
of other species that depend on it.

Every organism has its own role within the structure and functions of an ecosystem.
This role is called its ecological niche. The ecological niche takes into account all
aspects of the organisms existence, the chemical, physical and biological factors that
the organism needs to survive, to stay healthy and to reproduce. The niche includes
the following factors:
• the physical surroundings in which the organism lives - its habitat,
• how it interacts with and is influenced by the nonliving components of its
environment,
• the organisms it eats,
• the organisms that eat it, and
• the living organisms with which it competes.

3.6.1 Interactions between Species in an Ecosystem

When any two species live in an ecosystem, they may have some common activities
or needs. The effect that one species may have on the population growth of another
species may be negative, positive or neutral. One distinguishes three main kinds of
interactions between species:
• interactions with negative effects for both species are called competition;
• interactions with a positive effect for one species and a negative for the other
are called predation and parasitism; and
• interactions with positive effects (or neutral) for both species are called
commensalism, cooperation and mutualism.

3.6.1.1. Competition
When two species are striving for a resource (food, shelter, water, heath, ...) that is
not in adequate supply for both of them, they are said to be in competition. Animals
may compete for food. The result of competition is that both species are hampered
in some manner. At the population level, this means that density or population
growth will be reduced or held in check by the competitive action.

3.6.1.2. Predation and Parasitism

Predation is the interaction in which an animal (called the predator) kills and eats
another animal (called the prey). This type of interaction plays an important role in
the economy of nature. Although predators are, of course, not beneficial to the
individuals they kill, they may benefit the prey population as a whole by removing
unfit individuals and/or preventing overpopulation. Snakes and large birds are the
natural predators of rats, when the snakes and birds disappear, the population of rats
expands greatly.

A parasite is an organism (usually small) that lives on or in a host which is both

energy source and habitat. From an ecological view point, parasites and predators
resemble each other closely. Parasitic organisms generally have high reproductive
rates.

3.6.1.3. Commensalism, cooperation, mutualism

Positive actions between two or more species take three forms. Commensalism is a
simple type of interaction in which one species benefits and the other is not affected
to any degree. Examples are plants living on other plants. If two species benefit
each other, but are not essential for each other, the relationship is called
cooperation. If the relationship is so intimate as to be vital or necessary for the
survival of both species, we call the interaction mutualism. One example of
mutualism is the association between reef-building coral animals and microscopic
algae. (See Chapter 9)

3.7 How Communities Change Over Time

A community of organisms develops gradually through a series of stages until it
reaches maturity. The process of community development over time, which involves
species in one stage being replaced by different species, is called succession. An
area is initially colonized by certain organisms that are replaced over time by other
organisms, which are themselves replaced, until an almost stable community that is
in equilibrium with existing environmental conditions develops. The relatively
stable stage in a community’s development is called a climax community or simply
climax. Climax communities represent the dominant vegetation of an area, but they
are not permanent; they change as environmental conditions change.

Succession is normally described as the changes in the species composition of the

vegetation of an area, but each successional stage has its own characteristic animal
life. The time involved in succession is on the order of hundreds or thousands of
years.

Primary succession is the change in species composition over time in a habitat that
has not previously been inhabited by organisms. Secondary succession is the change
in species composition over time in habitat already changed by a pre-existing
community; soil is already present. An area opened by a forest fire and an
abandoned rice field are common examples of sites where secondary succession
occurs. The first organisms to colonize an area are the pioneer species. As secondary
succession proceeds, a progression of wildlife follows the change in vegetation.

References

Allaby, M. 1996. Basics of Environmental Science

Arms, K. 1990. Environmental Science

Fullick, A. 1994. Biology – Heinemann Advanced Science

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

Raven, P., Berg, L. and Johnson, G., 1993. Environment

UNDP-CEAT, 1994. An Introduction to Environmental Concepts

 Major Ecosystems of Cambodia

Chapter 4

Major Ecosystems of Cambodia

4.1 Introduction
The natural ecosystems of Cambodia consist of tropical forests, rivers, lakes, and coastal areas.
Man has influenced these natural ecosystems over thousands of years. Forest have been cleared
to create rice growing land, thereby giving rise to rice ecosystems. In other areas repeated
burning of forests has led to the creation of grassland ecosystems. The movement of humans to
live in cities, towns and villages is known as urbanization. These towns and cities can be
described as urban ecosystems.

4.1.1 Major Bioclimatic Regions

Three major bioclimatic regions are described in the 1997 Biodiversity Prospectus. These are the:
• Coastal and mountainous areas of the south-west.
• Central plains which include the Great lake and the Mekong and the surrounding areas.
• Northern and North eastern areas.

4.1.1.1 Coastal and Mountainous Areas of the South-West.

The temperatures are generally high and there is very little variation between seasons. Humidity is
also high. A cold season exists at higher altitudes (> 800m), the temperature can go below 20° C
in the coldest months. Rainfall is very high, often greater than >3,000 mm per year. In the
mountainous areas January and February are the dry months, but December and March may also
be dry. The areas is mostly covered by forests.

4.1.1.2 Central Plains which include the Great Lake, the Mekong
and the Surrounding Areas
The temperatures of this region are generally high with little variation between seasons. December
and January are the coldest months with an average temperature of about 25°C and April is the
hottest month when temperatures may reach 41°C. Annual rainfall is normally between 1,500 -
2,000 mm, with the maximum rainfall occurring in September and October. The dry season is
four months long. Much of the land, which was originally covered by open dipterocarp forests,
has been converted to agricultural land. Land surrounding the Tonle Sap still contains flooded
forests.

4.1.1.3 Northern and North-Eastern Areas

The temperatures of the hottest months are high and the temperatures of the coldest months
average 25°C in the lowlands and 20°C in the uplands. Rainfall varies between 1,500 and 2,000
mm in the lowlands and 2,500 mm in the uplands. The dry season is four months long,
December to March. Most of the land is still covered by forests.

Chapter 4 37
Environment: ETAP Reference Guide Book

Map 4.1 is a simplified map of Cambodia's main ecosystems.

38 Chapter 4
 Major Ecosystems of Cambodia

Reference

UNDP, 1997. Biodiversity Prospectus of Cambodia

Chapter 4 37
 Tropical Forest Ecosystems

Chapter 5

Tropical Forest Ecosystems

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39 Chapter 5
5.1 Introduction
This chapter deals with the subject of tropical forest ecology. It looks at forests in general and at the
aspects of the forest that an ecologist studies and then introduces the various kinds of tropical forests
that are found in Cambodia.

The tropics refer to the parts of the world which lie between the tropic of Cancer (23.5 N) and the
tropic of Capricorn (23.5 S). The tropics receive large amounts of solar radiation throughout the year
and seasonal variation in temperature is minimal.

Worldwide, tropical forests now remain in South and Central America, West Africa, South east Asia
and North East Australia, including New Guinea.

Fig 5.1 Map of the World showing Tropical Forests (Pronatur 1989)

Forests are very diverse ecosystems, which are constantly changing. The layering structure of
tropical flora (plants) and fauna (animals) as we move up from the ground is well known, but
at any one point in time forests also vary as we move horizontally along the ground, both as a
community and in the distribution of individual species. Forests also vary over time and are
described as either primary forests, secondary forests or re-growth.

The main aspects of a tropical forest studied by the ecologist are:

Flora/Plants
Fauna/Animals
Microclimate
Nutrient cycling
Dynamics
All aspects of forests are interdependent and should not be considered as separate. For
example, a tree that bears large fruits may depend on mammals to distribute the seeds and
also the presence or absence of particular species can be dependent on light or shade. It is this
interdependence that makes successful reforestation by humans very difficult.
5.2 Flora/Plants
The dominant vegetation of the forest is trees. Forests also contain herbs and grasses. Other plants
normally present in tropical forests include climbers, epiphytes, bamboos, palms, tree ferns, pandans or
screw-palms, and the giant herbs of the ground flora.

Fig 5.2a Ferns in a tropical forest Fig 5.2b The Shrub layer of a tropical forest(Meir)

5.2.1 Trees
The trees range from small, un-branched forms with a single tuft of leaves (sugarpalm) to the forest
giants. The small un-branched trees mainly grow between 2 and 4 m tall but some can grow much
higher. The forest giants (what defines forests for most people) usually reach 35 - 40 m in height and
have crowns ranging from 10 to 20 m in diameter. The tallest trees of the tropical forests can grow to
80m or more.

Trees are divided into a number of different

parts: crown, bole, leaves, flowers, fruit,
seeds and roots (see Fig 5.3).

Fig 5.3 Labeled Tree Diagram

5.2.1.1 Crowns
Twenty three models of crowns have been
identified by Halle and Oldeman (1978).
They range from those with a single shoot,
which results in a tuft of leaves at the top of
the trunk, e.g. sugar-palms, to the multiple branched crowns of the forest giants.
Fig 5.4a Multiple branched crown Fig 5.4b Single shoot crown (Am Satia)

5.2.1.2 Boles, Buttresses and Stilt roots

The bole of the tree is the thick stem that connects the roots to the branches. The tree boles can display
a variety of bark surfaces, from very smooth to rough surfaces. Many boles give out sap and gum.
There are many examples of this type of tree in Cambodia but the most well known is rubber (Figure
5.5).

The lower few meters of the boles are often made up of buttresses and aerial roots. The buttresses
provide trees with a greater degree of stability. Stilt roots are common in mangrove trees and other
inundated forests which are regularly flooded with water. Images of stilt roots and well developed
buttress roots are shown in Figures 5.6a and 5.6b.

Fig 5.5 Tapping rubber

trees, Kompong Cham

Fig 5.6a Stilt roots (Reading, 1995) Fig 5.6b

Buttress roots (Reading ,1995)

5.2.1.3 Leaves
The leaves of tropical trees are diverse in form. However, most
leaves are dark green and leathery. The leathery nature of the leaves
is an adaptation of the forest to the drought conditions that occur even in tropical forests. Large leaves
are common in the lower part of the canopy and on wetter sites, but leaf size decreases with altitude.
Other adaptations include drip tips, elongated ends to the leaves easing shedding of water thereby
enabling them to transpire freely. Other leaves have an ability to adjust position, particularly important
for capturing sunlight.

Fig 5.7 Elongated tip of leaf is known as a drip tip (Reading, 1995)

5.2.1.4 Flowers, Fruits and Seeds

a b c
Fig 5.8 Tropical forest flowers and fruits(a & c McMakin,1993, b ETAP)
There is a great diversity of flowers, fruits and seeds indicating the wide range of regenerative organs
and the many mechanisms of pollination and fruit and seed dispersal found in the tropical forests. Some
well known large tropical fruits such as durian (Durio zibethius) and the jackfruit (Srtocarpus
heterophyllous) are borne on the trunk of the tree. It is believed that this helps dispersal of seeds by
attracting insects, birds, bats and mammals.

5.2.1.5 Roots
Roots of tropical trees are also an important feature studied by ecologists. Some
trees have deep tap roots but the majority of roots are found in the upper 30cm of
the soil. The root biomass is made up of thousands of fine roots. Some distinctive
roots are aerial roots and stilt roots. Deep roots are important in dry areas with a low
ground water table. Tree planting in reforestation projects often leads to the
destruction of root systems and this is one of the main reasons why reforestation
projects fail in dry areas or areas with a low water table.
5.2.2 Climbers and Epiphytes
Climbers and epiphytes are common in tropical forests. Climbers are found in all stages of forest growth
from early re-growth to mature woody climbers in the forest. The woody climbers often tie tree canopies
together and form a pathway for canopy dwelling animals. Climbers account for about 8% of tropical forest
plant species. Climbers are used for making furniture and baskets.

Fig 5.9a Stages in the growth of a strangler Fig 5.9b Strangler fig in Virachey
fig (Stacey, 1987) National Park, Ratanakiri (ETAP)

Epiphytes, plants without a ground contact, are commonly found in humid forests. Their
preference is for the most humid forests. Epiphytes can be divided between macro-epiphytes (
orchids, ferns and bromeliads) and micro-epiphytes ( mosses, liverworts, algae and lichens).
 Fig 5.10 Epiphytes (Meier, 1968)

5.2.3 Other Plants

Shrub and herb layers are poorly developed in most tropical forests but they play an important role in the
ecology of the forest.

Other plants such as palms, bamboos and tree-ferns form part of the tree layers There are over 2,500
species of tropical forest palms most of which are found in the forests. Bamboos are light loving woody
grasses and tree ferns are generally light demanding and are mainly found in clearings and at forests
margins. Parasites are also of interest to forest ecologists.
5.3 Vertical Stratification of a Tropical Forest
The tree crowns form an interlocking canopy at heights of 30 to 50 meters (m). A few trees known as
emergent trees break through the canopy and can grow to heights of 60-80 m. The under-storey and the
shrub layer which form under the canopy contain shorter trees, although they are often individuals of
the same species that form the canopy. The shrub layer is poorly developed. Shrubs themselves are rare
and many of the plants found in the shrub layer are either saplings of the taller forest trees or pygmy
trees. The herb layer is less well developed than the shrub layer. The vertical organization of a tropical
forest is shown in Fig 5.11.

Fig 5.11 Vertical stratification of a tropical forest (Waugh and Bushell)

5.4 Fauna / Animals
It has been estimated that between 2 and 3 million species of animals live in tropical forests, about 66% of
all the world’s species. The animals of the tropical forests are well known to us from many television
programs.

Invertebrates are the most numerous animals in tropical forests, in terms of both species and individuals.
Many are decomposers and therefore play an important role in nutrient and energy cycling. Particularly
important are the snails, earthworms, ants and termites. The invertebrates provide food for many reptiles,
birds and mammals. Flies, bees, wasps and beetles are equally important but they normally live in the
canopy.

Fig 5.12a Tropical forest butterfly Fig 5.12b Tropical forest frog

Despite their smaller numbers, the vertebrate (animals with internal backbones) forest dwellers are far
better known than the invertebrates. The total number of vertebrates in a square kilometer of tropical forest
is probably not much different from that in temperate forests; however, the number of species is far greater.
A high proportion of vertebrates are tree dwellers but most animals show a preference for a specific layer
of the forest (Fig 5.13)
Fig 5.13 Animal Activity in forests (after Mackinnon 1972 as cited in Reading, 1995)

Animal-plant interactions have an important bearing on plant distributions, forest dynamics and nutrient
cycling. Many trees rely on animals for seed dispersal and pollination. Fruit bats are important pollinators
and seed dispersers. Durian is pollinated by fruit bats but as the flowering of the durian is limited to a
certain period in the year, the bat needs other trees or plants for food to survive.

The strong smell of durian attracts elephants, tigers, bears, dear, monkeys, etc. Bright coloring on other
fruits may also be an adaptation to attract birds and mammals. Some animals interact with many plant
species. For example, orang-utans eat many different plants. However, some plant- animal relationships are
far more specific; for example figs can only be pollinated by fig wasps.
5.5 Species Richness and Biodiversity
When people talk about tropical deforestation they normally talk about the loss of biodiversity. Mature
tropical forests are the most diverse ecosystems and they possibly account for half of the world’s gene
pool.

5.5.1 Possible reasons given for the high species diversity in the tropics are;
Formation of new species from existing ones (speciation) is more frequent in the humid tropics than
elsewhere. This occurs (i) because of the higher frequency of mutations, in the humid tropics and other
areas, which may be due to the higher levels of UV-B radiation which can modify DNA (Two images
of a DNA molecule are shown in Figure 5.14), (ii) because the sedentary nature of tropical populations
leads to geographical isolation; (iii) because of faster rates of evolution; and (iv) because of spatial and
temporal isolation.

(a) (b)
Fig 5.14 (a) 3-d view of DNA and (b) double helix view of DNA

Rates of extinction are lower in the tropics because (i) competition is less stringent because of
increased resource availability, there are more ecological niches and there is control of competitors by
predators; and (ii) the constant physical environment and ecosystem stability allow small populations to
exist.

The fact that many parts of the tropics are old and stable has meant that tropical ecosystems have had
more time to develop, and that there have been opportunities for species migration along a variety of
accessible routes during the last 2 million years.

5.5.2 Changes with Altitude

Significant changes in forest plants and structure occur with increasing altitude. The main variations
are listed in the following Table 5.1.

Tropical Lowland Tropical lower Tropical upper

Formation Evergreen montane rainforest montane
Rainforest rainforest
Canopy height (m) 25 - 45 15 – 33 1.5 - 18
Emergent trees with Normally present Often not present Usually not
height in (m) up to 60 - 80m tall up to 37m present
up to 26m
Pinnate leaves Frequent Rare Very rare
Principal Leaf size Mesophyll Mesophyll Microphyll
class of woody
plants
Buttresses Frequent and large Uncommon, Usually absent
Small
Cauliflory Frequent Rare Absent
Big woody Climbers Abundant Usually none None
Bole climbers Often Abundant Frequent to Abundant Very few
Vascular Epiphytes Frequent Abundant Frequent
Non-vascular Occasional Occasional to often abundant
epiphytes abundant
Table 5.1 Changes in forests plants and structure that occur with increasing altitude
5.6 Forest Microclimate
Forests modify the local climate considerably, creating a “microclimate” within the forest that is very
different from that outside. The microclimate within the forest has a major impact on plant and animal
activity. The particular aspects of climate that ecologists focus on are solar radiation, temperature and
moisture level.

5.6.1 Solar Radiation

The forest canopy interrupts the pathway to the ground of incoming solar radiation, and its subsequent
pathways through the forest are of great importance because both the amount and the wavelengths and
the energy levels of different wavelengths of solar radiation affect plant growth. The euphotic zone
(where there is good light), at the top of the canopy, receives between 25 and 100 percent of the total
incoming solar radiation. In response to this, productivity is high and a dense vegetation develops.
Below the canopy is the ologiotrophic (a zone with little ligt and few plants and animals) zone which
receives less than three percent of the incoming solar radiation. Vegetation growth is far less and there
is intense competition between plants for light.

Solar radiation also varies on a daily basis and throughout the year. Seasons have important effects on
photosynthesis and therefore biomass production, as well as plant leaf structure.

5.6.2 Temperature
Air temperatures in tropical forests vary markedly, those above the canopy and in clearings being very
different from those under the canopy. Understorey maximum and minimum temperatures are lower
than those above the canopy and in clearings. Temperature fluctuations are more mixed in the
understorey. Soil temperatures show similar patterns of variation between forested and non-forested
land to air temperatures, although such variations are more moderate than those above the ground.
Temperature variations between different types of tropical forest appear to be minimal.

5.6.3 Moisture
Rainfall is the most important moisture input into most humid tropical forests. A fair proportion of the
rainfall over forested areas probably originates from local evaporation (i.e. the water evaporating from
the trees is recycled as rain in the same forest). Capture of rainfall by the different levels of the forest is
important. Interception (by leaves etc.) is high owing to the effect of the crown, epiphytes and climbers.
Stemflow (flow of water along the stem) is often harvested by epiphytes and specially adapted leaves,
and through-fall (water falling down through the various layers) is enhanced by the action of drip tips.
Dew is also an important moisture source.

There are significant variations in both relative humidity and saturation vapor pressure above and
below the canopy, between mature forest and clearings, on a diurnal basis and between seasons. Soil
moisture variations influence the functioning of tropical forest ecosystems.
5.7 Nutrient Cycling
The cycling of plant nutrients is a key element in the ecological functioning of tropical forests, and is of
particular relevance for understanding vegetation succession, the soil fertility, impacts of deforestation
and the global carbon cycle. The main nutrient stores and fluxes of tropical forest ecosystems are
illustrated in Fig 5.15.

Nutrient inputs to humid tropical forests come from precipitation, by dry deposition (aerosol and dust),
from nitrogen fixation by micro-organisms and from rock weathering. Variations in precipitation of
nutrients are related to site, precipitation trends, ashfalls from forest fires and shifting agriculture,
volcanic eruptions, and regional dust storms. The nutrient load of precipitation varies between rainfall
events, and for many forests most of the annual input occurs in a few storms.

Fig 5.15 Nutrient flows and stores in a tropical forest (Reading ,1995)

Measurements of other types of nutrient inputs to tropical forest ecosystems are rare. However, some
studies have been carried out on dust and aerosols falling on forests, plant nutrient uptake from rock
weathering and nitrogen fixation. Nutrients are lost from forests during soil erosion, in solution in
through-flow, stream flow, and percolation to groundwater, during fires and by denitrification.

Nutrients in tropical forests are stored in the living vegetation above and below the ground, in above-
ground plant litter and in the soil. The majority of biomass is stored above ground. Below ground
biomass and litter rarely contribute more than 20-25% of the total.
5.8 Forest Dynamics
The forest and its’ canopy is in a continuous state of change. Gaps develop from many causes (one tree
dies, a fire, or logging), varying in size from very small to huge. Gaps are colonized by seedlings,
which grow up to become saplings and then poles before reaching full maturity. Research has found
there is a difference in the tree species that grow up in gaps and that this is based on the size of the gap.

The two kinds of species are called climax and pioneer. Climax species can germinate and their
seedlings establish below a forest canopy, so climax species can persist in the same place, the seedlings
growing up after a gap develops. But if the gap is too big, the climax species are replaced by pioneer
species which germinate and grow fast after gap formation. Pioneer species cannot germinate nor can
their seedlings survive, below canopy shade. They cannot therefore perpetuate themselves in the same
place. Below pioneer species climax species establish and as the pioneers die off, one by one or in
small groups, canopy gaps develop and the next growth cycle is based on these climax species. There is
a shift from one set of species to the other, and this is what is termed succession.

A primary forest is characterized by the presence of pioneer, secondary and climax species. Secondary
forests are characterized by pioneer and secondary species.
5.9 Cambodian Forest Classification
Many classification systems exist for humid tropical vegetation and a variety of these have been used to
describe the vegetation of Cambodia in recent years. The National Diversity Prospectus of Cambodia
presented the Legris and Blasco classification of 1972 which describes 7 categories of forest:
• Hill Evergreen Forest
• Tropical Rain Forest
• Dry Evergreen Forest
• Mixed Deciduous Forest
• Dry Dipterocarp Forest
• Savannah and Bamboo Forests
• Conifer forests

The following description of each of the forests is adapted from the description given in the National
Diversity Prospectus of Cambodia. Mangroves and flooded forests are added to give a total of nine
categories.

5.9.1 Hill Evergreen Forests

Hill evergreen forests are simple in structure with a single layer of trees which grow to 20m. The
undergrowth is very dense featuring shrubs and tree-ferns and there is a well developed epiphytic flora.
These forests are found at an altitude of exceeding 700m in the humid coastal ranges and the humid north
eastern uplands.

Fig 5.16 Hill evergreen forest at Bokor National Park (ETAP)

5.9.2 Tropical Rain Forest

Tropical rain forests, also described as dense moist evergreen forests, are very diverse forests featuring a
canopy with an average height of 30m and with emergent trees that may exceed 40m. These trees have
classical growth forms; long, narrow, cylindrical boles with pronounced buttresses. In Cambodia these
forests are found in the very humid low altitude areas, where the dry season is very short.
Fig 5.17 Dense moist evergreen forest (FAO, 1989)
5.9.3 Dry Evergreen Forest
Dry evergreen forests occur in humid to sub-humid areas where the rainfall is greater than 1200mm and
the dry season is from three to five months. There is a diverse continuous tree stratum of 20 to 30
meters high with no family clearly dominating. The emergent trees reach 40m in height.

5.9.4 Mixed Deciduous Forest

The trees of the mixed deciduous forests are almost completely deciduous and are dominated by a few
species, giving rise to a closed structure during the wet season, when in leaf. The understorey is
characteristically dominated by sparse or dense large bamboos. There are many kinds of mixed
deciduous forests associated with differing soil conditions and associations with other forest types.

5.9.5 Dry Dipterocarp Forest

The dry dipterocarp forest are dominated by Dipterocarps and feature a sparse understorey of grasses
and herbs. The single tree stratum generally features tree diameters of less than 40cm. The dry
dipterocarp forests are widespread east of the Mekong River and North of the Great Lake at altitudes
below 500 meters. Once these forests are disturbed they degrade into savannah.

Fig. 5.18 Regenerating dry dipterocarp forest

5.9.6 Savannah
These open secondary vegetation types of grasses and herbs are derived from the degradation of dry
dipterocarp or mixed deciduous forest through over-exploitation or excessive fire. Bamboo dominated
areas may also originate from disturbed evergreen forests.
Fig 5.19 Savanna Woodland Forest (FAO, 1989)

5.9.7 Conifer Forests

True forests of Pinus merkusii occur only on Kirirom Plateau where trees exceed 20m in height and
possess boles exceeding 50 to 60 cm. in diameter.

Fig 5.20 Picture of pine trees in Kirirom (ETAP)

5.9.8 Mangrove Forests

Mangroves are restricted to areas where the air temperature in the coldest month exceeds 20°C and the
annual range is of the order of 10°C. They grow in areas such as deltas, lagoons, estuaries and behind
sandbars and spits, where the wave energy is low. The water has to be brackish or saline. The specific
species of mangrove is then determined by the texture and salinity of the substrate (underlying soil) and
the tidal range.

Humid tropical mangroves are arborescent communities and trees up to 46m high have been recorded
in the delta of the river Niger in Africa. The undergrowth is severely limited, usually being restricted to
mangrove seedlings. The rooting patterns of mangroves are distinctive and complex.
In Cambodia, mangrove forests are found in Koh Kong and Kampot provinces. Mangroves are
discussed in the Chapter 9 Coastal and Marine Ecosystems.
 Fig. 5.21Mangrove Forests at Ream National Park (ETAP)

5.9.9 Freshwater Swamps and Flooded Forests

Fig. 5.22 Aerial view of flooded forests near the Tonle Sap lake (ETAP)

Many types of freshwater swamps and flooded forests are found throughout the humid tropics. Specific
adaptations of these forests to seasonal flooding (inundations) are a rich understorey, trunk buttressing,
low-density wood, which allows trees to float when banks are eroded, and floating seeds. The flooded
forests of the Tonle Sap are an extremely important component of Cambodia’s tropical forests (Fig
5.22 and 5.23).
 Fig 5.23 Flooded forest on the Tonle Sap Lake close to Siem Reap

References and Recommended Further Reading

Breuenig, E. F., 1996 Conservation and Management of Tropical Rainforests – An Integrated

Approach to Sustainability

FAO, 1989. Classification and Mapping of Vegetation Types in Tropical Asia.

Meier, L. and Figgis, P. Rainforests of Australia

McDonald, J.A., Pech, B., Phauk, V. and Bunton, L., 1997. Plant Communities of the Tonle Sap
Floodplain.

Reading, A.J., Thompson, R.D. and Millington, A.C., 1995. Human Tropical Environments.

Stacey, M. & Lucas, J., 1991. Investigating Geography: Environments

Whitmore, T.C., 1995. An Introduction to Tropical Rainforests

UNDP, 1997 Biodiversity Prospectus of Cambodia

 Rice Ecosystems of Cambodia

Chapter 6

Rice Ecosystems of Cambodia

6.1 Introduction
The rice ecosystems are among the most important terrestrial ecosystems to the population of
Cambodia in terms of food security. As in any other ecosystem there are living and non-living
components. Rice is undoubtedly the most important living component of the ecosystem and
will be the main focus of this chapter.

6.1.1 Rice
Rice ecosystems in Cambodia as elsewhere are influenced by rainfall/flooding patterns, soil
suitability and the country’s topography. As a result Cambodian rice growing ecosystems can
be grouped into the following broad categories:
1. Rainfed lowland rice
2. Deepwater or floating rice
3. Rainfed upland rice
4. Dry season irrigated rice

6.1.1.1 Rainfed Lowland Rice

Rainfed lowland rice represents 86% of the total annual rice cropping area of Cambodia. It is
characterized by flat bunded ricefields which depend almost entirely on rainfall or surface
runoff for their water supply. The varieties grown by farmers in the rainfed lowlands are
dependent on factors such as local traditions and practices and on the water depth in fields. In
the higher fields where the water depth is 15-20cm, short duration (fast growing) varieties are
normally grown and in the lower fields where the water depth is 20-60cm, medium and long
duration varieties are normally grown. In general, farmers tend to match varieties to the
availability of water in the area.

Short duration varieties mature in approximately 120-150 days. Short duration varieties are
non-photoperiod sensitive meaning they can flower regardless of the daylength duration.
Medium and long duration varieties tend to be photoperiod sensitive, that is, they only flower
when the daylength is shorter. Photoperiod sensitivity may vary in rice varieties; flowering in
strongly photoperiod varieties is very closely tied to the daylength and as a result will only
flower at a specified time of the year. For the most part medium varieties tend to flower from
mid to late November in Cambodia and are harvested approximately 30 days later. Late
duration varieties flower from early to mid December in Cambodia and are subsequently
harvested approximately 30 days later.

6.1.1.2 Deepwater or Floating Rice

Deepwater rice areas can be classified as low lying areas and depressions that accumulate
flood water to a depth of between 50cm and a maximum of 3m for at least one month during
the growing period. Deepwater rice production areas account for only 4% of the total annual

Chapter 6 57
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rice cropping area in Cambodia. These areas are located mainly around the Tonle Sap lake
and along the Mekong and Bassac rivers.

Deepwater rice growing areas can be divided into two broad categories dependent on water
depth and flood duration (Nesbitt, 1996). The first category involves a water depth of 50-
100cm over a period of at least one month and tends to be categorized by farmers as the long
duration varieties which were described in the lowland rainfed section above.

Fig 6.1 Recession rice cropping, Kompong Cham (PRASAC 1 seed production project)

The second category involves a water depth of greater than 100cm for at least one month. The
varieties grown tend to have good elongation abilities (i.e. grow tall) in the face of rising
water. The actual water depth of deepwater rice varieties in Cambodia is a function of the
local topography and the flooding pattern of the Mekong river system.

6.1.1.3 Rainfed Upland Rice

The area under rainfed upland rice cultivation accounts for 2% of Cambodia’s total annual
rice cropping area. Upland rice areas are unbunded fields in the mountainous and rolling hill
areas of Cambodia e.g. Mondulkiri, Rattanakiri, Kratie, Koh Kong, Kampong Cham and
Kampong Thom. In the shifting cultivation areas of the Northeast of Cambodia upland rice is
an integral part of the ‘chamkar’. The ethnic minority groups practice this type of cultivation
almost exclusively. Permanent upland rice production is commonly practiced by Khmers
where a field of rice is grown annually either on it’s own or as an intercrop or in rotation with
other upland crops.

58 Chapter 6
 Rice Ecosystems of Cambodia

6.1.1.4 Dry Season Rice Production

Dry season rice production accounts for 8% of the total annual rice cropping area in
Cambodia. The distribution of dry season production is primarily in those areas close to the
major rivers and their floodplains. Dry season rice production is associated with higher yields
than wet season production due to higher solar radiation, better water control and the
cultivation of more fertilizer responsive varieties.

Fig 6.2 Dry season rice, Kampong Cham (PRASAC 1)

Short duration photoperiod insensitive varieties are used in the dry season. Dry season
cropping in Cambodia extends from October in some areas to late March /April in other areas.
The starting date is generally determined by the date of flood recession from a particular area.
The finishing date is invariably determined by the amount of stored water available to the
farmer. Flood recession areas are harvested in January/February and areas with stored water
within dams or lakes. or those areas that utilize ground water for dry season cropping, tend to
harvest in March/April.

6.2 Diversity in Rice Ecosystems

As with many other agricultural crops, to a
farmer a rice ecosystem is for growing
rice. Farmers’ interest is not in the
diversity but in the quantity of rice that is
harvested from the ricefield. Any other
plant that lives in the rice field is
considered a pest as it competes for
available nutrients.

Fig 6.3 Spider in a rice field, Kampong

Cham

Likewise, the farmer does not welcome any insect that exists in the field and damages or
curtails the yields of the crop. This, however, does not mean that nothing else lives in a
ricefield other than rice. Over 50 species of weeds and 80 species of arthropods (bugs) have
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been identified from Cambodian rice fields (CIAP 1995). Some of these organisms cause
damage to the rice crop, but the majority is beneficial to the ecosystem. Nutrient availability
and water levels within the field determine the dynamics of these organisms. Natural
predation is common between the various species, which results in many pests of rice being
neutralized.

Insects and weeds are not the only organisms that inhabit the rice fields. Small mammals such
as rats are in abundance at certain times of the year depending on food availability and water
levels. These can cause enormous damage to the rice crop but can also be an important source
of food to villagers in some areas. Crustaceans such as crabs become abundant in the fields as
flood levels increase and can cause damage to rice seedlings but also provide a source of
nutrition to other members of the food web. Fish carried by rising flood waters proliferate in
lowland rice ecosystems and provide a valuable source of nutrition to the farmer in addition to
assisting him/her in control of certain pests as they eat insect larvae in the field. Birds also
live within the rice ecosystem. Many types of bacteria are also present within the ecosystem.
Reptiles such as snakes live in the ecosystem and can be beneficial to the farmer also, e.g.
eating rats.

Upland Rice ecosystems are much more diverse than their lowland counterparts mentioned
earlier. Upland ecosystems often contain other cultivated crops that complement the rice crop
and in addition to the various organisms mentioned earlier contain larger mammals such as
deer, wild pigs, elephants and other wild animals.

6.3 Nutrient Circulation in Ricefields

Nutrient circulation in rice fields is governed by the various nutrient cycles (Carbon,
Phosphorus, Nitrogen cycles etc.). However human interference in this cycle invariably
causes disruption in the natural nutrient cycles. Rice is grown primarily for its’ grain and the
straw by-product is a valuable source of nutrition to animals. When short duration varieties
are grown there is a tendency to harvest the complete plant (i.e. cut the plant close to the
ground leaving no more than 5 cm of straw on the field). Therefore a larger proportion of the
nutrients are removed from the field than is replaced. This results in the relative infertility and
nutrient deficient status of a large proportion of Cambodian rice soils. The remaining straw
and the roots of the rice plant decay and are incorporated into the soil on subsequent
ploughing resulting in a net nutrient deficit. However the various nutrient cycles also get
contributions from the cycle of life of the many organisms that inhabit the ecosystem e.g.
mammals, micro-organisms etc. Traditionally in many areas of Cambodia, once the rice is
harvested cattle are let loose to graze in the fields and their feces contributes to the nutrient
circulation within the ecosystem.

6.3.1 Nutrient Supplementation with Inorganic Fertilizers

Despite the above additions or returns to the rice field there is still a net deficit being returned
to the various nutrient cycles (i.e. more is removed than added or replaced). This nutrient
deficit results in a need to supplement the natural cycle by adding inorganic fertilizers such as

60 Chapter 6
 Rice Ecosystems of Cambodia

Urea or Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP) to make up for the nutrient shortfall that has been
removed by the previous crops. If the nutrients removed by a growing crop are not returned to
the earth the rice yields decrease to a low level. This nutrient deficit (or shortfall) is very
common in rainfed lowland rice ecosystems. In areas that are inundated by floods or rivers
this nutrient deficiency is less pronounced or may be confined to one or two elements such as
nitrogen and phosphorous. The addition of cow manure (organic fertilizer) can also help to
restore some of the nutrient balance where inorganic fertilizers are not used.

6.3.2 Crop Rotations and Green Manures

An ideal practice would be to grow crops in rotation such as one crop which removes a lot of
nutrients from the cycle followed by a crop which restores or contributes some nutrients to the
cycle. An example of crops which restore some nutrients to soils are leguminous crops such
as mungbean which contributes nutrition to the population but also may help to restore some
nitrogen to the ecosystem through nitrogen fixation. Other crops such as the green manures
sesbania or leucaena (when grown before a rice crop and ploughed in) contribute valuable
nutrients to the ecosystem when they
decay.

Fig 6.4 Cowpeas grown to fertilize

the soil during the dry season,
Oudong

References
Nesbitt, H.J., ed. (1996). Rice production in Cambodia (Draft). University Press, Phnom Penh
Cambodia.

Chapter 6 61
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Chapter 7

An Introduction to Wetlands

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62 Chapter 7
Compiled by: Isabelle Van Oertzen, Wetlands Inventory Project, MRC/MoE

7.1 Introduction
The majority of Cambodia’s freshwater wetlands are found around the Tonle Sap Lake and along the
Mekong River and its tributaries. They comprise the Tonle Sap Lake, other permanent lakes and swamps
and annually inundated flood plains. The total wetland area increases nearly ten-fold from about 0.5 million
ha in the dry season to 5 million ha in the wet season (July to September) in an average year. The Tonle
Sap Lake alone increases four-fold in area from 250,000 ha (2,500 km2 ) in dry season to about 1,000,000
ha (10,000 km2 ) in an average year and to about 1,350,000 ha (13,500 km2 ) in a wet year. The total wetland
area in an average year represents nearly 28% of the total area of the country (181,035 km2 ) and in a wet
year it could be as high as 33%.

Many communities in Cambodia depend on wetlands for their livelihood. Also people who live away from
the wetlands benefit from their functions such as flood control, ground water recharge, shore line protection
and protection against salt water intrusion, to name but a few.

Figure 7.1 Floating village (MRC/MoE)

Worldwide, people are becoming more aware of the true value of wetland 'goods and services' that are
provided free of financial or environmental cost when used wisely. At the same time, people now realize
more and more the serious consequences of wetland transformation and the resulting losses, not only for
wildlife and plant communities, but also for the well being of human communities.

The maintenance of wetlands as functioning ecosystems is as important for the conservation of wetlands as
it is for their development. This chapter will focus on some of the ecological processes in wetlands and
their importance to wetland management. It will cover the definition of wetlands and briefly describe the
major wetland types relevant to Cambodia and the benefits of wetlands. Rivers and lakes are major wetland
types that are dealt with in Chapter 8, The Ecology of Rivers and Lakes whereas the coastal wetlands are
covered in Chapter 9, Coastal and Marine Resources.
7.1.1 What are Wetlands?
The term wetland means different things to different people. This is partly because of the enormous variety
of wetland types and partly also because it is sometimes difficult to define their boundaries precisely.
“Wetland” is a relatively new term in the English language, too. Around the world there are more than 50
definitions of wetlands in use.

There are some essential characteristics of wetlands: surface-water flooding or high water tables bring
about conditions that require significant adaptations by plant and animal life and contribute to the
development and the properties of the soil. Wetland classifications rely on biological, hydrological, soil, or
geomorphological characteristics.

One of the broadest and most widely used definition of wetlands was adopted during a conference in
Ramsar, Iran in 1971 which resulted in the Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially
as Waterfowl Habitat, in short, the Ramsar Convention. According to the Ramsar Convention wetlands are
described as:

Areas of marsh, fen, peatland or water, whether natural or artificial, permanent or temporary, with water
that is static or flowing, fresh, brackish or salt, including areas of marine water, the depth of which at low
tide does not exceed 6m.

This broad definition provides a framework that can be adapted to suit local or regional
conditions. For example, the Mekong River Commission (MRC which was formerly the
Mekong Secretariat) has been carrying out an inventory of the wetlands in the lower
Mekong Basin since 1990. (At that time Cambodia was not part of the MRC). For the
purposes of the inventory, a classification of wetlands was adopted based on the
Ramsar classification, but adapted to suit regional circumstances. The Annex shows the
both classifications. The classifications have a hierarchical structure. The two major
divisions are Salt Water and Freshwater, and these are then further subdivided as shown
in the Annex of this chapter.
Fig. 7.2 Types of wetlands included in the Ramsar Definition (AWB 1993)
7.1.2 The Ramsar Convention
The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat - commonly
referred to as the Convention on Wetlands, or the Ramsar Convention – is the first of the modern global
intergovernmental treaties on conservation and wise use of natural resources, and is still the only one
focused upon a single ecosystem.
One of the original motivations for the establishment of the Convention was the concern voiced in the early
1960s about the serious decline in populations of waterfowl – hence the words “especially as Waterfowl
Habitat” in the title on Convention. The issues and activities with which the Convention is concerned have
expanded considerably since that time, and now embrace a wide range of sustainable use of natural
resources and water issues.

Specifically, the Ramsar Convention is the intergovernmental treaty which provides the framework for
international cooperation for the conservation and wise use of wetland habitats and resources.

The Convention entered into force in 1975 and now has Contracting parties all over the world. The United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) serves as Depository for the
Convention.

As of October 1997, there were 103 Contracting parties to the Ramsar Convention. Eight hundred and
ninety one sites have been designated for the List of Wetlands of International Importance and the surface
area of these sites is more than 62,847,411 hectares (some of the listed sites are still lacking data for their
surface area). Cambodia is currently in the process of nominating three wetlands as Ramsar sites.

7.1.3 Other International Treaties Relevant to Wetlands

Other major international treaties relevant to wetlands include:
• the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna (CITES)
• the Convention on Biological Diversity
• the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (the Bonn Convention)
• the Framework Convention on Climate Change
• the Convention concerning the protection of the world cultural and natural heritage (the World
Heritage Convention)
Cambodia is a signatory to the Convention on Biological Diversity and has ratified the Framework
Convention on Climate Change.
7.2 Characteristics of Wetlands
Wetlands show enormous diversity according to their genesis (how they were formed), geographical
location, water regime and chemistry, dominant plants, and soil or sediment. Even subtle differences in
flooding can cause different types of wetlands to exist right next to each other.

The dynamics of water supply and loss are fundamental to the development, maintenance and functioning
of wetlands. The hydrology of a wetland is determined by three factors, how much waters enters it, how
much water leaves it and how much water the wetland is able to store. The inflow – outflow balance is
mainly influenced by climate and catchment configuration; storage is controlled more by local
geomorphology (that is, the configuration of the land) and geological characteristics.

Hydrology, in turn, influences the physical and chemical characteristics of the wetland – salinity, oxygen
and other gas diffusion rates, the reduction/oxidation (redox) state of ecologically important nutrients,
chemical reactions and nutrient solubility. These have major implications for flora and fauna, and for
ecosystem dynamics. The composition and diversity of species in a wetland influences the way in which
nutrients and pollutants are cycled in the wetland ecosystem – all these are influenced by the hydrological
regime or the flooding pattern.

Fig. 7.3 Wetland nutrient recycling (IWRB) Water, nutrients, organisms, sediment and contaminants move
between aquatic, atmospheric, and terrestrial systems. Wetlands are at the interface of these systems and
the way in which they cycle material is of vital importance to the environment.
Figure 7.4 The various types of wetlands have different hydrological signatures(IUCN).
Estuaries (A) and mangroves(B) depend on the tides. As the tide changes, the salinity of the
water can vary between almost totally saline to freshwater. Animals and plants that inhabit
these regions have adapted to survive both the daily flooding and drying out as well as the
salinity variation. Floodplains (C ) tend to undergo seasonal flooding. Their capacity to store
water can be beneficial as they can store floodwater, preventing flooding downstream, and
recharge groundwater. This process of recharging also purifies the water as it slowly filters
through sediment and rock strata. Lakes experience an aging process known as eutrophication.
“Old” lakes (E) are characterized by algal growth, a sign of nutrient rich, oxygen poor water.
“Young” lakes (F) tend to have clear, oxygen rich, nutrient poor water. Fens (G) and bogs (H)
differ in that fens receive nutrients from groundwater flow and can sustain a wide diversity of
plant and animal life. Bogs, on the other hand, receive no groundwater and are therefore very
acidic and lacking in nutrients. These harsh conditions are suitable for plants which can tolerate
acidic soils.

7.2.1 Ecological Character of Wetlands

What exactly is the ecological character. This has been debated by the Ramsar Convention Scientific and
Technical Review Panel (STRP). At the Ramsar conference in Brisbane, Australia 1996 part of the debate
concerned the linkages between ecological concepts and socio-economic concepts.

Two working definitions debated say:

1. "The ecological character of a wetland is the sum of the wetland’s functions, products, and attributes
that are derived from the individual biological, chemical, and physical components of the ecosystem
and their interactions.
2. “The ecological character is the structure and inter-relationships between the biological, chemical,
and physical components of the wetland. These derive from the interactions of individual processes,
functions, attributes and values of the ecosystem(s).”

The main difference between these two definitions is that the first deliberately includes wetland values and
benefits (functions, products and attributes) in addition to biophysical features. That means, the ecological
character of a wetland is, in part, defined by the uses made of it by people. In the second definition the
direct reference to wetland values has been removed, although it is acknowledged that the use of the
wetland can affect the ecological character. This change was made because there was unease among some
people at the direct linking of ecological concepts with socio-economic concepts. However, the second
definition is also presented as a working definition and it could be changed again.

Both definitions refer to wetland functions, products and attributes. These terms are explained below:
Functions performed by wetlands include: water storage; storm protection and flood mitigation; shoreline
stabilization and erosion control; groundwater recharge; groundwater discharge; retention of nutrients,
sediments and pollutants; and stabilization of local climatic conditions, particularly rainfall and
temperature. These functions are the result of the interactions between the biological, chemical and
physical components of a wetland, such as soils, water, plants and animals.

Products generated by wetlands include: wildlife resources; fisheries; forest resources; forage resources;
agricultural resources; and water supply. These products are generated by the interactions between the
biological, chemical and physical components of a wetland.

Attributes of a wetland include: biological diversity; geomorphic features; and unique cultural and heritage
features. These have value either because they induce certain uses or because they are valued themselves.

The combination of wetland functions, products and attributes give the wetland benefits and values that
make wetlands important to society. The benefits of wetlands are described in section 7.4.

The above terms provide a theoretical basis for describing the ecological character of a wetland, but do not
assist with the practical issues of describing the character -- what is an adequate level of baseline
description and can this be used as a basis for assessing the significance of any change? Monitoring can
provide the necessary information, but it does not necessarily provide the basis for interpreting the
significance of change.

The definition of change in ecological character adopted by the Ramsar Convention in 1996 says: “Change
in the ecological character of a wetland is the impairment or imbalance in any of those processes and
functions which maintain the wetland and its products, attributes and values.”

So, to define an unacceptable ecological change we need to first establish the values and benefits of the
wetland, secondly assess the ecological status of these and then monitor them to ascertain when and if an
adverse change is likely to or has actually occurred. At a superficial level this may seem a straight forward
exercise, but in reality, all three steps are complicated by technical and/or socio-economic difficulties that
can undermine the management, including monitoring, and wise use and conservation of wetlands.

To assess the significance of change it is important to put efforts into inventories (that provide the basic
description of the wetland) and monitoring (that describes the extent of any change). In Cambodia, a
wetland inventory project started in September 1997. With funding from DANIDA the MRC is the
executing agency. The Ministry of Environment implements the project in collaboration with the Ministry
of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and the Ministry of Rural Development. The project aims to develop
a standard inventory methodology and produce an inventory of the wetlands along the Mekong River and
Tonle Sap Lake. This project is collaborating closely with the MRC’s basinwide wetland inventory
initiative (see 7.1.1).
7.3 Major Wetland Types

7.3.1 Marshes
Marshes have a number of specific characteristics: they are usually dominated by reeds, rushes, grasses and
sedges. These plants are commonly referred to as emergents since they grow with their stems partly in and
partly out of the water. Marshes are sustained by water sources other than direct rainfall. They can vary a
lot in response to often subtle hydrological and chemical differences. Marshes include some of the most
productive ecosystems in the world.

Dominant plants in most freshwater marshes include species of reeds (Phragmites; traing), bulrush
(Typha), club rush (Scirpus; kok), spike rushes (Eleocharis) and grasses such as paragrass (Brachiaria
mutica; smau barang).

In Cambodia a good example for marshes can be found close to Phnom Penh in the Bassac marshes an area
between the Mekong and Bassac Rivers that floods every year.

7.3.2 Swamps
Swamps are often confused with marshes. They are, however, very different. Swamps generally have
saturated soils or are flooded for most, if not all of the growing season. They are often dominated by a
single emergent herb species or are forested (e.g. the Plain of Reeds in the Mekong Delta). The Tonle Sap
Lake, for example was until recently surrounded by a belt of freshwater swamp forest (the flooded forest).

According to a study by the Mekong Secretariat in 1991, there are 1.2 million hectares of grassland and
other swampy areas associated with the flooded forest in Cambodia. The greatest threat to swamps and
marshes in Cambodia is drainage and conversion to other uses such as rice fields and fishponds, and
siltation from unsuitable land uses in the catchment area. Cutting of the flooded forest for fuelwood is now
widely recognized to have negative impacts on the fishery resources and biodiversity.

7.3.3 Peatlands
Peat is formed when decomposition fails to keep up with the production of organic matter. This is a result
of water logging, a lack of oxygen or of nutrients, high acidity or low temperatures. Peat can be found in
many types of wetland, including floodplains and coastal wetlands such as mangroves. Where the peat
deposits are deeper than 300-400mm, they create a variety of distinctive wetland ecosystems such as bogs
and fens.

• Bogs form where a high water table, fed directly by rain results in waterlogged soil with reduced levels
of oxygen. Rainfall leaches out nutrients in the soil, and the slow fermentation of organic matter
produces acids. Bogs are characterized by acid loving vegetation, including mosses. Sphagnum bog
mosses are like sponges and can hold more than 10 times their dry weight of water. Bogs are not very
common in Cambodia, but some have been reported from Bohkor. Elsewhere in South East Asia vast
peat masses exist in the lowlands of Indonesia and Malaysia. The 1997 and 1998 fires “forest” fires in
Indonesia included a good deal of peat burning. This is very difficult to extinguish.

• Fens are fed by groundwater rather than by rain. They produce wetlands higher in nutrient content than
bogs, but still able to accumulate peat. The combination of more nutrients and lower acidity results in
a very different vegetation, often a species rich cover of reeds, sedges and herbs.

7.3.4 Floodplain Wetlands

Floodplains – the flat land bordering rivers or lakes that is subject to periodic flooding – are naturally most
expansive in the area along the lower reaches of rivers. In many areas floodplains are associated with
coastal lowlands and often end in estuaries or deltas. The Mekong delta is a good example.

The natural configuration of the land controls the depth, timing and duration of the flooding. In some places
the terrain is so flat that seasonal rainfall can produce flooding over large areas. This happens around the
Tonle Sap Lake but also on the floodplains of the Mekong and Bassac and Tonle Sap Rivers. A good
example of so-called ‘sheet flooding’ can be seen from any elevated place during the wet season, eg
Oudong and water will be seen as far as the eye can see.

Distinctive wetland forests have developed over floodplains throughout the world. The flooded forest of
Tonle Sap Lake and along the Mekong River is an excellent example of this. The Tonle Sap Lake was
surrounded by a broad belt of freshwater swamp forest, generally some 20-30 km wide. In Battambang
Province the belt extends up to 65 km. The flooded forests are dominated by a number of small to medium
sized trees and numerous shrubs. The Mekong River and Tonle Sap with their associated floodplains
sustain a large and varied range of aquatic biota, for example three species of dolphin, otters, fishing cats,
freshwater turtles, tortoises, crocodiles and a wide range of waterbirds.

In many parts of the world floodplain forests have been destroyed either through over exploitation or
because their habitat was destroyed to make room for flood regulation measures and drainage. In
Cambodia, destruction of the flooded forest has been occurring for some time. Because flooded forests are
breeding and spawning grounds for a number of fish species, their destruction also drastically reduces the
number of some fish species.
7.4 The Benefits of Wetlands
Wetlands are generally highly productive ecosystems which provide many important
benefits. These benefits may be wetland functions (e.g. groundwater recharge, flood
control), uses of the wetland or its products (e.g. site for wood collection or research
site) or special qualities of the wetland (e.g. aesthetic component of the landscape, or
cultural significance). Many of the benefits of wetlands are essential to communities,
and to industrial and agricultural activities. (Wetland Benefits; AWB 1993)

7.4.1 Water Supply

Wetlands are frequently used as a source of water for domestic, industrial and agricultural use. Streams,
rivers, ponds and lakes all contain water that can be extracted. Use of shallow wells can allow extraction of
water from other wetlands such as peat swamp forests. Water may also move from some wetlands into the
underlying aquifer to recharge the groundwater. A wetland may supply water to another wetland lower in
catchment.

7.4.2 Flow regulation (primary flood control)

Wetlands can act as storage for excess amounts of water which may occur during times of heavy rainfall or
high flow in rivers. The water can come from rain, run-off, rivers, or from underground sources. Two
processes occur which result in flow regulation and flood control:

• Flood water can be stored either in the soils or held as surface water in lakes, marshes, etc. This
reduces the volume of immediate downstream flood water. Some of this water may flow from the
storage site over days, weeks, or months, and some is lost through evaporation and percolation to
groundwater.

Fig. 7. 5 (a) Runoff fills wetlands and flooding is avoided. In (b) wetland has been filled in and
therefore flooding occurs. (AWB 1993)

• Wetland vegetation slows down the flow of the flood water, so that not all of it arrives downstream at
the same time.
7.6 (a) Floodwaters enter wetland and flooding is avoided. (b) no wetland to store floodwaters so flooding
occurs. (AWB 1993)

The effect of both processes is that downstream flooding is reduced and stream and river flows are
maintained for a longer period each year than would be the case without the wetland. Such flow regulation
by wetlands is extremely important in Cambodia. The wetland areas around Phnom Penh are extremely
important as they hold vast quantities of water in the wet season. Destruction of these wetlands is likely to
increase flooding in the city.

7.4.3 Prevention of Salt Water Intrusion

7.4.3.1 Groundwater
In low-lying coastal areas where the underlying strata is permeable, a wedge of freshwater frequently
overlies deeper saline water. The existence of this freshwater wedge is often maintained by coastal
freshwater wetlands.

Removal or reduction of the freshwater wedge allows the deeper saline water to move upwards towards the
land surface, where it can affect water supplies to ecological communities and to people.

Fig. 7.7 Wetlands help prevent saltwater intrusion (AWB 1993)

It is very important to retain the freshwater wedge in low-lying coastal areas, as it ensures a supply of
drinking, washing and irrigation water to local communities and agriculture, and prevents salinisation of
the soil.

7.4.3.2 Surface Water

In some cases, the characteristics of river channels and coastal vegetation help to prevent the flow of tidal
waters into a river. Straightening, deepening or clearing the vegetation of the channel may result in greater
penetration of saline water into the river, especially at peak tides, thereby depriving people, agriculture,
industry and ecological communities of the freshwater that they need.

7.4.4 Protection from Natural Forces

The physical characteristics of wetland vegetation prevent or reduce erosion of coastlines, estuaries and
riverbanks. Plant roots and vegetation hold the soil together, reduce the impact of waves and currents on the
soil and trap sediments. Wetland vegetation can shield structures, crops or natural vegetation from damage
by strong wind or salt-laden wind.

Fig 7.8 (a) Wetlands such as mangroves protect the shoreline (b) if the mangroves are cut
down, flooding and erosion of the coast can occur. (AWB 1993)

7.4.5 Sediment Retention

The physical properties of some wetlands (e.g. vegetation, size, water depth) slow down the flow of water,
thereby facilitating sediment deposits. This is especially true of swamps, marshes and floodplains. This
deposition is closely linked to the beneficial removal of toxic substances and nutrients since these
substances are often bound to sediment particles.

Sediment removal by wetlands may:

• benefit communities down stream by maintaining water quality, by preventing shallowing of
waterways which would lead to flooding and loss of water transport function; and
• benefit agriculture in those wetlands by renewing nutrients and soil.

Fig. 7.9 Sediment removal and retention by wetlands (AWB 1993)

If sedimentation increases by a large amount due to increased soil erosion in the catchment of the wetland,
the excess sediment may have negative effects on the receiving wetland. The capacity of the wetland to
absorb further sediments will be considerably reduced in addition to causing water quality problems in
lakes and reservoirs. Wetlands do not have never-ending capacity to absorb sediments, nutrients and
harmful substances such as toxic substances. It is important to ensure that land practices within the
catchment keep the input of sediments, nutrients and toxic substances to a minimum.

7.4.6 Nutrient Retention

The physical properties of some wetlands tend to slow down the flow of water facilitating the deposition of
sediments. Nutrients are often associated with sediments and can therefore be deposited at the same time.
Nutrients may be from a wide variety of sources, but are commonly run-off of fertilizer from agricultural
areas, human wastes and industrial discharges.

When the sediment is deposited, the nutrients may be stored with it, taken up by wetland vegetation or
transformed by chemical and biological processes. Uptake by wetland vegetation does not ensure the
nutrients removal from the water since the nutrients can be released again through decay of the plant.
However, harvesting biomass from the wetland such as grasses for mat making and fish for food means
that nutrients are taken out of the system in a useable form.

The process of nutrient removal may benefit communities and developments downstream by maintaining
water quality. Excess nutrients in lakes may lead to eutrophication. Excessive growth of microscopic algae
(phytoplankton) in lakes and reservoirs will cause a decrease in water quality, lowering dissolved oxygen
levels such that fish kills result. Other effects may include excessive growth of blue-green algae which may
produce toxins and an increase in the filtration costs of water treatment for domestic supplies.

7.4.7 Removal of Toxic Substances

Many toxic substances entering aquatic ecosystems are bound to the surface of fine sediments or within the
molecules of clay particles. The slower flow rates in many wetlands facilitate dropping of sediment loads,
and the storage and transformation of sediment-bound toxic substances. In some cases, certain plant species
actively take up toxic substances; e.g. water hyacinth ( Eichhornia crassipes).

Wetlands do not have an endless capacity to absorb toxic substances. If toxic substances are taken up by
plants instead of being absorbed onto sediment, it is likely that the toxicant may enter the food-chain if a
herbivore eats the contaminated plants. Therefore, ensuring that toxic substances enter the environment in
the least possible concentrations in the first place is the best course of action.

Fig 7.10 Removal and retention of toxic substances by wetlands (AWB 1993)
7.4.8 Source of Natural Products
Wetlands are important sites of ON-SITE and OFF-SITE products. The on-site products include all animal,
plant and mineral products (such as salt), which may be harvested directly from wetland areas. To collect
these on-site products people have to go to the wetland. Examples of on-site products commonly taken
from wetland areas includes timber, fruit, meat (e.g. birds, deer), cane, reeds for thatch and matting, resins
and medicinal products.

Off-site products include organic and inorganic material and dissolved nutrients transported downstream,
migratory fish, shrimp, marine mammals and birds. The products may be important on a local, regional,
national or international scale.

7.4.9 Energy Production

Wetlands can provide energy by various means, the most common being hydroelectricity, firewood and
peat. Some estuaries also have the potential to generate tidal power. Exploitation of wetlands for energy
production can have a negative impact on some wetlands. Many consequences of damming river valleys to
create dams for hydroelectric power have been negative. In some cases, the economic losses incurred
exceeded the forecast economic benefits from the development.

7.4.10 Water Transport

In many wetland areas, water transport is the most efficient, as well as the most environmentally sound
method of traveling. In other areas, water transport is often easier than other methods and it is often the
only practical means of transport.On the Tonle Sap and the Mekong water transport is important not only
for passengers, but also for the supply of produce to local markets and for moving bulk cargo, agricultural
and wetland products over longer distances.

7.4.11 Other Benefits

Wetlands also contain wild species (i.e. rice) which have the potential to contribute genetic material for the
improvement of commercial species. Genes from wild species may have characteristics that can assist in
reducing susceptibility to disease.

Wetlands provide an important habitat for the life cycle of many plants and animals. For some species,
especially plants, a particular wetland or wetland type provides every element required to complete their
life cycles. Other species may depend on wetland areas for a part of a more complex lifecycle, including
many aquatic animals such as fish and prawns which depend on wetland areas for spawning and juvenile
development.

Wetlands are extremely important for tourism worldwide. The interest in waterbirds and mammals that
depend on wetlands has grown over the last twenty years. Coastal areas and coral reefs have also become
extremely important tourist sites. Recreation and tourism may contribute significantly to local, regional and
national economies.

Wetlands are also significant for their aesthetic and wilderness values. It is difficult to recreate these values
once destroyed. Many wetlands are unique environments where human activities have evolved to make best
use of the resources available. These activities include special fishing methods, methods of collecting fruits,
resins and other forest products, and methods of using otherwise unproductive soils.

Many wetland sites are used as sites for scientific research, including monitoring, experimentation and
reference. They are often used to study long-term global environmental trends.
References
1.Rees, C. and H. Ramos, 1994. A Guide to Development in Urban & Coastal Areas (in Khmer
language). AIDAB, AWB, MOE, MAFF, 74 pp

2.Opdam, J.H., 1997. A Strategic Development Plan for the Tonle Sap Area. Tonle Sap
Development Strategy Project Team (National Resources-Based Development Strategy for the
Tonle Sap Area), 11 p p

3.Claridge, G. 1996. An Inventory of Wetlands of the Lao P.D.R, IUCN, UNEP, 285 p p

4.Parr, J.W.K., J.C. Eames, H. Sun, H. Chamnan, H. Som, L.P. Vi and H.S. Kim, 1996.
Biological and Socio-Economic Aspects of Waterbird Exploitation and Natural Resource
Utilization at Prek Toal, Tonle Sap Lake, Cambodia, 57 pp

5.Oum Pisey, Pich Sam Ang, 1997. Cambodia Wetland Overview and Identification, Draft
Report, MOE, 24 p p

6.Anon.1997. Draft Wetland Action Plan for the Kingdom of Cambodia, MOE, 85 p p

7.Rainboth, W. J. 1996. Fishes of the Cambodia Mekong, FAO, 265 pp + xxvii p p

8.McDonald, A. and V. Sam, 1996. Floristic Reconnaissance of Prek Sramaoch Lake and
Vicinity, Tonle Sap, FAO, 81 p p

9.Carbonnel, J.P. and J.Guiscafre, 1962-63. Grand Lac du Cambodge Sedimentologie at

Hydrologic, Museum National D' Histoir Naturelle de Paris, Centre de Recherches
Geodynamiques, 401 p p

10.Anon. 1997. Greater Mekong Sub-Region State-of-the-Environment Report, MRC, UNEP,

107 p p

11. Farinha, J.C., L.T. Costa, G. Zalidis, A. Mantzavelas, E. Fitoka, N. Hecker and P.Tomas
Vives, 1996. Mediterranean Wetland Inventory: Habitat Description System. MedWet /
Instituto da Conservação d a Natureza (ICN) / Wetlands International (WI) / Greek
Bioptope/Wetland Centre (EKBY) Publication, Volume III, 48 pp + references and Appendices

12.Costa, L.T., J.C. Farinha, N. Hecker, and P. Tomas Vives, 1996. Mediterranean Wetland
Inventory: A Reference Manual. MedWet / Instituto d a Conservação d a Natureza (ICN) /
Wetlands International (WI) Publication, Volume I, 96 pp + references and Appendices

13.Hecher, N. L.T. Costa, J.C. Farinha, and P. Tomas Vives, 1996. Mediterranean Wetland
Inventory: Data Recording. MedWet / Wetlands International (WI) / Instituto d a Conservação
d a Natureza (ICN) Publication, Volume II, 53 pp + references and Appendices

14.Vives, P.T., L.T. Costa, J.C. Farinha, and P. Tomas Vives, 1996. Mediterranean Wetland
Inventory: Database Manual. MedWet / Wetlands International (WI) / Instituto da Conservação
d a Natureza (ICN) Publication, Volume V, 89 pp + Appendices
15.Zalidis, G.C., A.L. Mantzavelas, and E.N. Fitoka, 1996. Mediterranean Wetland Inventory:
Photointerpretation and Cartographic Conventions, MedWet / Greek Bioptope/Wetland Centre
(EKBY)/ Wetlands International (WI) / Instituto da Conservação d a Natureza (ICN)
Publication, Volume IV, 36 pp + references and Appendices

16.Mekong River Commission, 1997. Mekong River Basin Diagnostic Study Final Report,
MRC, UNEP, 245 pp + Appendices

17.Anon. 1997. National Environmental Action Plan (1998-2002), 77 pp + Annexes

18.McDonald, J. A., B. Pech, V. Phauk, and B. Leeu, 1997. Plant Communities of the Tonle
Sap Floodplain, UNESCO, IUCN, WI, SPEC, 30 pp + appendices, figures and maps

19.Touch, Seang Tana . Status of Biodiversity of the Great Lake (B oeung Tonle Sap), an
Approach for Better Conservation and Future Sustainable Development, DANIDA/MRC Project
for the Management of Freshwater Capture Fisheries of Cambodia

20.Davies, J. and G. Claridge, 1993. The Potential For Wetlands to Support and Maintain
Development ; AWB, IWWRB, WA, 53 pp

21.Ear-Dupuy, H., E. Briggs, Hong Chamnan, Keo Omaliss, 1997. Waterbird Conservation in
the Prek Toal Area, Battambang Province, Cambodia; WPO, MAFF, 41 p p

22.Finlayson, M. and Moser, M. (Eds), 1991. Wetlands International Waterfowl and Wetlands
Research Bureau (IWRB-now Wetlands International) . Facts on File. 224pp.

23.Dugan, P. (Ed.), 1993. Wetlands in Danger. Mitchell Beazley, IUCN. 187 p p

 ANNEX 1
EXAMPLES OF WETLAND CLASSIFICATIONS
WETLAND C LASSIFICATION FROM THE I NVENTORY OF WETLANDS IN THE L OWER M EKONG
B ASIN
• Saltwater • Marine and •Subtidal •Non-vegetated •Natural Subtidal Bare Marine
Coastal •Subtidal Mariculture
•Vegetated Coral •Subtidal marine coral
•Subtidal marine seagrass
•Subtidal marine seaweed
a)Natural subtidal marine seaweed
b)Subtidal marine seaweed farm
•Intertidal •Non-vegetated •Natural
a)Intertidal coastal beach
b)Intertidal coastal mudflat
c)Intertidal coastal cliff
d)Intertidal coastal saltflat
•Artificial
a)Intertidal coastal salt works
b)Intertidal coastal aquaculture
§ Vegetated/Coral •Intertidal marine coral
•Intertidal marine seagrass
•Intertidal marine seaweed
a)Natural intertidal marine seaweed
b)Intertidal marine seaweed farm
•Trees/Shrubs
a)Coastal mangrove swamp
b)Coastal mangorve plantation
•Forbs/Coastal saltmarsh
•Nontidal • Non-vegetated •Nontidal marine culture
• Estuarine •Subtidal • Non-vegetated •Natural Subtidal Bare Estuarine
•Subtidal Estuarine Aquaculture
• Vegetated Coral •Subtidal estuarine coral
•Subtidal estuarine seagrass
•Subtidal estuarine seaweed
a)Natural subtidal estuarine seaweed
b)Subtidal estuarine seaweed farm
•Intertidal • Non-vegetated •Natural
c)Intertidal estuarine beach
d)Intertidal estuarine mudflat
e)Intertidal estuarine cliff
f) Intertidal estuarine saltflat
•Artificial
g)Intertidal estuarine salt works
h) Intertidal estuarine aquaculture
•Vegetated/Coral •Intertidal estuarine coral
•Intertidal estuarine seagrass
•Intertidal estuarine seaweed
a)Natural intertidal estuarine seaweed
b)Intertidal estuarine seaweed farm
•Trees/Shrubs
a)Estuarine mangrove swamp
b)Estuarine mangorve plantation
•Forbs/Estuarine saltmarsh
•Nontidal •Non-vegetated •Nontidal estuarine aquaculture
 •Lacustrine/ •Coastal lagoon
Palustrine
•Inland Salt Lake
• Freshwater •Riverine •River •Perennial River •Pool in perennial river
•Channel in perennial river
a)Natural channel
b)Perennial canal
•With perennial rapid
•With perennial waterfall
•Seasonal River •Pool in seasonal river
•Channel in seasonal river
c)Natural channel
d)Seasonal canal
•With seasonal rapid
•With seasonal waterfall
•Riverine
banks/
beaches/
bars
•Riverine •Floodplain •Natural floodplain grassland
floodplain grassland •Man-made floodplain grassland
•Floodplain wet rice\
•Other floodplain crops
• Floodplain trees/ •Natural seasonally flooded trees/shrubs
shrubs •Man-made seasonally flooded
crops/orchards
• Seasonal
floodplain lake
• Seasonal
floodplain pond
• Seasonal •Natural seasonal backswamp/ marsh
backswamp/ •Man-made seasonal backswamp/ marsh
marsh •Wet rice in seasonal backswamp/marsh
• Lacustrine •Lake >8ha • Permanent lake •Natural permanent freshwater lake
•Man-made permanent reservoir
• Seasonal lake •Natural seasonal freshwater lake
•Man-made seasonal reservoir
•Pond>8ha • Permanent pond •Natural permanent freshwater pond
•Μan-made permanent freshwater pond
a)Fresshwater aquaculture pond
b)Sewage treatment pond
c)Farm pond
d)Cooling pond
e)Borrow pit, excavated pond
f)Others
• Seasonal pond •Natural seasonal freshwater pond
•Man-made seasonal pond
• Palustrine •Permanent •Permanently flooded grasslands
•Permanent freshwater marsh with
tree/shrubs
 •Seasonal •Seasonally flooded grasslands
a) Natural seasonally flooded
grassland
b) Man-made seasonally flooded
plantation
•Seasonally freshwater marsh with sedges
•Seasonally freshwater swamp with
trees/shrubs
a) Natural seasonally flooded
swamp
b) Man-made seasonally flooded
plantation

Wetland classification used by the Ramsar Wetland Convention

• Marine and • Marine • Subtidal • Shallow marine
Coastal waters
• Marine beds
• Coral reefs
•Aquatic bed
•Reef
•Intertidal •Rocky • Rocky marine shores
• Unconsolidated bed • Sand/shingle beaches
• Estuarine •Subtidal • • Estuarine waters
•Intertidal • Unconsolidated bed • Intertidal mudflats
• Emergent • Salt marshes
• Forested • Mangrove, tidal
forest
• Lacustrine/ •Permanent/ • Brackish/saline
Palustrine Seasonal lagoons
• Coastal fresh lagoons
• Inland • Riverine •Perennial • Permanent
rivers/streams
• Emergent • Inland deltas
• Intermittent
rivers/streams
•Intermittent • Emergent • Floodplain wetlands
• Lacustrine •Permanent • Permanent freshwater
ponds
•Seasonal • Seasonal freshwater
lakes
•Permanent/ • Permanent/seasonal
seasonal saline lakes and
marshes
• Palustrine •Permanent • Emergent • Permanent freshwater
ponds and marshes
• Open peat bogs and
fens
• Alpine/tundra
wetlands
• Shrub dominated • Shrub-dominated
swamps
• Forested • Freshwater swamp
forest
• Peat swamp forest
•Seasonal • Emergent • Freshwater
springs/oases
 • Seasonal freshwater
marsh
• Geothermal • Geothermal wetlands
• Human-made • Aquaculture • Fish/shrimp ponds
• Agriculture • Farm ponds, small
tanks
• Irrigated land, rice
fields
• Seasonall-flooded
arable land
• Salt exploitation • Salt pans, salines
• Urban and • Reservoirs, barrages
industrial
• Gravel pits
• Sewage farms
 The Ecology of Rivers and Lakes

Chapter 8

The Ecology of Rivers and Lakes

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Chapter 8 85
8.1 Introduction
Worldwide, freshwater habitats are very limited in area, with inland lakes covering about 1.8% of the
Earth’s surface and running water in rivers and streams covering about 0.3%.

Lakes are large natural bodies of standing freshwater. They are formed when rainfall, land runoff or
flowing groundwater fill depressions in the earth. Lakes are distributed throughout Cambodia. There
are many shallow, sometimes seasonal lakes in the lowlands and a variety of lakes including volcanic
lakes in mountainous areas.

Rainfall that does not infiltrate the ground or evaporate remains on the earth’s surface as surface water.
This water eventually becomes runoff (water), which flows into streams and rivers and finally downhill
to the seas and oceans to continue circulating in the hydrological (water) cycle. The entire land area
that delivers the water, sediment and dissolved substances via small streams to rivers and finally the sea
is called the catchment or drainage basin. Rivers and lakes differ because lakes hold water for extended
periods of time but rivers do not.
8.2 Major Lakes and Rives of Cambodia
The Mekong River - Tonle Sap system dominates the hydrology of Cambodia. The Mekong River rises
in the Tanghla Shan Mountains in the Tibetan Plateau and flows through Burma, Laos, Thailand,
Cambodia and Vietnam. The Mekong river, reported to be between 4200km and 4,900 km, is the
twelfth longest in the world. In terms of annual flow (500 billion m3 per year) it is among the three
largest in the world. Twenty-five percent of the total water flow is derived from Tibet and China, fifty
percent from Northeast Thailand and Laos, a further 10 - 20% from the Sesan, Srepok and Sekong in
North Eastern Cambodia and the remaining 10% from the rivers that drain Cambodia into the Tonle
Sap Lake (Pantulu 1986). Eighty six percent of the land of Cambodia lies within the catchment of the
Mekong River.

The Tonle Sap Lake, also known as the Great lake, lies in the center of Cambodia and is connected to
the Mekong river at Chak Domuk by the Tonle Sap river. The Great lake is the largest permanent
freshwater lake in Southeast Asia. The Tonle Sap - Mekong river system has a unique hydrological
feature. Each year during the wet season the Tonle Sap river reverses its direction allowing the
floodwaters of the Mekong to flow into the Great Lake.

Important rivers in the Northeast of Cambodia are the Sesan, Srepok and Sekong which drain part of
Southern Laos, western Vietnam and northeastern Cambodia.

Figure 8.1 Mekong and Tonle Sap in Cambodia

8.3 Rivers
Most rivers start in the mountains where most rainfall occurs. In the mountains the water flows quickly
in small streams, which join together to form bigger streams. As the streams flow downhill and join
together the numbers of streams and the flow rate of the water decreases but the volume of water
increases. Larger streams are usually described as rivers. The water continues to flow until it reaches
the ocean or sea.

Figure 8.2 River basin (Waugh and Bushell, 1991)

A drainage basin or catchment area is described as the surface area of land (km2 ) from which the rain
water is drained into one particular river or lake. The watershed is the dividing line between two
catchment areas.

Figure 8.2b Run-off flows in different

directions on both sides of a
watershed

The drainage basin of the Mekong river covers an area of 795,000 km2 .
 Figure 8.3 Mekong River Basin

Rivers have many bends, which are called meanders. On either side of the river channel there
is an area of flat land called the floodplain. This area gets covered in water when the river
floods and overflows its banks.
Floodplains are made up of
alluvium ( also known as silt), the
type of soil that is left behind
after floods.

Fig 8.4 River Meanders (Waugh

and Bushell, 1992)

Rivers rarely flow in a straight line. They twist and turn as they make their way down to the sea. Bends
develop on a river because of the water’s eroding power. The force of water is greatest towards the
outside of a bend. When the water hits the bank it causes erosion. The erosion deepens the channel and
wears away the bank. On the inside of the bend, water movement is slower. Material builds up here due
to deposition.

Fig 8.5 Changes in a river channel caused by erosion and deposition (Waugh and Bushell, 1992)

8.3.1 The Discharge of a River

The water in a river moves at a certain speed (current velocity) which is measured in meters per second
(m/s). There are a number of different ways of measuring the current velocity of a river. The cheapest
and simplest method is to observe how long it takes for a floating object to travel a certain distance
(e.g. if it takes 5 seconds for an orange to float over a distance of 2 meters, then the current velocity is
2m/5sec. = 0.4 m/s). This method is not very accurate. A more accurate but expensive method consists
of measuring the current velocity at different depths and at several locations across a stream with an
instrument called a current meter.

The cross sectional area of a stream is calculated from the width and the depth of the stream channel.
 Fig 8.6 Cross section of a river

The flow or discharge is the amount of water flowing though a cross-section area of a stream per unit
time (m3 per sec.) and is calculated with the following formula:

discharge (m3 /s) = cross section area (m2 ) x current velocity (m/sec)

The annual discharge of the Mekong is reported to be approximately 500 billion m3.. At Kratie the
maximum discharge, 35,000 m3 /s, occurs in August and September and the average low flow during
March is about 1,799 m3 /s. No discharge measurements have been carried out on the rivers feeding into
the Tonle Sap System for more than thirty years.

8.3.2 Biodiversity of a River

The ecosystems of a river vary greatly between where the river begins (source) and where it enters the
sea (mouth). Small streams near the source of the river are usually shallow, with fast flowing, well
oxygenated cold water. Whereas downstream the river is wider and deeper, with slow-flowing, less
oxygenated warmer water.

The kind of organisms found in flowing water ecosystems vary depending on the strength of the
current. Plants or animals that live in fast flowing streams must have adaptations to attach themselves
to rocks or they may have flattened bodies to enable them to live under or between rocks. Organisms in
large, slow-moving streams and rivers do not need such adaptations, but they normally have thin bodies
to enable them to move easily through the water. If the current is slow, plants and animals may be
similar to those found in lakes and ponds.
8.4 Lakes
The water in a lake may come from one or several rivers. These rives are called input rivers
(affluent) rivers. The water moves out of the lake into one or more rivers which are called the
output (effluent) rivers. Some lakes on flood plains of rivers do not receive a permanent input
from a river. They are filled with water during the wet season from a flooded river or lake.
Other lakes do not receive water from a river, but they contain water permanently. Water
enters the lake from the groundwater. Such lakes are called groundwater lakes. Other lakes
receive water from a lake but do not have an output river. The water moves out of the lake
into the groundwater. Other lakes may have their inputs and outputs as groundwater.

8.4.1 Tonle Sap Lake

During the dry season, many rivers enter into the Tonle Sap Lake. Some originate from the Kravanh
mountain chain: Stung Bahour, Stung Pursat, Sangker, Stung Mongkol Borey. Others originate from
the Dangrek mountain chain: Stung Sen, Stung Sreng, Stung Sisophon, are the most important. These
are the dry season input rivers. Water flows out of the lake into the Tonle Sap river.

Fig 8.7a Wet Season Input to the Tonle Sap Fig 8.7b Dry season input to the Tonle Sap

During the wet season, the water level in the Mekong rises, the Tonle Sap river reverses its’ flow to
flow into the Tonle Sap Lake. So in the wet season the Tonle Sap Lake has many input rivers but no
output river. In 1993 the Mekong Secretariat studied the relationship between the Mekong floods and
the filling of the Tonle Sap lake. They found that the volume of water entering the lake is closely
related to the size of the Mekong floods. As a result the Secretariat concluded that any regulation of the
flow of the Mekong would effect the volume of water in the lake. The drainage basin of the Tonle Sap
lake is 67,600 km2 or about 38% of Cambodia’s land area.

Figure 8.8 Measurement of lake surface

Grid enumeration analysis (counting squares)
8.4.2 Lake Structure
The form of lake basins are extremely varied: some are large and deep, others are large but shallow,
others are small but deep, etc. The form of the lake basin has important effects on nearly all the
physical, chemical and biological aspects of the lake. Several “morphometric” parameters are
commonly measured to characterize lakes (Fig 8.8):
• maximum length (l) = the distance on the lake surface between the two most
distant points on the lake
• maximum width (b) = the maximum width on the lake surface at right angles to
the maximum length (l).
• shoreline (L) = the length of the shoreline can be measured with a map and a
map measurer.
• Area (A) = the area of the surface of the lake which is measured using a
planimeter or by grid enumeration analysis.
• maximum depth (Zm) = the greatest depth of the lake. Lake depth can be
measured using a graduated rope or a special instrument called a sonar.
• Volume (v) = the volume of water in the lake (m3). To calculate the volume of a
lake one needs to know the depth of water at every point in the lake.

8.4.2.1 Capacity of the Great Lake

The Mekong Secretariat reported that the only year for which hydrological data is available for both the
Tonle Sap input rivers, the Lake and the Mekong is 1963. Carbonnel and Guiscafre (1963) used this
data to estimate the storage capacity for the Tonle Sap Lake:
§ x 109 m3 in the wet season
§ 1.3 x 109 m3 in the dry season
The surface of the lake was reported to have ranged from 2,700 km2 during the dry season to approx.
16,000 km2 at the maximum level of flooding. Water level depths vary between 1m in the dry season to
9m in the wet season.

8.4.3 Lake Zonation

A large lake has three life zones: littoral, limnetic and profundal. The littoral zone is the shallow water
area along the shore of a lake or pond. It includes lake shore vegetation plus several aquatic plants and
algae that live in deeper water. The littoral zone is the most productive zone of the lake (i.e.
photosynthesis is highest in this zone) because it receives nutrients, which stimulate the growth of
plants and algae, from the surrounding land. Animals of the littoral zone include frogs and their
tadpoles, turtles, worms, shrimp, insect larvae and many fish.

The limnetic/pelagic zone is the open-water area away from the shore; it extends down as far as
sunlight penetrates. The main organisms of the limnetic zone are microscopic phytoplankton and
zooplankton. Larger fish also spend most of their time in the limnetic zone, although they may visit the
littoral zone to feed and breed. Owing to the depth of this zone, less vegetation grows here.

The deepest zone of a large lake, the profundal zone, is below the limnetic zone. Because of the lack of
light, producers do not live in the profundal zone. Much food drifts into the profundal zone from the
littoral and limnetic zones. When dead plants and animals reach the profundal zone, bacteria
decompose them, releasing the minerals contained in their bodies. The profundal zone does not exist in
shallow lakes where sunlight can penetrate through to the deepest waters allowing photosynthesis to
take place.
 Figure 8.9 The four distinct zones in a lake (Miller, 1992)

It is extremely difficult to apply lake zonation to the Tone Sap Lake because of the extreme changes in
area and depth. All the zones are present in Yeak Laom lake, Rattanakiri, as it is more than 30 m deep.

8.4.4 Lake Biota

As in any ecosystem the lake biota is made up of producers, consumers and decomposers. The
producers are the photosynthetic organisms deriving their energy from the sun. In the lake they are
found in the littoral and limnetic zones. The consumers consist of herbivorous and carnivorous animals.
The herbivorous group contains zooplankton which are small organisms that float and benthic
organisms or benthos that live on the bottom of the lake. The carnivorous animals may be zooplankton
or benthos. This group also includes fish that feed on phytoplankton and other fish.

The decomposers include a large variety of organisms (bacteria, fungi, insects, worms, etc.) that feed
on dead plants or dead animals. They are mostly found in the sediments at the bottom of the lake.

8.4.4.1 Nutrient Supplies to Lakes

Nutrient supplies to lakes are extremely important because they are needed by producers for
photosynthesis and the net primary productivity depends on the supply of nutrients. The most important
of these nutrients are nitrates and phosphates. Lakes that have a large or excessive supply of nutrients
needed by producers are described as eutrophic lakes and lakes with a small supply of nutrients are
described as oligotrophic lakes. Lakes receive inputs of nutrients and silt from the surrounding
watershed as a result of natural erosion and runoff, effluents from sewage treatment plants, runoff of
fertilizers and animal wastes and accelerated erosion of nutrient rich topsoil due to deforestation.

In 1986 Pantalu noted that the silt carried from the Mekong is nutrient deficient and that it is likely that
the nutrients are supplied as a result of decomposition of terrestrial and aquatic plants in the Tonle Sap.
The nutrients are then used by algae for photosynthesis. The flooded forests play a very important role
in maintaining the ecological balance of the Tonle Sap. These forests occur naturally around the Great
Lake and along the sides of the Mekong and Tonle Sap rivers and provide the nutrients for primary
production.

8.4.4.2 Biodiversity of Tonle Sap Lake

The Tonle Sap lake has a wealth of biological diversity and the importance of this biodiversity has been
recognized through the Royal declaration of the Tonle Sap Lake as a protected area in 1993 and as a
Biosphere Reserve by UNESCO in 1998 and the proposal to list several wetlands on the Tonle Sap lake
as wetlands of International Importance under the Ramsar Convention .

In Chapter 3, General Ecological Principles, biodiversity was defined as the variations among living
organisms with three elements: species diversity, genetic diversity and ecosystem diversity.

A. Ecosystem diversity
Touch Seang Tana classified the Tonle Sap lake system into 6 sub-systems according to topography
and hydrology.

Sub System Natural Condition Location

Great Lake delta The area where the Tonle Sap Tonle Sap river which extends
river breaks into many channels from Prek Kdam of Kandal
before entering the lake - there province to Snoc Tru of
are many islands which are Kompong Chhnang to Phat
flooded in the wet season and as a Sanday of Kompong Thom
result are covered by flooded Province
forests , marshes that have
inundated trees, shrubs and
grasses, and large silted swamps.
Great Lake’s An area at the shore of the lake This area which is completely
Eastern Shore where the vegetation consists of a flooded lies in the Tonle Chmar
mixture of high trees, shrubs and area of Kompong Thom, it
some grass. There are some extends from Siem Reap to
streams which originate in the Kompong Thom border, down to
upland hills, and there are a the Stung Sen stream
number of marshes and lakes
where water is retained all year
round.
Great lake’s Northern Flat This is an area of flat lowland This flooded area covers almost
along the shore of the lake where all the northern margin of the lake
the vegetation is dominated by and lies in Siem Reap Province
flooded shrubs and some grass.
This area also has many streams
which flow into the lake from the
mountains.
Great Lake’s Western slope The area where the Stung Sanke This flooded area covers the
stream breaks into many channels north-western margin of the lake
before entering the lake. There in Battambang province and it
are many islands which are extends from the borders of Siem
flooded in the wet season. The reap to Pursat province
thick inundated vegetation of the
area is characterized by a mixture
of high trees and shrubs. The
habitats specific to this area are
swamps, marshes and small lakes
which do not dry out in the dry
season, and as a result provide
habitats for black fish, turtles,
crocodiles, water birds and other
wildlife.
Great Lake’s Western flat An area of flat lowland at the An area covering most of the
shore of the lake which is covered wetland area around the margin
by inundated shrubs and a large of the lake in Pursat and
number of medium and small Kompong Chhnang provinces
streams flow into the lake from
the Cardamon mountains.
Great Lake’s body The central area where a large An area that varies from 2,300 to
body of water remains all year 3,000 sq. km. And covers a
round. It is a dry season reservoir distance of 120km from North to
and most of the fish species of the South, covering areas of
 lake can be found here during the Kompong Chhnang & Thom,
dry season. Siem Reap, Battambang and
Pursat provinces
Table 8-1 Classification of natural ecosystems of the Great Lake (Touch Seang Tana 1996)

B. Species Diversity
Information relating to the variety of plant and animal species of the Tonle Sap Lake and the
surrounding flood plain was compiled by Wetlands International in 1996. The report concluded that
there have been no recent detailed studies of the composition of the flooded forests and that little is
known about the life cycles of the various plants that make up the flooded forests. The lake is an
extremely important breeding ground for some of Asia’s water birds including storks, adjutants,
herons and egrets. According to WI a number of breeding sites have been identified. The lake is a very
important habitat for turtles, crocodiles and dolphins. Crocodiles and dolphins are now endangered if
not already extinct in the lake.

Many studies have been carried out on the fish species of Cambodia but few have separated the species
composition of the Great Lake area from the whole Mekong river system. The 1986 - 88 Vietnamese
study identified 203 species within the lake. The 1996 report by FAO and MRC on Mekong River fish
provides details of 500 species of fish and reports that more than 800 species have been found. Detailed
information on the fish resources is given in Chapter 15.

C. Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity refers to the variation in the genetic makeup among individuals within a single
species. Tana reports on the genetic diversity, which he bases on the spawning and migratory patterns
of groups of species, but does not report on spawning and migratory patterns within any one species.

8.4.5 Threats to the Biodiversity of the Lake

There are many threats to the Tonle Sap Lake and the surrounding flooded forests. These include over-
exploitation of resources particularly the forests surrounding the lake and the gem stones at Pailin,
conversion of flooded forests to other uses, pollution, lack of management and lack of coordination
between management of these areas, lack of information for decision making and changes to the
hydrology of the Mekong or the Tonle Sap input rivers.

References

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

Tana, T.S., 1993 Biodiversity of the Tonle Sap Lake

UNDP-CEAT, 1994. An Introduction to Environmental Concepts

Waugh and Bushell, 1991

Environment: ETAP Reference Guide Book

Chapter 9

Coastal and Marine Resources

Compiled by: Vicki Nelson, CZM Project, Danida and Toby Carson, IDRC/MoE

9.1 Introduction
The aims of this chapter are to provide:
a brief overview of the biology of the marine and coastal resources in Cambodia;
a report on what is currently known about the status these resources; and
general guidelines on management of these resources.

Marine and coastal biological resources in Cambodia can be classified into six major habitat
types: coral reefs, seagrasses, beaches, mangroves, rocky shores and soft-bottom habitats.
This chapter provides information on the first four of these habitats; nothing is known about
the distribution, status and biology of the latter two habitats. Fisheries resources are dealt with
in Chapter 15.

9.2 Coral Reefs

9.2.1 Biology of Coral Reefs

What are corals?

Corals are colonies of animals called polyps that are related to and look like sea anemones
(Fig 9.1). Each polyp secretes a stony cup of limestone around itself as a skeleton. The polyps
divide as they grow and form coral colonies. As the coral colonies build up on top of each
other, they gradually form a coral reef. Individual coral colonies may be up to 1000 years old.
Coral reefs may be many thousands of years old, forming slowly over time, responding to
changes in sea level and other environmental conditions.

Each polyp of a coral colony contains single-celled algae called zooxanthellae . The algae
live within the tissue of the animal and the energy produced by the algae through
photosynthesis is shared by the coral and the algae. Through photosynthesis, zooxanthellae
provide approximately 95% of the nutritional requirements of corals.

Corals are also predators, using their tentacles to catch plankton from the surrounding water.
The tentacles are armed with special cells called nematocysts that contain coiled, barbed
harpoons with a toxin that paralyses the prey. Nematocysts are also found in sea anemones
and jellyfish. Once the prey is paralysed, the tentacles push it through the mouth into the
coral’s stomach. Fig 9.1 shows a coral polyp.

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Figure 9.1 Diagram of a coral polyp

Coral life history

Sexual reproduction
Coral polyps reproduce sexually by producing male and female cells (sperm and eggs) which
unite to form rounded larvae called planulae . In some corals separate colonies have either all
male or all female polyps. More often each polyp is both male and female, and releases a
bundle of eggs and sperm into the seawater. The planulae float at the surface of the sea
drifting with currents for a period of up to a month before swimming down towards the
bottom to find a suitable hard place to settle. The planula larva sticks to the bottom, then
undergoes a process called metamorphosis and turns into a tiny coral polyp.

Asexual reproduction
There are also many means by which corals can multiply themselves without using sexual
reproduction. Some types of colonies fragment, which means that parts of the colony break
off and can grow on their own. When under stress (eg when the water is too hot or polluted),
some corals undergo a process called ‘polyp bail out’ when the individual polyps detach
from the skeleton and resettle on the substrate around the base of the parent colony. Budding
is also known in some corals that grow new colonies attached to the parent which
subsequently drop off to live as separate individuals.

Asexual reproduction usually results in clumps of colonies of the same genetic makeup
(clones). The new colonies (daughter colonies) do not travel far away from the parent.

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Types of corals, coral communities and coral reefs

Coral morphology
Coral colonies occur in a great variety of shapes and sizes. The different types of shapes are
adapted to different environmental conditions. Massive colonies are large rounded colonies
that tend to grow slowly and are resistant to waves. In contrast, branching corals grow fast
but are more delicate and less resistant to waves so they break easily. Encrusting corals are
often found in very disturbed environments with high wave energy or strong currents. They
grow flat on the hard substratum. Plate corals look like a flat table with a central leg and
grow very fast but are easily damaged. Corals that look like the petals of a rose are called
foliaceous .

As corals are very variable in shape and structure, coral taxonomy is extremely difficult, even
for the world’s experts. There are approximately 500 species of coral in the Indo-Pacific
region, but the Gulf of Thailand has considerably fewer species.
Different types of communities inhabit different ecological niches. In clear, open water a
wide variety of different shapes of colonies can co-exist. Muddy inshore reefs are often made
up exclusively of encrusting, massive and foliaceous forms. In lagoons and shallow,
protected sandy areas branching corals are often the most abundant forms.

There are several different types of reefs (Fig 9.2):

Figure 9.2 Three different types of reefs

Fringing reefs lie around islands and continents, separated from the shore by narrow shallow
lagoons which usually have a sandy bottom, sometimes with seagrasses and scattered corals.
Fringing reefs are the most common and widespread of the types.

Figure 9.3 The fringing reef is the lighter colored area surrounding the island.

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Barrier reefs grow on the edge of continental shelves, separated from the mainland by
lagoons that are often deep and wide. Barrier reefs are linear structures. The largest barrier
reefs in the world are the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, which is about 2000 km long, and
the Belize Barrier Reef in the Caribbean.

Atolls are circular or semi-circular reef systems. They form when islands (usually the tops of
underwater volcanoes) surrounded by fringing reefs sink into the sea or when sea level rises
around them. The fringing reefs keep growing and eventually form circles with lagoons
inside. Most atolls are found in the Pacific but there are some in the Indian Ocean and a few
in the Caribbean. The Maldives, where the word atoll originated, is a country that is made up
entirely of atolls.

Figure 9.4 Detailed illustration of a fringing reef.

Other animals and plants associated with coral reefs

Vast numbers of species inhabit coral reefs, making them second only to tropical rainforests
in species diversity. More species of fish are found on reefs than anywhere else in the sea,
ranging from large sharks to tiny gobies. It is believed that about 90% of all reef species are
small invertebrates yet to be discovered. These, like many of the invertebrates such as tiny
molluscs and crustaceans that are already known, will never be seen by divers and snorkellers
as they are animals that live in cracks and crevices. They are equivalent to the insects of
tropical rainforests. The greatest diversity of reef plants and animals is in South-east Asia,
particularly the Philippines and Indonesia. In these places, a single reef may have over 3000
different kinds of plants and animals.

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9.2.2 Distribution
Distribution worldwide
Coral reefs grow in warm, tropical seas, mainly between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn,
extending further north and south only where there are warm currents. They cover an
estimated 300,000 - 600,000 km2 , and are found in the waters of over 100 countries. The
areas of greatest reef development are the western Pacific and Indian Oceans.

Corals require water that is clear, shallow, warm, oxygenated and unpolluted, and abundant
sunlight. Corals can also occur in turbid water, but only certain types of corals are able to
tolerate muddy water.

Distribution in Cambodia
Coral reefs are reported from almost all areas around islands off the coast of Cambodia. Little
is known about the distribution, composition or health of coral reefs in Cambodia as there
have not yet been any systematic surveys of coral reefs in the country.

Fig. 9.5 Map of Cambodian coastline and some of the off-shore islands

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 Coastal and Marine Resources

Fig 9.6 Koh Prins

At least sixteen genera have been found or reported from Cambodia: Pocillopora, Acropora,
Montipora, Anacropora, Porites, Alveopora, Coeloseris, Favia, Favites, Platygyra,
Echinopora, Montastrea, Cyphastrea, Goniastrea, Lobophyllia, Symphyllia, Galaxea (Touch
Seang Tana, 1996; VMN pers. obs.)

Fig. 9.7a Coral Reef on the islands off-shore from Kampong Som

Fig. 9.7b Coral reefs on the islands off-shore from Kampong Som

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Fig 9.8 Pillaging the coral reefs in Kampong Som

9.2.3 Uses & Threats

Importance of coral reefs
Coral reefs have a variety of ecological functions and human uses. Ecologically, coral reefs
are important as areas of high diversity, as well as providing coastal protection and habitat for
a variety of animals. Human uses include fisheries, building materials, souvenirs, jewellery
and tourism (diving and snorkelling).

Uses & threats in Cambodia

Dynamite fishing, coral collection for souvenirs, anchoring,
push netting and trawling all pose serious threats to coral
reefs in Cambodia (Fig. 9.8, 9.9 and 9.10). The areas most
severely affected by dynamite fishing are reported to be
Koh Tang, Koh Prins and Kohhmey in waters of
Sihanoukville (Touch Seang Tana, 1996).

Figure 9.9 Cut Coral on sale

9.2.4 Management
Because the coral skeletons that provide the structure of coral reefs are fragile, and the coral
animals themselves are sensitive to changes in water quality, temperature and light,
management should focus on preventing damage to the corals and pollution of the water
surrounding them.

Prevention of damage to corals involves management of boat anchoring and careful education
and supervision of snorkellers and divers. In many countries, boat anchoring is prohibited in
coral reef areas. Instead mooring buoys are provided. Tourist education is provided in some
countries with coral reef conservation programmes. For example, in Australia, tourists who
visit the Great Barrier Reef are provided with information sessions and guided snorkelling
and diving tours with the aim of raising awareness about the fragility of the coral reef system
and the appropriate behaviour towards it.

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Fig. 9.10 a Partial destruction of the reef from exposive fishing and pillaging

Fig 9.10b Total destruction of the reef off-shore from Kampong Som

Water pollution is another significant factor that affects coral reefs. Prevention of sewage
pollution, high levels of sediments (eg from runoff from logging in the watershed) and oil
pollution is important. Corals are extremely adversely affected by high levels of nutrients and
decreases in water clarity. They are also sensitive to changes in the chemical properties of
water.

Options for management

• Ban destructive fishing practices (dynamite, poison, trawling and push netting over coral
reefs)
• Set limits on or ban harvesting of reef materials and species.
• Promote and control tourism but with strict guidelines on anchoring, snorkelling and
diving practices.
• Do not take any coral.

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• Ensure that dredging practices follow internationally recognised best practice guidelines
to avoid excessive silt and sediment being deposited on reefs.
• Avoid the introduction of pollutants and excessive nutrients to the reef environment.
• Avoid alteration of the ambient salinity (for example, effluent from salt farms is highly
saline and may cause bleaching if disposed of near coral reefs).
• Avoid alteration of water temperature (eg do not discharge hot water from power plants
near corals).
• Manage unsustainable logging and land-clearing practises in watersheds to reduce erosion
and prevent silt-laden water from reaching coral reefs.

9.3 Mangroves

9.3.1 Biology of Mangroves

What are mangroves?

Mangroves are salt-tolerant trees and shrubs that grow in intertidal areas of sheltered rivers,
bays and estuaries (Fig 9.11).

Adaptations to marine environment

Mangroves possess physiological characteristics and structural adaptations to the marine
environment (Fig 9.12):

Prop roots (characteristic of Rhizophora species Fig 9.11) extend out into the shallow sea
water. These prop roots can aid in breaking up tidal currents and therefore help to resist
erosion and damage to the trees themselves.

Fig 9.11 Mangroves in Koh Kong: Note the prop root systems

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There are other mangroves trees (characteristic of the genus Avicennia), whose main roots
sprout upright projections which grow out of the muddy soil and extend above the level of the
water. These root "branches" are called pneumatophores, and are covered with pores to
allow for gas exchange (fig 9.12).

Figure 9.12 Brugniera “knee” roots at Koh Kong

All mangrove tree roots are covered with pores (lenticels ). As the soil in mangrove systems is
oxygen deficient and water-logged these pores allow mangroves to breath. Oxygen enters the
roots and carbon dioxide is released. This exchange of gases occurs via passages in the soft,
spongy root tissue.

All species of mangroves are adapted to living in highly saline conditions (i.e. are
halophytes). They have developed three mechanisms for dealing with the salinity of available
water:
• extrusion - salty water is taken up and the salt is then excreted
• exclusion - salty water is prevented from entering the tree
• tolerance - the tree tissues have a tolerance to high salt content.

Mangroves also have waxy or hairy leaves with deep-set, carefully controlled stomatal pores
to conserve the water within their tissues. The pores open at night when the air is cool and
humid and close during the day when rates of evaporation are highest. The stomatal pores are
located on the under surface of the leaves as an extra measure against water loss.

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Figure 9.13 Mangrove Adaptation to the Marine Environment

Some species of mangroves reproduce by producing seeds that germinate while on the parent
tree so that they can take root immediately once they drop, before being carried away with the
next tide. In some species, the seed is able to float until a suitable place is found to take root.

Types of mangrove communities

Mangrove communities can be classified into different types: riverine, basin or fringing (Fig
9.14).

Mangrove species are generally arranged in zones from sea to land since they have adapted to
a slightly different range of physical conditions. According to Viboth and Ashwell (1995) the
zones in Cambodia are: a) the Avicennia-Sonneratia zone b) the Rhizophora zone c) the
Bruguiera-Kandelia-Ceriops zone and d) the Lumnitzera-Xylocarpus-Bruguiera zone.

Other animals and plants associated with mangroves

Mangroves help provide for a great diversity of plant and animal life. They provide essential
habitats for aquatic inhabitants such as crabs, shrimp, fishes, and various invertebrates, as
well as other species such as shorebirds and monkeys.

Mangroves link marine and terrestrial ecosystems. They are of integral importance to the
stability and maintenance of adjoining ecosystems such as seagrass beds and coral reefs. The
organic matter (in the form of leaf litter and detritus matter) that originates from mangrove
species is essential to aquatic inhabitants of lagoons and estuaries as well as other nearshore
environments such as seagrass beds and coral reefs (Pisit Chansnoh, 1994). In fact, all of
these ecosystems are found to be mutually beneficial to each other. They co-exist in a
complex ecological relationship whereby if one is impacted upon, it will affect the others.
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Therefore, deterioration of mangrove ecosystems of Cambodia will have effects on the coastal
system as a whole.

Fig 9.14 Various Mangrove Ecosystems

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9.3.2 Distribution

Distribution worldwide
Mangroves are found along the coastlines of tropical and subtropical countries around the
world. They grow on the intertidal flats of sheltered coastal areas such as rivers, bays and
estuaries.

Factors influencing distribution

The distribution of particular mangrove species differs from place to place according to
various factors including: physical and chemical properties of the soil, salinity, tidal
fluctuations, currents and climatic conditions (eg wind, rainfall).

Distribution in Cambodia
Mangroves grow along much of Cambodia's 435 km coastline, in the two provinces of
Kampot and Koh Kong, and two municipalities of Kep and Sihanoukville.

Mangroves are reported to cover 85,100 ha of Cambodia's coastline, estimated using satellite
imagery and remote sensing. Of these, 63,700 ha are found in Koh Kong (MRC, UNDP,
FAO: 1994). There are also mangroves in Kampot and Sihanoukville (900 ha and 13,500
respectively). The most well developed mangrove forests are found in the main estuaries of
Peam Krasaop, Andong Tuk, Sre Ambel, Chak Sre Cham and Prek Kampot (Bann 1997).

There are reported to be 74 species of plants in the mangrove systems of Cambodia, from 53
genera and 35 families (Chhun Sareth 1994), however this number has yet to be verified. An
initial list of 42 mangrove flora species belonging to 20 families has been identified during
field surveys carried out from October to December, 1994 (Mangrove Working Group,
MoE/IDRC: 1995). The dominant species belong to the genera Rhizophora (R. mucronata, R
apiculata ) Avicennia, Lumnitzera, Bruguiera, Ceriops and Xylocarpus. In addition to
mangrove trees, other associated species include the mangrove palm, Nypa fruticans.

9.3.3 Uses and Threats

Importance of mangroves
Mangrove forests provide many important ecological functions (Fig 9.15). They
• provide habitats and shelter for various species of aquatic life, including fish and
invertebrates;
• contribute to the food chain by providing detritus;
• help to stabilise shorelines and give protection from storms and erosion; and
• trap sediment and toxic materials, preventing them from reaching open sea.

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Figure 9.15 Benefits of Mangroves

Uses and threats worldwide

Mangrove ecosystems are especially important to inshore fisheries. Organic matter and
nutrients are supplied to the ecosystem from leaf fall and foecal matter. Decomposed litterfall
supplies a considerable amount of nutrients that can be used directly by fish and other aquatic
species. Detritus matter is exported to nearby seagrass beds, coral reefs and other coastal
habitats. Mangroves also provide nursery grounds and shelter for important marine stocks.

Mangrove species are valuable for fuel (firewood, charcoal and alcohol). People use
mangroves for construction purposes such as for building houses (poles, roof shingles, timber,
thatch, matting and beams), boats, fences and fish traps. They are also used in the production
of wood chips. Other useful benefits derived from mangroves include textiles and leather
(tannin, fibres), food, drugs, and beverages (honey, vegetables, tea) and household items
(furniture, glue, incense, wax). In addition, coastal peoples have traditionally used various
resources extracted from mangroves for paper products, medicines, and perfume.

Figure 9.16 Effects of Over-exploitation of mangroves

The value of maintaining healthy mangrove ecosystems is often significantly underestimated

in the face of short-term economic interests. Mangroves are threatened worldwide from
clearfelling practices and unsustainable harvesting for wood, charcoal and other purposes. Fig
9.16 illustrate some of the negative impacts of cutting mangroves. These include acid soils,
increase in siltation and declines in adjacent ecosystems.

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Figure 9.17 Mangrove Cutting in Koh Kong

In Cambodia, it has been estimated that the marine fisheries catch offshore from mangrove
areas is in excess of 30,000 tonnes per year (Chea Peng Chheang 1993). This total could be
severely affected if mangrove habitats are destroyed.

Figure 9.18 Aerial view of mangrove depletion

The value of mangrove forests as a food source as well as shelters and nurseries for both
culture and capture fisheries along coastal areas is certain to be very high.
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The species Rhizophora mucronata is ideal for fences, beams for houses, and foundation
pilings. Nypa fruticans are valuable for many purposes. The leaves are used for the roofs of
houses, materials for crab traps and floor mats. Nypa leaves are also used as a cover for 'Num
Chak' and N ' um An Sam' which are local traditional cakes (Mangrove Working Group,
MoE/IDRC: 1995).

Figure 9.19 Large area of cut-out mangroves in Koh Kong

Fig.9.20 Charcoal production in Koh Kong

Mangroves have traditionally been used for

firewood and charcoal production in Koh Kong
(Mangrove Working Group, MoE/IDRC:
1995). Coastal communities use mangrove
wood as a direct source of fuelwood energy. In particular, mangrove species such as
Rhizophora apiculata and Rhizophora mucronata are highly valued for their high caloric
content and slow, smoke-less burning capacity.

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Some mangrove species are also burned to repel mosquitoes and other insects. In the past,
mangrove bark from Rhizophora spp and Ceriops spp was used in tannin production for dying
of fishing nets but now this practice has been replaced by nylon fishing nets.

The stability of Cambodia's coastline is largely dependent upon a stable mangrove ecosystem.
The buffer zone created by shoreline mangroves helps to protect against the damaging effects
of large storms and tidal surges.

Mangrove resources have helped provide livelihoods for local people for many generations.
Like much of Cambodia, the coastal area faces the prospect of large-scale and rapid
development with natural resource exploitation occurring at unsustainable rates. In particular,
the destruction of mangrove forests in Koh Kong Province is proceeding rapidly, and efforts
to reduce both the amount and extent of the cutting must be undertaken if the natural
environment is to continue to provide for the food security and livelihood of the people.

The current degradation of mangrove areas in Cambodia is mainly due to charcoal production
and intensive shrimp farming in Koh Kong Province, and cutting for fuelwood and
conversion to salt farms in Kampot Province.

Mangrove trees are now cut on a large scale for the production of charcoal that is illegally
exported. In the past (before the 1990s) most of the charcoal production was for local
domestic use only. These practices probably had little impact on the environment, as
population densities were quite low in the coastal areas. By 1992, however, there were 300
charcoal kilns that produced 24,000 tonnes of charcoal that year. Almost all (95%) of this
total was for illegal export (Chea Peng Chheang, 1:1993).

Recently, large areas of mangroves have been cleared for intensive shrimp culture. This
practice not only requires huge areas of mangroves to be clearcut, but also degrades the
surrounding environment. Intensive shrimp culture is quite a recent phenomenon and there
were no intensive shrimp farms before 1985. In 1992, it was already observed that
uncontrolled development of intensive shrimp farming into mangrove areas was having a
negative effect on the environment (Chea Peng Chheang, 2:1993). By November 1994, a total
of 840 ha of shrimp farm licenses had been issued. Of this total, 238 ha were under intensive
use, 177 ha were under construction and 425 ha were given licenses but had not yet reached
the construction stage (Mangrove Working Group, MoE/IDRC:1995). Local fisherfolk,
whose livelihood depends on healthy mangrove habitats, have complained about depleted fish
and crab stocks in the areas of degraded mangroves.

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9.3.4 Management

Importance of protection
Mangrove forests are important habitats in the life cycles of many commercial and other
species of fish. It is likely that the remaining mangroves along Cambodia's coast are providing
a vital source for recruitment into much of the Gulf of Thailand fisheries.

In comparison to neighboring countries, the Cambodian coastline is relatively pristine.

Despite recently increasing amounts of intensive shrimp farm development and cutting for
charcoal and timber export, many of the mangrove habitats of Koh Kong Province are still
relatively intact.

In neighboring countries, much of the coastline has already been severely degraded. In
Thailand for example, most of the mangrove forests have been cleared (mostly for intensive
shrimp culture), and inshore water quality has decreased markedly. The decline in the Thai
inshore fishery is probably due in part to the loss of mangrove forests critical as nursery
habitat for juvenile fish.

Guidelines for management

Mangroves are sensitive to many ecological factors, including changes in water flow, salinity
and the physical and chemical properties of the substrate. Some of the forces that can alter
these factors occur outside the mangrove ecosystem (e.g. dams, upland logging, agricultural
runoff). Therefore mangrove conservation and sustainable use depends on integrated
planning. In addition, uses within the mangrove system must be managed to avoid detrimental
changes in the mangrove habitat.

Specific guidelines should include:

• Maintain the topography and character of the mangrove substrate and water channels.
• Maintain natural patterns and cycles of tidal movement and freshwater runoff.
• Avoid changes in salinity by avoiding diversion of freshwater runoff, removal of
groundwater.
• Avoid coastal construction, including dredging, that alters the natural cycles of
erosion and accretion.
• Set maximum limits on all harvesting to equal the annual production of the product.
Cutting forest products should be based on rigorous plans that ensure sustainable
yields.
• Develop oil spill contingency plans, where there is potential for spills of oil and other
hazardous chemicals.
• Avoid all activities that would result in impoundment of an area of mangroves. The
cessation of surface water circulation always results in the mortality of mangroves.
• Do not remove mangroves at the edge of the coast or tidal channels. Mangroves
provide an important buffer zone between the sea and the land.

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Protection and Management in Cambodia

The Department of Fisheries of the Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Forestry has
jurisdiction over mangroves and flooded forests in Cambodia, however most of the remaining
mangrove forests are within protected areas, which are under the jurisdiction of the Ministry
of Environment.

The Kingdom of Cambodia has demonstrated its commitment to environmental management

through the establishment of the Ministry of Environment . Protected area management has
been mandated under Royal Decree, "Creation and Designation of Protected Areas",
November 1, 1993, including significant portions of Cambodia's mangrove forests in Peam
Krasaop Wildlife Sanctuary, Ream and Botum Sakor National Parks (Refer to Table 9.1).

Some of the initiatives related to the protection and management of mangroves in Cambodia
include:
• The "Creation and Designation of Protected Areas"
(Royal Decree: Nov. 1, 1993)
• The designation of the Koh Kapik as a Ramsar site and the ratification of the
Biodiversity Convention
• "Mangrove Forest Resources and Local Communities" research and capacity building
project (MoE, CEAT/UNDP and IDRC: 1994-1995)
• "Regeneration of Coastal Mangrove Colonies and their Fish/Shrimp Breeding
Grounds in Kampot Province" (APHEDA: 1994-1995)
• "Culture Context for Natural Resource Management in Mangrove Areas" (UNESCO
and MoE: 1995)
• Training activities in coastal protected areas (including park rangers in Koh Kong
sponsored by Wetlands International and MoE: 1995-1996)
• Environmental law and enforcement, including the initiative to close the charcoal
kilns and a moratorium on new shrimp farm licences in Koh Kong (Ministry of
Environment, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries and provincial
authorities: 1996-1997)
• "An Economic Analysis of Alternative Mangrove Management Strategies in Koh
Kong Province Cambodia" (EEPSEA: 1996)
• "Coastal and Marine Environmental Management in the South China Sea" (Asian
Development Bank: 1996)
• The National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP: 1997) and the National Wetland
Action Plan
• "Coastal Communities Cambodia" research support activity (MoE and IDRC: 1997)
• "Mangrove Replanting Project" (CEPA and Canada Fund: 1997)
• "Environmental Management of the Coastal Zone" provincial level capacity building
project (MoE and Danida: 1997-1998)
• Regional coastal technical assistance project (proposed by ADB)
• Participatory Management of Mangrove Resources" participatory and sustainable
livelihoods project (MoE and IDRC: 1997-1999)

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No Type of Protected Area Area (ha)

I National Parks
Botum Sakor, Koh Kong 171,250
Kep, Kampot 5,000
Ream, Sihanoukville 150,000
II Wildlife Sanctuaries
Peam Krasaop, Koh Kong 23,750
III Multiple Use Area
1. Dong Peng, Koh Kong 27,700
Table 9.1 Protected Areas Containing Mangroves Along Cambodia's Coastline
Source: Royal Decree "Creation and Designation of Protected Areas"

In addition the Ministry of Environment has conducted surveys in cooperation with Wetlands
International (WI) to identify wetland sites of international importance for listing under the
Ramsar Convention and Koh Kapik Ramsar Site in Koh Kong Province has been nominated
as one of Cambodia’s first.

9.4 Seagrasses

9.4.1 Biology of Seagrasses

What are seagrasses?

Seagrasses are flowering vascular plants that live in saline water. Unlike seaweeds which
are non-vascular, they have roots, stems, flowers, seeds and leaves, unlike other marine
plants. Seagrasses are anchored to sandy or muddy bottom by horizontal stems called
rhizomes that run under the surface of the bottom, and hair-like roots that grow down into the
substrate. Seagrass leaves come in a variety of shapes, from oval to strap-like or cylindrical.

Seagrass life history

Seagrasses are specially adapted to living underwater. Flowering and pollination usually
occur underwater. Seeds are often very numerous and can lie dormant in the sand or mud for
years (a seed bank).

Seagrasses also reproduce asexually. They colonise new space by growing outwards along the
rhizomes. New plants are produced at regular intervals along the rhizome.

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Figure 9.21 Foodchain in a Seagrass Ecosystem

Types of seagrass communities

Seagrasses form many different kinds of seagrass beds. Some seagrasses grow in large
monospecific stands, while others occur in mixed stands of many species.

Other animals and plants associated with seagrasses

Seagrass beds are home to a wide variety of plants and animals (Fig 9.21). The main
commercial species associated with seagrass are prawns and fish. Other important species are
Dugong (Dugon dugon) and green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas), both globally endangered
species that eat certain types of seagrass.

9.4.2 Distribution

Distribution worldwide
Seagrasses grow in shallow marine waters of most continents. They occur in sheltered areas
with a sandy or muddy bottom. Some seagrasses can grow in intertidal areas, while others are
restricted to subtidal. Because they are plants, seagrasses require sunlight to grow, and are
restricted to depths where enough sunlight can penetrate the water for photosynthesis to take
place. In turbid waters (as off the coast of Cambodia), this means that seagrasses are most
often found in shallow water, but in areas with very high water clarity, they can be found in
waters up to 60 m deep.

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There are only 58 described species of seagrass worldwide. Despite their low species
diversity, they are important ecosystems providing a sheltered, nutrient-rich habitat for a
diverse flora and fauna.

Distribution in Cambodia
A total of eight species of seagrass have been reported from Cambodia (Ethirmannasingam
1996). These are Enhalus acoroides, Cymodocea serrulata, Halodule pinifolia, H. uninervis,
Halophila decipiens, H. ovalis, Syringodium isoetifolium and Thalassia hemprichii. Seagrass
habitats in Cambodia can be divided into two main types: extensive seagrass meadows along
the mainland and patches of seagrass intermingled with corals around islands. Much of the
muddy coast of Kampot province supports seagrass beds. Inshore seagrass beds are mixed
stands of several species, while offshore, the large seagrass Enhalus acoroides occurs in
extensive beds. Small seagrass beds have been found on Koh Rong and Koh Rong Samlem.

9.4.3 Uses & Threats

Importance of seagrasses
Seagrasses play a variety of important roles. They:
• provide important nursery and feeding grounds for economically important species of fish
and prawns;
• reduce wave and current energy;
• help filter suspended sediments from water and stabilise bottom sediments, thus playing
an important role in regulating water clarity;
• provide a complex habitat for a diverse and abundant flora and fauna;
• act as nutrient sinks, buffering and filtering nutrient and chemical inputs to the marine
environment; and
• support numerous food chains.
In addition to these roles, seagrasses have high primary productivity, which is closely
associated with highly productive fisheries.

Uses & threats worldwide

Seagrasses are used for roofing, mats and insulation in many countries. Some peoples use the
seeds for a starchy food. Leaves can be used for cattle fodder.

Seagrasses are vulnerable to damage from excessive siltation and turbidity, shading and water
pollution. One of the most severe human threats to seagrasses are from use of damaging
fishing equipment, such as bottom trawling, which rip up the seagrass. Changes in light levels
reduce the rate of photosynthesis in plants, so reduce the health of the seagrass. Other threats
include hot water from power plants, dredging and reclamation.

Uses & threats in Cambodia

It is unknown whether coastal peoples in Cambodia use seagrass.

While Cambodia’s seagrass beds appeared to be in good condition in 1996

(Ethirmannasingam 1996), unsustainable fishing practises are threatening seagrass,

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particularly in Kampot. Push nets and drag nets with small mesh size cause mechanical
damage to seagrasses and also denude the beds of juvenile fauna, thus depleting fishing
stocks. Trawling with weighted nets also causes physical damage to seagrass. It is unknown
how prevalent these practises are, nor whether seagrass beds can regenerate after damage.

In Koh Kong, seagrasses are reportedly damaged by boat propellors in shallow water.
Another threat is the destruction of mangroves for charcoal and intensive shrimp farming.
Mangroves play an important role in filtering sediments and toxic substances from water
flushing into the marine system. With the destruction of mangroves, this filter is removed and
seagrasses could suffer from increased turbidity and levels of pollutants. An indirect effect
from nutrient-rich discharges from shrimp farms might be that increased levels of nutrients
would favour the seagrasses’ algal competitors causing smothering of seagrasses by seaweed.

9.4.4 Management

Guidelines for management

As seagrasses are important for the support of commercial prawn and other fisheries, their
protection is key to the continued sustainability of these fisheries. Guidelines should include:
• ban bottom trawling, push nets, drag nets and other fishing methods that disturb seagrass
meadows;
• prohibit discharge of untreated urban and industrial effluent;
• carefully control construction and dredging on or close to seagrass beds.

9.5 Beaches

9.5.1 Dynamics of Beaches

What is a beach?
A beach is an accumulation of unconsolidated (loose) sediment that is transported and
moulded into characteristic forms by wave-generated water motion.A typical beach can
include a sand bar in the shallow water offshore, a surf zone, an intertidal zone, a beach face
and dunes or beach ridge at the landward edge.

How beaches are formed

Three things are needed to make a beach:
1. A source of sediment
2. A means of transport for the sediment
3. A flat or moderately sloping nearshore coastal shelf.

Sources of sediment include:

• other beaches upcurrent
• coral reefs (the action of waves on corals and calcium-producing marine plants makes
sand)

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• rivers (sediment washed down from the uplands)

Transport mechanisms include

• storms
• wind-generated waves
• currents
• tides

Movement of water carries the sediment to areas where it is trapped. Aerial photographs of
the coastal zone often show up areas of murky water indicating where sediment is being
transported along the shore. When the water motion slows down (when it swirls around the
end of a headland, for example) the sediment is deposited on the seabed.

Beaches are dynamic systems. The morphology of a beach changes naturally with changes in
seasons and after storms. The morphology of a beach also varies greatly from place to place
depending on such factors as:
• sediment type
• wave climate
• tidal range
• nature, frequency and intensity of storms
• orientation of shoreline to prevailing winds and storms
• sediment supply
• slope and depth of the nearshore zone
• angle of wave attack
• strength of current
• presence of man-made structures that alter sediment transport regimes.

Animals and plants associated with beaches

Beaches support a large food web involving many animals and plants, including many
endangered species.

The food chain on the beach is supported by tiny planktonic plants called diatoms . They
wash up onto the beach and are broken down by bacteria. The products of this breakdown
provide food for deposit feeders (animals that eat sediment) and filter feeders (animals that
extract nutrients from water by sifting it across their gills). These animals in turn provide
food for carnivores (animals that eat other animals). Animals likely to be associated with a
beach system include many different types of snails and worms, clams, mussels, crabs,
starfish, birds and lizards.

Beaches also provide habitat for some species to nest. In Cambodia these include globally
endangered sea turtles and birds.

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9.5.2 Distribution

Distribution worldwide
Beaches are found all over the world wherever the conditions are favourable for beach
formation (see above).

Distribution in Cambodia
In Cambodia, beaches occur all along the coast and around islands in embayments.

9.5.3 Uses & Threats

There are many ways people use beaches:

Sand for construction: beach sand is used for making concrete.
Sand mining: beach sand often contains valuable minerals and heavy-metal ores that can be
extracted commercially.
Tourism: beaches are a favorite destination for tourists. In Cambodia there are many
restaurants and hotels on or near beaches in Sihanoukville. Tourism developments are
planned for many areas on the coast near or on beaches.
Residential: many people live on or close to beaches.

Figure 9.22 Kampong Som’s beaches

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There is rarely any problem with beaches unless there is human interference with the natural
system. There are two main issues:
1. Construction on the beach. Because beaches are dynamic, if the construction is too close
to the beach, not only is the beach destroyed but natural erosional and depositional
processes can also destroy the building. For example, if a beach is naturally eroding, a
restaurant built right on the beach will one day be in the water. Similarly, if a beach is
naturally accreting (sediment is being deposited on the beach so the volume of sediment
is increasing), a restaurant may find that the floor is being covered with sand.

2. Disruption of either sediment source or sediment transport. This could happen in a

variety of ways: dams on rivers reduce water flow and trap sediment so that it does not
get transported to the sea; poorly designed coastal engineering structures disrupt the
natural movement of sediment along the shore; and dredging and mining removes
sediment from circulation in the sea.

Other management issues include:

• pollution from domestic garbage and industrial waste
• pollution from garbage transported by sea from other places (mostly plastics)
• disturbance of important habitats for nesting and feeding of endangered species (by
increased numbers of people from tourism or urban development)

Uses & threats in Cambodia

Tourism, both domestic and international, is both a use and a threat to beaches in Cambodia.
Sihanoukville is a major focus of Cambodian government’s tourism development plan. As yet
development has been unplanned and unregulated.

Beaches in Sihanoukville are strewn with garbage from restaurants. Even on beaches a long
way from human habitation, plastic litter is abundant and unsightly. The litter comes from
garbage thrown overboard from ferries and fishing boats.

9.5.4 Management

Guidelines for management

It is simple to manage beaches. Intervention is not required. The aim is to preserve the
profile of the beach and to ensure that natural fluctuations in shape and size are allowed to
continue unhindered. This means making sure that natural sources and transport mechanisms
are not disrupted.

Important guidelines for beach management that have been implemented in other countries
are:
• understand the natural beach system before it is altered;
• develop setback lines. A setback is a distance from the beach that is defined as
sufficiently large so that natural fluctuations in the size and shape of a beach will not
affect any buildings on the coast, and so that constructions do not affect the natural

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processes of the beach. Many countries have defined setbacks, and they vary in size from
< 10 m to 3 km;
• if the beach is important for tourism or wildlife habitat, do not mine the sand from the
dunes, beach or nearshore zone;
• roads, buildings, restaurants and other permanent structures should be prohibited on the
foredunes;
• avoid building coastal structures such as seawalls;
• control solid waste disposal so that no solid waste is dumped or thrown in the sea.

Remember that beaches are fragile and dynamic, changing shape and position all the time.
Any management of beaches must take this into account.

9.6 Links between Ecosystems

It is important not to think of coastal habitats as separate from each other; each habitat has
complex links with all the others. For example prawn species spawn in the mangrove system
and the larvae settle in seagrass beds to grow into adults before migrating back into the
mangroves to spawn. Green sea turtles (Chelonia mydas) eat seagrass but nest above the high
tide mark on beaches. Other species, such as some inshore fish, also use coral reefs, seagrass
and mangrove habitats during different stages of the life cycle.

Mangroves, seagrass beds and coral reefs are interdependent through the nutrient cycle as
well. Detrital matter from the mangroves is used by species that live in seagrass beds, coral
reefs and other types of habitat in the coastal system.

Coastal habitats are also linked through the sediment cycle. Terrestrial sediments are washed
down estuaries into mangrove systems where much of the sediment is trapped. Seagrasses
also trap moving sediment with their rhizome system. Beaches are another place where
sediment is stored, while coral reefs produce sediment that is either consolidated or stored in
seagrass beds and beaches.

Coastal zone management should take into account the links between the different habitats
and biota of the coastal area. While each species in marine and coastal systems has its own
particular requirements, all are joined together in a complex ecological network. Changes to
one component in the network will affect all the other plants and animals, including humans.

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Chapter 10

Natural Resources

10.1 Resources
A resource is anything that can be useful. Natural resources include air, land,
fertile soils, food, fresh water, plants, energy, metals, minerals, and fibers to
make clothes. Resources are usually classified as renewable and nonrenewable.

10.1.1 Non Renewable Resources

Nonrenewable resources are those that can be used up completely or else used
up to such an extent that it is economically impractical to obtain any more of
them. A resource becomes depleted when a major portion of it has been used up.
Minerals, such as metals and non-metals, sand, clay (see Chapter 19, Mineral
Resources and Chapter 12, Soil Resources), and energy resources such as oil,
gas, coal, (see Chapter 18, Energy Resources) are nonrenewable resources.
Fossil fuels such as oil and coal are the partially decayed remains of long-dead
living organisms. Theoretically these are renewable because they are made by
biological processes that continue to occur. But fossil fuels are categorized as
nonrenewable because they are formed very slowly over millions of years and
because human activities have destroyed many of the habitats that form them.

10.1.2 Renewable Resources

Renewable resources are those that can theoretically last forever. Either they
come from sources that cannot be exhausted, like solar energy, and wind energy,
or they are produced continuously. Fresh water, air, soil, trees, crops, and other
living organisms are all resources that are, or can be, renewed (see Chapter 11,
Water Resources, Chapter 14, Wild Plants and Animals, Chapter 15, Fisheries,
Chapter 16, Agricultural Resources and Chapter 17, Forests. Renewable
resources are more important to life than nonrenewable resources. People can
survive without copper and oil, but cannot survive without fresh water to drink or
soil to grow food. Humans now use many renewable resources faster than
natural processes can renew themselves. Also many modern developments
reduce the ability of nature to replenish these natural resources.

Many resources, both renewable and non-renewable, can be created or replaced.

Freshwater can be made from sea-water, and oil for energy can be replaced, for
some uses, by electricity from nuclear power plants. However in many cases,
the replacement costs are more than we can afford or take too much time. Other
resources can never be replaced or created: the obvious example is an extinct
species of plant or animal (Chapter 14).

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10.2 Management of Natural Resources

Management of natural resources can take many different forms. Management
of resources can on one extreme be completely controlled by the central
government or in other situations be managed by local communities. The
management approach taken is extremely important to guarantee that society is
able to provide food, raw materials, and energy for future generations.

10.2.1 Sustainable Management

The idea of sustainable development was first presented in an international
forum on the World Conservation Strategy, by the International Union for the
Conservation of Nature (IUCN 1980). The term became popular following the
1987 report “Our Common Future” of the World Commission on Environment
and Development (WCED) and has been accepted by most development
organizations as the mainstream approach to sustainable development.

The word sustainable describes actions that can continue indefinitely.

Sustainable development was defined by WCED as development that “meets the
needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to
meet their own needs” or by the UK Department of the Environment (1988) as
“development without destruction”. Sustainable management of natural
resources could therefore be described as managing natural resources to provide
food, energy and raw materials to all people, without compromising future
generations, and without leaving a wasteland of environmental degradation.
Sustainable management considers development as a continuous process in
which resources must be managed or stewarded to be regenerated for future
generations.

The WCED report presented strategies for sustained development. It recognized

three major challenges to achieving sustained development. These were social,
institutional, and political in nature. It emphasized that integration of both
economic and ecological systems is vital to the success of sustained
development. The report suggested that exploitation and depletion of natural
resources should be at a rate that is not greater than the rate at which they can
be replenished naturally, allowing the environment to recover so that there are
sufficient raw materials in the future. It emphasized that industry must play a
part in replacing resources and restoring the environment. It also suggested that
ministries of finance and environment should not be isolated, but both should
share the responsibilities of development programmes. According to the report,
poverty, resource depletion and environmental stress arise from disparities in
economic and political power. For this reason, global sustainable development
can only be achieved by major changes in management of the planet which
require a new way of thinking. One of the essential requirements to achieving
sustainable development suggested by the report is the wide participation of the
public in decision making and management of resources.

126 Chapter 10
 Natural Resources

In Cambodia there are many environmental issues which are often described in a
way which can suggest a clear solution: overlogging, habitat destruction, soil
erosion, flooding, overfishing, water pollution, slash and burn agriculture, etc.
However, these are often only small parts of larger, very complex problems
(referred to as ‘metaproblems’) which all countries face. By their nature these
complex metaproblems are characterized by:
• uncertainty about the nature of the problems and the results of action,
• inconsistent and poorly-defined preferences and values of the various
‘stakeholders’ 1, and
• complex networks of people with different interests in resolving the
problem.”

In other words, those who try to help resolve environmental issues find that the
problem, or set of problems:
• is often quite different from what they expected,
• that other reasonable and honest people can define the problem differently,
• that usually no single agency or person has the clear authority or power to
resolve it,
• that the problems change even as they are addressed or as more information
is collected,
• that powerful forces may not want them resolved, – etc.
We cannot manage ‘the environment’ but we can try to play a role in managing
people to address the issues. Environmental policy or environmental management
is about dealing with complexity, both here in Cambodia and beyond.

This book is meant to be a reference to environmental concepts and issues in

Cambodia. When reading individual chapters, it is helpful to remember that all of
the issues discussed are inter-related. Environmental problems involve inevitable
change as circumstances change. Therefore there will be unavoidable changes in
the appropriate responses to the changing problem. Whether we are private
citizens or officials of the government, we should act in ways which prevent or
avoid or repair damage to environmental systems or to situations that put
environmental systems at risk.

How do we do this? It is extremely difficult to understand new, difficult and

often unprecedented problems. It is even more difficult knowing how to deal
with them. Therefore, it may help to have a set of broad, consistent guidelines,
which can help you to better understand the issues and also possible steps

1
“Stakeholders’ are all the people (government, companies, military, NGOs, villagers, etc.) who are
affected by the development or destruction of a resource. Stakeholders are discussed in Chapters
29 and 30.
Chapter 10 127
Environment: ETAP Reference Guide Book

toward solutions. Listed below is one possible such set of principles or rules for
thinking about, and dealing with, complex environmental issues in a fair and
ethical way.
Principles of Environmental Management

Principle Explanation
A real equity Always try to treat each area (or locality) fairly with an equal
opportunity to avoid environmental damage. Local needs and
conditions should be served as appropriate.
Intergenerationa Current activities should not foreclose (destroy?) the options of the
l equity future.
Duty of care This is the duty to think through the likely consequences of actions to
avoid foreseeable adverse consequences (negative results?).
Empowerment People should be given responsibility and control over their own lives;
governments should establish policies (and laws )and maintain
frameworks which enable them to do so.
Polluter pays Those who cause environmental damage should be liable for the c o s t s
principle which they impose on others. Subsequent beneficiaries should share
the burden of liability.
Precautionary Do not wait until damage is overwhelming or certain before taking
principle action to protect environmental systems. Uncertainty is typical within
environmental science. Given scientific ignorance, prudent pessimism
should be favored over hazardous optimism.
Procedural Management decisions should be transparent, assuring that all are dealt
equity with fairly, equally and with respect.
Social learning This is a process of continual consultation. Be humble and learn form
others, especially those in immediate and long-term contact with the
particular environmental situation being considered.
Scale The scale at which a problem is tackled should be appropriate to the
nature of the problem and at the lowest effective level, i.e. close to
conditions on the ground.
Sustainability Ecological sustainability is the primary goal of environmental policy
and management. Social, cultural, and economic demands should be met
in a way, which does not threaten the long-term sustainability of the
environmental system.

Chapters 11-19 focus on specific natural resources and introduce some

approaches to community based management. Chapters 20 – 28 deal with
environmental problems, Chapter 29 focuses on Public Participation and Chapter
30 on Community Based Management.

128 Chapter 10
 Natural Resources

Chapter 10 ..........................................................................................125
Natural Resources ................................................................................125
10.1 Resources ..............................................................................125
10.2 Management of Natural Resources .............................................126
10.2.1 Sustainable Management .........................................................126
Principles of Environmental Management ..............................................128

Chapter 10 129
 Water Resources

Chapter 11

Water Resources

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Chapter 11 129
11.1 Introduction
Water is one of the most basic of human needs. Without water, life could not exist. A healthy person
can survive for six weeks without food, but for only a few days without water. Water is a renewable
resource that is constantly passing through the hydrological cycle. Water cannot be depleted unless
humans use and contaminate it faster than it is cleaned up by chemical or natural processes. This
chapter examines the properties of water, the uses of water, the distribution and supply of water, the
management of water in Cambodia and its use for irrigation, transport and hydroelectric power
production.

Figure 11.1 Hydrological Cycle (Pickering, 1994)

11.1.1 Properties of Water

Water covers most of the Earth’s surface and makes up a large proportion of most living organisms.
Water has a number of unusual properties which are essential to living organisms. The unique
properties of water result from the structure of the water molecule (H2 O). The atom of oxygen is
bonded to two atoms of hydrogen. The molecule is electrically charged, and the water molecules attach
to one another by hydrogen bonds. It is this structure that gives water the properties vital to life.

1. Water sticks to itself and to other substances. It is the surface tension of water
that makes the surface of water appear to be covered by a skin. The electrically
charged molecules of water also stick to any electrically charged surface. This
ability to stick accounts for water’s ability to move upwards in small spaces,
such as in soil.

2. Water is a solvent. More things dissolve in water than in any other liquid. When
a substance dissolves, its molecules separate from one another and mix with
molecules of the solvent. Because water is electrically charged, it dissolves other
electrically charged molecules such as salts, but it does not dissolve substances
that are not electrically charged (e.g. oil). It is this property that means that
water dissolves sulfur dioxide in the air to form acid rain, but an oil spill floats
on water and does not mix with it.
 Figure 11.2 Water Molecule (Arms, 1990)

3. Water is a liquid within the temperature ranges that are most suited for life
processes. The boiling point is 100°C and the freezing point is 0°C under
standard atmospheric pressure (760 mm of mercury).

4. Liquid water has a very high heat capacity, which means that it can absorb and
release a great quantity of heat. Therefore water is an excellent temperature
regulator, e.g. water in the blood supply regulates the temperature of the delicate
human brain within a narrow margin within which the human brain can survive;
water is also used to regulate the temperature of car engines.

5. Water is a good evaporative coolant. It takes a lot of energy to make liquid water
become a gas (water vapor). Water molecules carry a lot of heat energy away
with them (a very high heat of vaporization). So when water evaporates from a
body, it cools the body. We use enormous quantities of water as coolants in
industrial processes.

6. Liquid water is the only compound that expands rather than contracts when it
freezes. The low density of ice is the reason why large amounts of ice (icebergs)
float. In temperate climates, this means that ice floats on top of the water,
forming an insulation layer between the water and the cold air above. This slows
the formation of more ice and so protects organisms living below the ice from
freezing.
11.2 Worldwide Distribution and Uses of Water
There is water everywhere, but most of it is not available for use as drinking water. Only 3% of the
world’s water supply is available as freshwater; 97% is saltwater in the oceans and 2.997% of the
freshwater is frozen in the polar ice-caps or so far below the ground that it can not be reached. Only
0.003% is easily available in lakes, soil moisture, exploitable groundwater, atmospheric vapor and
rivers where it is easy to access. This is still a huge amount of water per person. The problem, as with
many other natural resources, is that water is unevenly distributed. Some people suffer from water
shortages and some from floods. In Cambodia some provinces suffer from both these problems within
one year.

Figure 11.3 Projected water available per person per year (2000)( Gaia Atlas 1993)

11.2.1 Water Uses

11.2.1.1 Domestic
Domestic consumption includes water for drinking, washing, cooking and waste disposal. In some
towns and cities in Cambodia water is pumped to private houses for domestic use but in most of the
country people collect water from wells, streams, rivers and ponds. People in developed countries use
much more water per capita for domestic use than do people in developing countries.

11.2.1.2 Agriculture
Farming systems are strongly influenced by water supply. Successful and sustainable agricultural
systems have adapted to natural variations in water availability. During the twentieth century
agricultural demands for water - through irrigation - have increased greatly. Irrigated water now
accounts for about 70% of freshwater consumption worldwide and over 90% in some countries.
Irrigation is dealt with in section 11.5

11.2.1.3 Industry
The location of most manufacturing industry throughout the world has been strongly influenced by the
availability of water. Water may be required as a raw material, for cleaning, for cooling of machinery
or for waste disposal.

11.2.1.4 Energy
The power of flowing and falling water can be used to generate electricity - hydro power. Before the
discovery of coal, oil and gas, water power was very important. Now as the demand for electricity
increases and pollution from fossil fuels becomes a major problem, hydro power is seen as an
alternative source of power. See section 11.6 for focus on dams.
Water in the oceans can also be used in electricity generation in the form of wave and tidal power.
Within 30° latitude of the equator a permanent thermocline (zone of uniform temperature) exists in the
ocean with a difference of about 20°C between the surface and the lower water. This difference in
temperature has been used experimentally to generate energy and is known as Ocean Thermal Energy
Conversion (OTEC).

Underground water in contact with hot rocks is used to generate geothermal energy in volcanically
active countries. In some areas the heated water rises to the surface and it can be used to generate
electricity. Figure 11.4 shows how rainwater infiltrates deep into the earth where it is heated before
rising to the surface.

Fig. 11.4 Rainwater infiltrates the soil and moves deep into the earth where it is heated.

11.2.1.5 Transport
Water transport is a very economical way of moving large heavy goods over long distances. Large
ships carry goods all over the world crossing seas and oceans. In Cambodia water transport on the
Tonle Sap and Mekong are extremely important for the movement of people and freight.

11.2.1.6 Recreation & Tourism

Lakes and coastlines are attractive to tourists of all ages. In Cambodia the Tonle Sap lake has great
potential for tourism due to the location of the Angkor Temples on its northern shores and the range of
water birds that breed in certain areas of the lake, as well as the aesthetic quality of the lake.

Figure 11.5 Boats at Takeo carrying goods to and from Vietnam

11.3 Sources of Water
Freshwater used by humans comes from two sources: surface water and groundwater. Of all the water
that falls on the earth as rain or snow, about one third runs off the surface into streams, rivers and lakes.
Another third evaporates or is absorbed by plants, and the rest percolates down through the soil and
rocks to form groundwater.

11.3.1 Surface Water

Precipitation that does not infiltrate the ground or return to the atmosphere by evaporation or
transpiration is called surface water. It flows in the streams, lakes, wetlands, ponds and reservoirs (e.g.
the Mekong river).

Figure 11.6 Surface run-off into surface waters, ground infiltration into aquifers,
and evaporation and transpiration into the atmosphere.

Water flowing off the land into rivers and streams is called surface run-off. The areas of land that are
drained by runoff water into rivers, streams or lakes are known as watersheds or drainage basins.

About 70% of the fresh water reaching the world’s rivers comes from rain and melted snow, with the
rest coming from groundwater discharge. Watershed management is extremely important as
developments within the watershed, particularly deforestation or land conversion to plantations, can
cause significant changes in the patterns of run-off. These developments can result in higher surface
runoff rates and flooding in wet seasons and low flow or dried-up rivers in the dry seasons. Cambodia’s
surface freshwater is dealt with in Chapter 8.
11.3.2 Groundwater and Associated Problems
Some precipitation infiltrates the ground and fills spaces or cracks (pores) in soil and rock in the earth’s
crust. Water in these pores and cracks beneath the earth’s surface is known as groundwater. About
95% of the world’s unfrozen freshwater exists as groundwater.

The area below the ground where all the soil and rock pores are filled by groundwater is called the zone
of saturation. The water table is the upper surface of the zone of saturation. It divides the saturated soil
and rock where all the available pores have been filled from the unsaturated rock and soil, where the
pores can still absorb more water.

Figure11.7 The water table and its relationship with lakes, swamps, springs and wells

The ability of soil or rock to hold water depends on its porosity and permeability. Porous, water
saturated layers of sand, gravel, or bedrock that can release a large amount of water easily are called
aquifers. Most aquifers are recharged by precipitation, which percolates downward through soil and
rock. Any area of land that allows water to pass through it into an aquifer is called a recharge area.

Aquifers whose contents are replaced by surface water directly above them are unconfined aquifers. A
confined aquifer is a groundwater storage area between impermeable layers of rock. The water in a
confined aquifer is trapped and often under pressure. If a well is dug, the resultant release of pressure
causes the water to rise to a level higher than the top of the aquifer. Such a well is known as an
Artesian well, and requires little or no pumping to raise the water to the surface.

Groundwater moves from a recharge area through an aquifer and out into a discharge area as part of the
hydrological cycle. Discharge areas can be rivers, streams, lakes, springs, and oceans. The recharge of
confined aquifers is particularly slow because the recharge area may be far away.

Most groundwater is considered a nonrenewable resource, because it has taken millions of years to
accumulate, and usually only a small proportion of it replaced each year from rainfall.
 Fig. 11.8 The Groundwater System

11.3.2.1 Wells and Springs

Water at the bottom of an aquifer is under pressure and will move toward an area of lower pressure,
such as an outlet to the surface of the land, even if it must flow upward to do so. The water can never
rise to a level higher than the highest point of the water table unless it is being pumped up. Wells are
then a means of extracting water from an aquifer. A spring is a natural flow of groundwater onto the
surface of the earth.

A deep well will eventually strike an aquifer in most parts of the world. But deep wells are expensive to
bore and require large pumps. In Cambodia the majority of wells have a maximum depth of 50m.

In most aquifers, groundwater moves at only 1 to 2 meters per day. This flow rate indicates the
maximum sustainable yield that can be removed from an aquifer without affecting the aquifer. If water
is removed from an aquifer faster than it is replaced by natural processes, the water table in a large area
may sink. This makes the water more expensive to extract, and it may cause the ground above the
aquifer to sink (subside). Bangkok is suffering from gradual subsidence because water is being
removed from the aquifer beneath it, faster than it is being replaced. An area of about 250 km2 of
eastern Bangkok has subsided by 0.5 m and continues to do so at a rate of 10 cm / yr.
Fig. 11.9 A working well pump and a deep well being drilled in Kompong Chhnang
(EU/PRASAC1)

Water pollution is dealt with in Chapter 23, but here we will look briefly at the problem of groundwater
pollution. Groundwater can be contaminated by sea water, and by sewage and chemical waste.

11.3.2.2 Sea Water Contamination

Fig. 11.10 Salt water intrusion into an aquifer caused by over extraction of groundwater
(Raven et al. 1993)
Freshwater is less dense than sea water, so in an aquifer on the coast or an island, freshwater from
rainfall lies on top of saltwater that percolates in from the sea. If too much water is removed from such
an aquifer, the salt water underneath will rise and may easily contaminate wells and irrigation systems.

11.3.2.3 Sewage and chemical Waste

Groundwater from fine, sandy materials is normally very clean because the fine particles act as filters
for biological impurities such as bacteria. However, many chemical pollutants, such as industrial
wastes, are not removed from groundwater by filtration of this kind.
When sewage or chemical wastes are dumped untreated on the ground, if the underlying rock is
permeable, it is likely that the ground water will be contaminated. Pesticides and other chemicals have
been detected in many wells in developed and developing countries. Treating or cleaning up
contaminated groundwater is very expensive.

11.3.2.4 Groundwater Resources of Cambodia

No detailed investigation of the national groundwater resources of Cambodia has been carried out.
Some information is available from two studies carried out by the US Geological Survey in 1958 and
1977. More recent information is available from NGOs and IOs who have drilled more than 8,000
wells in Cambodia since the 1980s. Up until now, no groundwater sources of sufficient potential for
large scale irrigation have been identified.

The environmental threats to groundwater in Cambodia are the same as anywhere else in the world: sea
water or saline intrusion into the aquifer, contamination from pesticides and other chemicals, and land
subsidence due to over pumping.
11.3.3 Water Resource Problems
Water resource problems fall into three categories: too much, too little and quality or contamination (see
Chapter 23, Water Pollution). Floods (too much water) and droughts (too little water) are part of natural
climatic variations and cannot be prevented. Human activities sometimes increase the effects of flooding or
drought when they are based on environmentally unsound decisions.

11.3.3.1 Floods
Annual flooding of certain rivers, including the Mekong, is very important as the floods deposit a layer of
sediment that is rich in organic matter. However, flooding has become more destructive in recent times
because of human activities, such as the removal of water-absorbing plant cover from the soil. Also, the
construction of buildings on flood plains increases the likelihood of floods and flood damage.

When an area is developed for human use, much of the water-absorbing plant cover is removed. Buildings
and paved roads do not absorb water, so run-off increases. People who build homes or businesses on the
flood plain of a river are likely to experience flooding at some point.

Figure 11.11 Surface run-off increases in urban areas and when vegetation is removed in
rural areas (Raven et al., 1993)

11.3.3.2 Drought
Forty percent of the world’s population lives in dry regions of world known as arid or semi-arid lands,
mainly in Africa and Asia. These people spend substantial amounts of time and effort obtaining water.
Overpopulation in these regions intensifies the problem of water shortage. The need for food means that
people remove the natural plant cover to grow crops and their animals overgraze the small amount of plant
cover. As a result, when the rains do come, runoff is greater as the soil cannot absorb the water. This leads
to low crop productivity, and more land is cleared to grow more food, thereby making the problem worse.
11.4 Managing Water Resources
Estimated future global water demand is unlikely to exceed potential global supply for many years, but
the importance of good management of water resources increases each year as agricultural and
industrial water demands increase. Water management is the only way to guarantee both the quantity
and quality of long-term water resources. Activities in water management include investment in wells,
irrigation schemes, water channels, dams, water treatment plants, waste water treatment, demand
management, (which ensures that water is targeted where it is needed), reducing evaporation and
encouraging people to waste less water.

11.4.1 Management of Cambodia’s Water Resources

There are three different ministries, which are responsible for aspects of water supply in Cambodia.
They are the Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy (MIME), the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries (MAFF) and the Ministry of Rural Development (MRD). Also the Ministry of
Environment (MoE) is responsible for assuring water quality.

The Department of Provincial Water Supply (DPWS) of MIME is responsible for water supply in
urban areas, such as main towns in the provinces. However, water supply in Phnom Penh is being
operated and managed by the Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (PWSA), a semi-autonomous state
enterprise under the Governor of Phnom Penh Municipality. The MRD is responsible for overall
development and management of rural water supply systems in the country, but the MAFF is
promoting the development of surface and groundwater for irrigation purposes, even though some of
the wells are being utilized for domestic purposes in rural areas.

11.4.2 Rural Water Supply

Water supply is one of the major activities of the MRD which aims to provide a basic water supply to
the rural community. The Department of Rural Water Supply (DRWS) was established under the
MRD. Before 1993, the Ministry of Health (MOH) was responsible for rural water supply and it
implemented rural water supply projects through the Central Water Base (CWB). The CWB was
transferred to DRWS in 1993. Since 1993 the Royal Government of Cambodia has been implementing
rural water supply programs with the assistance of IOs and NGOs.

In the rural areas of Cambodia, people traditionally resort to rivers, ponds and shallow dug wells for
their domestic water needs. In the rainy season, people mostly use rain water for drinking and cooking.
Water sources usually dry up in the dry season and are also exposed to contamination of human and
animal wastes. This contamination causes high infant mortality and water-borne diseases.

Access to water supply, which is defined as a basic level of service for drinking water requirements
throughout the year, varies significantly by regions of the country. A 1997 report by JICA and the
MRD reported that across all regions of the country, about 5.7 million people in the rural areas lack
access to clean water. With an estimated population growth of 2.8% per annum, approximately 6.9
million people need to be covered by water supply projects by the year 2,000 if the rural population is
to have access to water supply.

Figure 11.12 Water jars and ponds are used for water storage in Cambodia (EU/PRASAC1)
11.4.2.1 Issues Affecting Water Supply in Rural Cambodia
Cambodia has enough water to supply the entire population, yet a lack of clean water is one of the main
problems in the country. Some of the issues affecting the supply of clean water are listed below.

Water Resource Management

• Lack of well-designed water management policy and supporting legislation
• Lack of public participation in the management and conservation of water
resources
• Lack of planning

Operation and Maintenance of Equipment

• Lack of access to spare parts
• Lack of financial resources to repair wells
• Lack of technically skilled manpower
• Lack of local initiative for repair and maintenance

Water Use and Hygiene Education

• Lack of proper understanding of importance of safe water for health

Water Quality and Well Design

• Some villagers feel the water is “unsafe” for their health if there is a taste due to
high content of iron and/or salt.
• Often the wells are not deep enough to ensure an adequate supply of water from
in the dry season.

The use of clean water from the drilled wells by villagers is being promoted by the
MRD. UNICEF and other organizations are working with communities to emphasize the
importance of village operation of wells, maintenance of equipment and the surroundings
of wells, controlled use of water and hygiene education.

11.4.3 Phnom Penh Water Supply

The Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (PPWSA) was established in 1959 and
was given the name in French “La Regie des Eaux de Phnom Penh” by Royal Decree
in 1960. It is a Government owned water supply utility under the direct authority of
Phnom Penh Municipality. Its fundamental obligations are:
• to produce and distribute treated water to satisfy the needs of Phnom Penh’s
population, and
• to generate income to cover operating costs and investments.

Phnom Penh’s water supply system was in poor condition by the end of the Pol Pot
Regime. By 1993, repairs to the three water treatment plants enabled the production
of 75,000 m3 /day.
11.5. Irrigation
Irrigation is the artificial distribution and application of water to agricultural land to
enable crop growth. Any area that experiences long periods without rain needs to
provide water for plant growth. Successful irrigation schemes need to be designed
with the target community’s participation and complete understanding of the
consequences of such schemes.

11.5.1 Irrigation Systems

Irrigation systems are defined as follows:
• Small scale projects are those affecting an area of 500ha o r less - including
construction of weirs, culverts, ponds, dikes, canals, control structures and
wells.
• Medium scale projects are those affecting an area of more than 500 ha such as
large single purpose irrigation systems Medium scale projects are the
responsibility of the Department of Hydrology of MAFF. The Provincial and
District Department of Hydrology offices play a role according to their ability
and are responsible for operation and maintenance of completed systems.
• Large scale projects are multipurpose hydro-electric and irrigation schemes
including large reservoirs and/or dam construction. Large scale projects are the
responsibility of the concerned ministries. See section 11.6 for focus on dams.

Figure 11.13 Canals and small scale dams are constructed for irrigation in Cambodia
(EU/PRASAC1)

Fig.11.14 Dam gates are opened during the flood season when it is the appropriate time to
fill the reservoir with water. The gates are closed when the water starts to recede. The water
is released slowly as water is needed. (EU/PRASAC1)

11.5.2 Community Participation in Irrigation Schemes

Irrigation and drainage works require close cooperation among the benefiting farmers. The
amount, form and extent of the cooperation is different for each scheme and is affected by
many different factors including the size of the scheme. The farmers must agree and work
together to operate the scheme so that it provides benefits to all. In addition, the farmers
must provide the labor and costs for emergency repairs and regular maintenance of the
scheme.

11.5.2.1 Problems Associated with Community Participation in

Irrigation Schemes
According to the 1997 report “Balancing Change - Hydrology Assessment of
Ratanakiri Province” operation and maintenance of schemes has been the source of
many failures in Cambodia. Reasons cited for these failures include:
• Farmers don’t improve or maintain the dikes. Erosion and animal paths cause a
section of the dike to get weaker and lower than the rest. Water rises above the
low spot in the dike and flows over the top, creating a large breach in the dike.

Fig. 11.15 Dam walls eroded by flooding (EU/PRASAC1)

• Farmers don’t arrange to watch the gates during the rains and they are not
opened when required. Floodwater rises above the dike and flows over the top,
creating a large hole in the dike.
• Farmers next to the main canal cut holes in the canal banks to get water to their
fields, using more than their share of water and depriving farmers further away
of water.
• Farmers in higher paddy near the canals let water run through their fields
causing flooding problems to lower-lying farmers.
• The primary canals are too large for the nearby farmers to maintain and the
farmers further from the canal won’t help them because they feel they don’t get
enough water.

11.5.3 Environmental Problems Resulting from Irrigation

11.5.3.1 Waterlogging
Up to 80% of irrigation water may never reach the crops at all. Most is lost to permeable
channels and basins, with significant evaporation also occurring. Seepage of irrigation
water into the soil will lead to a rise in the water table and, if this approaches the soil
surface, waterlogging will occur in the root zone of the crops. Water logging is detrimental
to most major crops because it reduces soil aeration. Rice, however, thrives in such
conditions.
11.5.3.2 Salinisation
Salinisation, or the concentration of soluble salts in the soil, often results from
waterlogging. It is one of the major causes of land degradation and is threatening
around one million hectares of farmland worldwide each year.

Why is salinity a problem?

Through a process called osmosis water will move from a region of low salt
concentration to a region of high salt concentration. In this way plants that grow in a
saline environment lose water to the soil, their cells collapse and they die. Plants
vary in their ability to tolerate salt; some crops are very sensitive to salt while other
crops are tolerant to saline soils.

The death of crops due to soil salinity is an economic disaster for the farmers concerned. In
addition, when crops die, soils become exposed to wind and water, which leads to erosion.
In extreme conditions this may lead to desertification. The presence of the salts themselves
may also break down the structure of clay soils, rendering them vulnerable to erosion.

11.5.3.3 Specific Environmental Issues Relating to Irrigation Works

in Cambodia
Canals constructed during the Pol Pot era affected many natural channels and man-
made irrigation/flood control works. This, in turn, led to changes in water sources in
the vicinity of irrigation schemes. Some of these changes have led to increased
drainage which causes water shortages in higher land and flooding in lower lying
land. Other canals are silted up and serve as rice growing areas during the wet
season.

Fisheries production and yields are said to have declined in some rivers after the
construction of dams and weirs which blocked fish migration and thereby affected
the reproduction cycle. The standing water, tropical climate and plentiful supply of
nutrients are ideal conditions for hyacinth, lotus, and other plants. These conditions
often lead to the eutrophication of the ponds of irrigation schemes. The rapid growth
of these plants results in high oxygen demand through decomposition, and
interference with fisheries and pumping stations.
As more irrigation schemes are repaired or constructed, rice crop production will increase.
It is likely that fertilizer and pesticide use will also increase. Farmer awareness of the
problems associated with agro-chemical use will therefore need to be improved.
11.6 Large Scale Dams and Reservoirs
Construction of dams across streams and rivers is common worldwide. Dams by
their very nature cause reservoirs of water to accumulate behind them. They are
built for various purposes: to prevent floods below the dam, to generate electricity,
and to store water. More than 15% of the world’s surface water is held behind dams.

In large-scale hydropower projects, high dams are built across large rivers to create large
reservoirs. The stored water is then allowed to flow through huge pipes at controlled rates,
spinning turbines and producing electricity. In small scale hydropower projects, a low dam
with no reservoir, or only a small one, is built across a small river or stream. The renewable
natural water flow is used to generate electricity, but electricity production can vary with
seasonal changes in stream flow.

Fig 11.16 Hydroelectric dam - reservoir, embankment and electricity generator

11.6.1 An Example of a Dam

The Yali Falls dam in Vietnam, currently under construction on the Sesan river, will
be Vietnam’s second largest hydropower dam. The dam wall will be 86m high and
1,400m long. The catchment area is 7,455 km2 . The area of the reservoir is to be
64.5 km2 and will have a storage capacity of 1037 million cubic meters of water.
1,500 ha of agricultural land and 1,700 ha of forest will be flooded. A population of
7,400 will be relocated to make way for the dam and the reservoir. The installed
electricity generating capacity will be 700MW of power. The total estimated
construction cost is US$1.025 billion 1 .

1
Data from the Mekong Secretariat and Power Investigation and Design Company, Vietnam, quoted
in Subregional Energy Sector Study for ADB, compiled by Noroconsult International, 1994 and cited
in Watershed Vol.1 No.2 November 1995 - February 1996
 Fig. 11.17 Aerial view of hydroelectric dam (Collier et al. 1996)

11.6.2 The Benefits of Dams

Dams have several human and environmental impacts, both positive and negative.
Some of the benefits include:
• Reducing the danger of flooding downstream by controlling stream flow.
• Providing a controllable supply of water that is available for many uses,
including irrigation.
• Providing electric power from the energy of water flowing through turbines.
• Reservoirs behind large dams can be used for recreation and fishing.

11.6.3 Impacts of Dams on Humans and the Environment

Dams have considerable impacts on the people and the environment at the dam site
and for long distances both upstream and downstream.

Human Impacts of Dams

• Relocation of people to make way for the reservoir, often without adequate
provision for resettlement.
• Problems associated with the resettlement of people in alternative locations, e.g.
problems associated with the movement of indigenous communities from
highland areas to lowland areas which include the need to learn new agricultural
techniques and the lack of resistance to lowland diseases.
• Damming of rivers in tropical areas creates ideal breeding grounds for vectors
of disease, particularly dengue fever and schistosomiasis.
• People downstream of a flood prevention dam may settle in flood prone areas.
• Bitter fights develop between anti-dam and pro-dam members of the
communities.

Environmental Impacts of Dams

• Dams trap sediment, as the velocity and capacity of the rivers is reduced: This
lessens the storage capacity of the reservoir, starves downstream areas of fertile
alluvium and increases the risk of downstream erosion.
• Dams destroy habitats and disrupt ecosystems, for example preventing the
breeding and migration of fish.
• The huge weight of dams and reservoirs can lead to subsidence.
• Reservoirs provide a large surface area from which evaporation takes place
resulting in higher concentrations of dissolved salts and increased soil salinity.
• Reservoirs change local groundwater conditions, which can alter the surface
water drainage characteristics and flow patterns in the areas upstream and
downstream of the reservoir.
• Reservoirs can alter the local climate.

11.6.4 Proposed Dams for Cambodia

The organizations likely to be influential in the development of hydropower in Cambodia
are the Mekong River Commission (MRC), the Cambodian National Mekong Committee
(CNMC) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB). The following map shows some of the
dams on the various rivers that have been proposed for Cambodia.
 Figure 11.18 Some of the proposed dams in Cambodia

11.6.4.1 Issues to be Considered Before Constructing Dams

• The need for detailed up-to-date information on all aspects of the proposed dam
site, including socio-economic and environmental data;
• Detailed knowledge on the role the river plays in freshwater fisheries, e.g. the
Sesan and Sekong rivers are important fish breeding grounds for many of the
fish species of the Mekong and Tonle Sap - any dam that prevents their
migration will have an impact on downstream fisheries production;
• Detailed knowledge on how tropical fish of the Mekong cope with fish ladders;
• Development of communication between local communities and the central
government;
• Detailed studies of the cumulative effect of dams in Cambodia as opposed to
only detailed studies on the impacts of each individual dam;
• Studies which compare the economic, sociological and environmental costs of
dams with the economic, sociological and environmental benefits should be
carried out;
• The destruction of forests and other natural habitats by the flooding of the
reservoir, road construction to the dam site and other infrastructure required for
the transmission of power to cities and towns;
• The location of dams in areas designated as protected areas;
• The relocation of communities to make way for the dams and the impact of this
relocation on both the community and on the area to which they are moved.
11.6.4.2 Problems Associated with Dam Construction in Developing
Countries
• Lack of basic hydrology and geological data;
• Construction not to the standard envisioned in the text books;
• Resettling communities from the dam and reservoir site;
• Land acquisition and reservoir impounding are badly planned;
• Past and future deforestation of the catchment will lead to an early
sedimentation of the live storage in the reservoir;
• Maintenance and monitoring of the dam after completion should not be
expected:
• A lack of public participation in the planning process. Dams are normally built
because the local, regional or state governments think that these dams are
needed. Politicians and planners are listened to first, followed by economists
and engineers. Often the local people are the last people who are heard.

11.6.4.3 Recommendations for Involving Communities

A 1997 paper by the NGO Forum on “The Role of Communities in Hydro-Planning”
set out the following recommendations:
• All documents regarding environmental impact assessments of the proposed
dams should be made available to the communities in a clear, non-technical
format and in appropriate languages;
• Public awareness on hydropower issues should take place;
• Dialogue and discussions between developers and local communities should be
encouraged; and
• Donors should ensure that local communities are properly considered.
11.7 Urban Water Supply
A water system comprises the following components:
• the source of the water;
• the treatment plant;
• the distribution system which takes water from the treatment plant to the water
users;
• the waste water collection system;
• the body of water into which the waste water is disposed.

11.7.1 Water Treatment

Whether water is taken from rivers or from ground water, it must be treated to make
it fit for humans to drink. A summary of the typical water treatment follows:
• Preliminary Screening - removal of large solids such as leaves and twigs
• Storage - suspended solids settle out and uv radiation kills some pathogens
• Screening / micro-straining -water drawn from the reservoir is screened through
fine mesh and micro-strainers to remove most particles and virtually all micro-
organisms.
• Aeration
• Addition of oxygen
• Coagulation - addition of a coagulant to remove the very finest particles such as
clay, metal, oxides, large protein molecules and some micro-organisms. These
particles combine with the coagulant to form flocs.
• Flocculation - water is mixed gently so that the flocs collide to form larger
particles.
• Clarification - the flocs are removed by settlement.
• Filtration - some fine solids that have formed during coagulation are removed by
sand filtration. Water is passed down through beds of fine sand underlain with
coarse gravel. Pipes at the base of the bed drain the filtered water away.
• pH adjustment - the pH of the water will depend on the geology and soils of the
area from which it is extracted, and many may need to be adjusted to a neutral
pH.
• Disinfection - disinfection is required to remove any final pathogens and ensure
that the water remains potable during its journey to the consumer. Three
methods of disinfection are available:
Chlorofication
Ozone
UV radiation
• Softening – water hardness results from dissolved calcium and magnesium salts.
It can be treated bythe addition of calcium carbonate (lime) which converts
soluble salts into insoluble ones which can be removed by sedimentation.
Figure 11.19 Typical water Treatment Process (Open University, 1995)

11.7.2 Waste Water Treatment

In some countries, sewage and liquid waste from industry are not treated. Instead
most waste water is discharged into the nearest river or into waste water lagoons -
large ponds where air, sunlight, and micro-organisms break down wastes, allow
solids to settle out, and kill some disease-causing bacteria. Water normally remains
in a lagoon for 30 days. The water is then treated with chlorine and pumped out for
use by city or farms.

However, in other cities and towns through out the world, water wastes from homes,
factories and businesses flow through a system of sewer pipes to waste water
treatment plants. When sewage reaches a treatment plant, it can undergo up to three
levels of purification, depending on the type of plant and how clean one wants the
water to be. Waste water treatment is similar to drinking water treatment.

Primary sewage treatment is a mechanical process that uses screens to filter out
debris such as sticks stones and pieces of clothing. Suspended solids then settle out.
Secondary sewage treatment is a biological process that uses aerobic bacteria to
remove oxygen-demanding organic wastes. The water then goes to a sedimentation
tank, where most of the suspended solids and micro-organisms settle out as sludge.
Advanced sewage treatment is a series of specialized chemical and physical
processes that lower the quantity of specific pollutants still left after primary and
secondary treatment. Before water is discharged from a sewage treatment plant, it is
disinfected to remove water coloration and kill disease-carrying bacteria and some
but not all viruses.

1 1 .7.2.1 Battambang Sewage Water Treatment Plant

The Chamkar Samroung Sewage Water Treatment Plant was constructed to improve
health and sanitation conditions in Battambang, reduce pollution to the Stung
Sangke, and provide dry season irrigation water. Treatment plant design is based on
treating waste water to meet the WHO standards for fish aquaculture and
unrestricted irrigation. The system’s effluent is to be used for producing fish,
wetland plants, and crop irrigation.

The plant consists of underground pipes which collect sewage and runoff from
15,000 people and 90 hectares of land in Battambang town and a series of ponds
which treat the waste water. The polluted water enters one of two sedimentation
ponds for “primary treatment”. These ponds remove floating debris, large solids and
sediments. Sludge is later removed from the ponds and treated in a sludge drying
bed. After the sludge is treated in the sludge drying bed, it can be used as a
fertilizer. Polluted waters flow from the sedimentation pond to the reservoir pond
for pumping. Polluted water is then pumped to two oxidation ponds in pipes under
the ground. The oxidation ponds reduce biological oxygen demand (BOD), solids,
disease causing organisms, and other pollutants by anaerobic processes and settling
of solids. Therefore the oxidation ponds provide “secondary treatment”. Currently,
March 1998, the treatment plant is not functioning because of a lack of funds.

References and Recommended Further Reading

Allaby, M. 1996. Basics of Environmental Science

Arms, K. 1990. Environmental Science

Beekers, G. 1993. Health Extension Coordinator – SAWA Report

Colier, M., Webb, R.H. and Schmidt, J.C., 1996. Dams and Rivers: Primer of Downstream Effects of
Dams.

IDRC 1995. Chamkar Samroung 1 Sewage Water Treatment Plant

Himel, J. and Nhem, S., 1997. Balancing Change

Kukusai Kogyo Co., Ltd. 1997. The study of groundwater Development in Southern Cambodia –
Progress Report

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

NGO Forum, 1997. Mekong People – The Role of Local Communities in Hydro Planning

Open University, 1995. Unit 7 – Water Supply and Sewage Treatment

Phnom Penh Water Supply, 1996. History and Development Plan 1997-2001 of Phnom Penh Water
Supply

Raven, P., Berg, L. and Johnson, G., 1993. Environment

Titus, D.M. 1997. Chamkar Samroung 1 Sewage Water treatment Plant – Summary of Finances for the
First Two Years of Operation.

UNDP, 1994. First State of the Environment Report

UN, 1990. State of the Environment in Asia and the Pacific – Economic and Social Commission for
Asia and the Pacific

Watershed, Vol. 1 No.2, November 1995 – February 1996. The Legacy of Savage Development:
Colonialisation of Vietnam’s Central Highlands
Environment: ETAP Reference Guide Book

Chapter 12

Soil Resources

12.1 Introduction
Soil is one of the earth’s basic resources. Without it, most of the life on earth could not exist.
Soil is a mixture of air, water, mineral salts, weathered minerals, organic matter and living
organisms.

Figure 12.1 Labansiek soil, Kompong Cham Province (Hopkins)

12.1.1 Why Consider Soils?

Consideration of soils with regard to land use is an important aspect of environmental work.
1. Land capability or the ability of land to support a particular activity is a major
consideration for activities such as growing of rice and other crops, urbanization and
forestry.
2. Soils are important in considering waste disposal as the interactions of soil, water and
underlying rock determines the land’s suitability for receiving waste materials.
3. Soils are useful in studying environmental dynamics of natural hazards such as
earthquakes and flooding.
4. Soils are an important tool used in establishing the chronology of earth’s materials.
5. Soil provides the basis by which the world can feed itself.

12.2 Development of Soil

Soils are formed through the interactions of rock with the climate, the biotic factors and the
hydrological cycle of an area. The first step in the process of soil formation is the physical and
chemical breakdown of rocks which is called weathering. Physical weathering results from
the influence of moving water, the effect of wind, heat and biological factors on the parent
rock and freeze-melt processes. Chemical weathering occurs when water interacts with the
various minerals making up the rock, resulting in a modified product.
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The parent material from which soil is formed can be underlying rock or deposits transported
from a different location by water or gravitational action. The transport of sediment/soil by
water (e.g. Mekong River) is known as alluviation. The
transport of sediment/soil by gravitational action is
known as colluviation. Soils formed in situ from
underlying parent rock (i.e. remaining at or near the site
of their parent material) such as sandstones, shales,
volcanic basalts and limestone can be seen in Cambodia
today. Many soils in the Northeast of Cambodia were
formed as a result of the weathering of volcanic material.
In the lowland plains of Cambodia soils were (and
continue to be) formed as a consequence of soil
transportation by water in the Mekong and Tonle Sap
rivers.
Figure 12.2 Soil depth (Waugh and Bushell, 1993)

12.2.1 Soil Horizons

Soils are a function of climate, topography, parent
material, time and organic activity. Vertical and
horizontal movements of materials in soil systems
result in distinct soil layers or soil horizons. A
generalized soil profile consists of an O layer on
the surface which is usually rich in organic matter.
Plant waste, including dead leaves and stems,
accumulates in the O-horizon and gradually
decays. Underneath the O layer is the A layer
which is dark in color and is rich in decomposed
organic material. The A-horizon can be nutrient
poor due to the leaching of many nutrients to
deeper layers. The B horizon underlies the A
horizon and tends to be enriched by nutrients that
are leached from the layers above it. The B-
horizon is normally rich in iron and aluminum
compounds. Beneath the B- horizon is the C layer
or horizon which consists of partially weathered
pieces of parent rock The C-horizon is below the
reach of most roots and is often saturated with
groundwater.
Fig. 12.3 Generalized soil profile
(Tyler Miller, 1992)

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12.2.2 Soil Texture

The texture of the soil depends on the relative proportion of sand, silt and clay particles. The
average sizes of these various particles are given in Table 12.1. Soil texture is important as it
affects the structure, and the nutrient and water availability in a soil. Sandy soils have a larger
pore space and therefore drain more easily than clay soils. Sandy soils feel gritty and do not
stick together if you try to roll it into a ball. Clay is sticky and rolls easily into a ball. The
texture of silt lies between clay and sand, sticking together quite well. The texture of a soil is
important in determining the suitability of a soil to a particular use. Figure 12.4 shows soil in
Kompong Chnnang which is very sandy.

TYPE OF PARTICLE SIZE OF PARTICLES (mm)

STONES > 2.0
SAND 0.02-2.0
SILT 0.002-O.02
CLAY <0.002
Table 12.1 Soil Texture

Figure 12.4 Poor textured sandy soil produces less than one tonne of rice per hectare in Kompong
Chhnang Province

12.2.3 Soil Structure

Soil structure describes the aggregation (arrangement) of the soil particles. This influences the
drainage and the ability of plant roots to penetrate the soil. Soil structure is influenced by land
use; e.g. extensive growing of the same crop in the same area leads to a depletion of organic
matter in the soil. This loss of organic matter can result in low crop yields and reduces the
efficiency of certain types of fertilizer applied to crops. Plant cover serves to protect the soil
structure and it reduces erosion, e.g. through reducing water runoff after heavy rainfall.

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Fig.12.5 Soil structure damage caused by rain on bare soils. Plant cover serves to protect the soil
structure and it reduces erosion e.g. through reducing water runoff after heavy rainfall (Dupriez, 1988).

12.2.4 Soil Organisms

A spoonful of soil may contain millions of soil organisms depending on it’s fertility. The soil
ecosystem is extremely diverse ranging from bacteria and fungi to worms and insects to plant
roots and animals such as rats, snakes. These living organisms interact in complex food webs.
When these organisms die they decay and contribute to the nutrient cycle in the ecosystem.
Soil microorganisms decompose plant remains to form humus, which in turn increases the
water and nutrient holding capacities of a soil.

Figure 12.6 Soil Organisms (Tyler Miller, 1992)

12.2.5 Nutrient Recycling

In a balanced ecosystem, the relationship between soil and the organisms that live in and on it
ensures soil fertility. In Chapter 3, it was explained that essential nutrients such as nitrogen
and phosphorous are cycled from the soil to organisms and back again to the soil.
Microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi decompose plant and animal detritus and wastes,
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releasing nutrients to the soil to be used again. Although leaching causes some minerals to be
lost from the soil ecosystem to groundwater, the weathering of the parent rock replaces much
or all of these in time. Soil nutrient recycling is illustrated in Figure 12.7.

12.2.6 Soil acidity

The pH of most soils range between 4 and 8. Soil pH affects the plants and other organisms
living in the soil. Plants are affected by various nutrient interactions which are a function of
pH. For example at low pH (acidic soil) iron becomes more soluble but at the same low pH
phosphorous, a key nutrient for plant growth, is less soluble resulting in a phosphate
deficiency which is a major limitation to plant growth. In Cambodia there are many acid soils
in which potassium and phosphorous deficiencies are a major limiting factor to crop
production. The optimum soil pH for most plant growth is 6.5-7.5 because within this range
most nutrients needed by plants are available.

Figure 12.7 Soil Nutrient Recycling (Tyler Miller, 1992)

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12.3 Soil Types

Variations in climate, vegetation, parent rock, topography, and soil age result in many soil
types that differ in color, depth, acidity and other properties. Soil classification is useful in the
development of appropriate management strategies for soils in agricultural production. The
subject of soil classification is complex particularly because there are many soil classification
systems.

12.3.1 Soil Classification in Cambodia

The most well known classification of Cambodia’s soils is that presented by Crocker in 1962.
Sixteen soil types are recognized in this study. Crocker describes the geologic origin of each
of the soils and the major factors that have influenced soil development in the country as well
as the general characteristics of the 16 soil types.

A 1997 booklet by IRRI “The Soils Used for Rice Production in Cambodia” divides
Cambodian soils into ten groups and gives details on the occurrence, description, profiles, and
management recommendations for each of the soil groups. The subject of soil classification is
complex and cannot be dealt with in detail here.

12.4 Soil Problems

The major soil problems globally are soil erosion, nutrient depletion, laterization, and soil
contamination by excess salts, water and chemicals. Human activities play a major part in
causing soil problems.

12.4.1 Soil Erosion

Water, ice, wind and other climatic agents promote soil erosion or the removal of soil from its
origin. Erosion occurs when rainfall loosens soil particles which are then vulnerable to
flowing water which can transport the soil away.

Figure 12.8 Soil erosio n (Waugh and Bushell, 1993)

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Erosion causes loss of fertility of soil as essential minerals are transported elsewhere. These
losses result in a reduction in agricultural productivity which then requires the addition of
inorganic fertilizer to the land to compensate for this depletion of nutrients. Poor land
management also results in soil erosion. Cutting of forests, construction, and other human
activities reduces vegetation cover which protects the soil from sun, rain, wind and moving
water, and as a result, the soil is eroded. Vegetation on the ground reduces the impact of rain
(Figure 12.5) and also binds or consolidates soil to an extent that it will not translocate easily.
Soil erosion results in increased sedimentation of rivers and lakes which has an impact on
water quality and subsequently populations of aquatic organisms including fish. The rate at
which soil is eroded from various types of vegetation cover is illustrated in Figure 12.9.

12.4.2 Mineral Depletion

In a natural ecosystem, essential nutrients and minerals cycle from the soil to living organisms
and back to the soil when the organism dies. Agricultural systems disrupt this natural cycle.
For example in Cambodia just under 200,000 hectares of land are under rice cultivation. In
this system much of the plant material (straw and grain) that contains minerals and organic
matter is removed at harvest time. As a result no nutrients are given back to the soil and over
time much of the soil loses a considerable proportion of its fertility.

The soils found in tropical forests are nutrient poor because most of the nutrients are stored in
the vegetation that lies on top of the soil. Any minerals that are released as dead organisms
decay in the soil are quickly absorbed by plants roots and fungi. If this did not occur heavy
rain would quickly leach the nutrients away. If the forest is cleared, its efficient nutrient
recycling is disrupted. Removal of the vegetation allows minerals to leach out of the system
because they are not bound up in the soil. Crops can be grown on these soils for only a few
years before the minerals are depleted. If cultivation is abandoned, a secondary forest may
develop, but it will not be as biologically diverse as the primary forest. If the secondary forest
is cleared again for cultivation, the soil becomes even more depleted. Eventually, only a few
species of plants are capable of growing on the soil.

Fig 12.9 Generalized soil losses from various types of vegetation cover (Waugh and Bushell 1993).

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12.4.3 Laterization of Tropical Soils

Laterization is a process that produces a rock-hard soil. Laterized soil is so hard that in some
areas it is cut into blocks, allowed to dry and used for building. Laterite is a red/yellow color
because of the presence of iron and aluminum compounds which are not easily leached with
the other minerals. Large areas of laterized soils, which are often called “red deserts”, are
common in India and Southeast Asia.

12.4.4 Salinization
Irrigation water contains dissolved salts. In dry climates, much of the water used for irrigation
evaporates, leaving behind high concentrations of salts, such as sodium chloride, in the
topsoil. The accumulation of salts in the top soil is called salinization. See chapter 11, section
5 for more details on salinization and waterlogging.

12.5 Conserving Soil fertility

Soil conservation involves using various methods to reduce soil erosion, to prevent depletion
of soil nutrients and to restore nutrients already lost by erosion, leaching and excessive crop
harvesting. Most methods used to control soil erosion involve keeping the soil covered with
vegetation. Figure 12.10 illustrates the link between poor soil cover and erosion.

Figure 12.10 Erosion and the link to crop cover (a) poor cover, (b) good cover (Dupriez
1988)

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12.5.1 Maintaining Vegetation Cover

When land is used for agricultural purposes, there are a number of different farming systems
that can be adopted to maintain soil cover. These include crop rotation, intensive planting and
agroforestry. When farmers burn off after harvesting, the soil is exposed .

Figure 12.11 Burning off of rice crop residue leaves the soil exposed

12.5.1.1 Crop Rotation

Different plants have varying root depths and can therefore extract nutrients from different
physical locations in the soil. Some plants also absorb different nutrients at different rates
because of the bacteria that inhabit the roots. The cultivation of different plants in the same
field or garden from season to season does not over burden the soil. Each type of plant takes
away something from the soil, but a good rotation incorporates plants that give something
back to the soil. By rotating plants from season to season, the soil is allowed to rest from one
type of plant while it benefits from another plant. Crop rotation enables the soil to ‘rest’
without keeping it idle.

12.5.1.2 Agroforestry
Trees, shrubs and other crops can be planted in such a way that a multistoried
cropping pattern is achieved. This allows various crops to grow in a limited space
without competing with each other. The species in the upper layer form a protective
canopy against sun and heavy
rains. The leaves from the trees
act as a green manure. Weed
growth is also controlled through
shading by the upper canopy
level. This integrated cropping
system is known as agroforestry.

Fig. 12.12 Pineapples growing

between trees in Kompong Chhnang

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12.5.2 Fertilizers
Fertilizers are either organic or inorganic. Organic fertilizers include natural
materials such as animal manure, crop residues and compost. Composition of
organic fertilizers vary and the nutrients become available to plants only as the
organic material decomposes, therefore they tend to be slow acting. Inorganic
fertilizers are manufactured from chemical compounds and therefore their exact
composition is known. They can be immediately available to plants provided they
are not leached from the soil.

Inorganic fertilizers are less ecologically sustainable than organic fertilizers because
they are easily leached into groundwater and transported by surface runoff, causing
pollution. The structure of organic fertilizers adds to the water-holding capacity of
the soil, which inorganic fertilizers do not do. Manure, crop residues and compost
also have an influence on the types of organisms that live in the soil and many of
which have positive impacts on the soil.

12.6 Conclusion
As Cambodia increases the intensity of rice production, clears forests and replaces
the forests with palm oil, rubber and cashew plantations, soil conservation is
extremely important to ensure that the production capacity of the soils is not lost
through erosion, leaching or laterization.

References and Recommended Reading

Allaby, M. 1996. Basics of Environmental Science

Arms, K. 1990. Environmental Science

Byrne, K. 1997. Environmental Science – University of Bath Science 16 - 19

Chleq, J.L. and Dupriez, H., 1988. Land and Life – Vanishing Land and Water: Soil and
Water Conservation in Dry Lands.

Crocker, C.D. 1962. Exploratory Survey of The Soils of Cambodia

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

Raven, P., Berg, L. and Johnson, G., 1993. Environment

Waugh and Bushell, 1993.

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Chapter 13

Land Use and Land Tenure

13.1 Introduction
The land’s surface is an extremely important resource:
• it provides land for forests and other natural ecosystems which are vital for
photosynthesis and as animal and plant habitats;
• it provides crop or farmland for production of food, rubber, fiber and other
commodities;
• it allows us to build villages, towns, cities, roads, railways and other
communication links;
• it is below the surface of land that mineral resources and fossil fuels are found;
• it acts as a storage site for flood waters (in wetlands) and also for the vast
quantities of solid waste that humans dispose of everyday;
• land resources provide areas for recreation;
• sink for waste disposal
• source of minerals, fuel, etc.

Human activities are continuously changing and affecting land and the landscape. The
construction of cities, towns, roads, and the creation of quarries, pits, ponds, spoil heaps,
terraces, embankments, dykes, canals, reservoirs, landfills, and areas of subsidence are
amongst the most visible changes. War also causes considerable landscape change.
Geomorphologists, (scientists who study the characteristics, origin and development of
landscapes) consider humans as an important land-forming agent. Many consider that for
large regions of the world (such as the Sahara desert) humans are an important factor in
contributing to the landscapes seen today.

The rapidly increasing world population has placed great demands on the available living
space in many countries. Urbanization has led to an increase in the size of human settlements
at an unprecedented rate. The pressure for land has become so great in some regions that new
land has been created by reclamation of coastal areas and wetlands. Such reclamation often
upsets the balance of erosion and deposition of sediment, as well as all the ecological
processes of the original habitats. In other countries, business interests take precedence over
small-scale farmers, forcing many subsistence farmers to give up their land to be replaced by
industries or commercial farmers which require skilled or semi-skilled workers. The
“unskilled” land-less farmers then have no option but to move to urban areas where they join
thousands of others trying to earn a living. This in turn gives rise to many of the urban
problems.

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13.2 Land Use Decisions

Use of land and decisions governing land use are extremely important. Many decisions are
irreversible and may have major implications for future generations. Desertification, land
zoned as unsafe as a result of nuclear accidents, and landfills are examples of how or misuse
of land by one generation for a particular purpose may have major negative implications for
future generations.

Bad land management practices, poor farming techniques, deforestation and the degradation
of vegetation by past generations in Africa and other parts of the world (particularly near the
margins of deserts), have caused once fertile vegetated land to become barren in a process
called ‘desertification’. Desertification and its associated problems are devastating many parts
of the world, especially developing countries. These include the desert margins of the Sahara,
the Gobi desert in China and the Kalahahri desert in Southern Africa. The margins of these
deserts have advanced as much as 100 km in recent decades. Many governments continue to
promote practices similar to those that caused desertification in other countries, in the name of
development. Decisions by today’s generations to continue such activities as deforestation
and poor farming practices will have major implications on land use options for future
generations.

Decisions to use particular areas of land for industrial development also have major
implications for present and future generations. The nuclear industry shows the clearest
examples of how decisions to use land for one purpose, may render it unsafe for use by
humans. The nuclear industry has been the subject of much debate since the 1950s. In the
early days, the construction of nuclear power stations and the disposal of nuclear waste were
not considered major issues. However, since the 1970s concern has grown over the use of
nuclear energy and the production of nuclear waste and its disposal. Justification for such
concern peaked with the Chernobyl accident in Ukraine in 1986. Large amounts of nuclear
fallout that spread across much of northern Europe and the former Soviet Union were
released. A 30 km radius uninhabitable exclusion zone still remains around Chernobyl. In this
and the next century the land around Chernobyl will remain unsafe for use by humans.

The amount of waste generated in the world’s economically developed countries is enormous.
Landfill techniques are the main method for disposal of waste in developed countries. One of
the disadvantages of landfills is that hazardous fumes, solids and liquids are produced from
the buried waste. Rain percolating down through the site may drain out as a polluted leachate
contaminating local ground and surface water supplies. In some countries this has resulted in
the accumulation of contaminated sites, which are not suitable for development. Therefore it
is very important to choose potential solid waste disposal sites/landfills carefully.

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13.3 Land Use in Cambodia

The total land area of Cambodia is 181,035 km2 . Land is managed and used in many different
ways, as is shown in Table 13.1.

Type of Land Cover Area

Forest 112,842
Paddy fields 26,097
Other Vegetation 25,057
Upland crops 4,665
Water surfaces 4,111
Swidden Agriculture 856
Plantation 746
Barren lands 336
Field Crops 299
Receding rice fields 293
Orchards 188
Urban Areas 45
Total 181,535
Table 13.1 Land Use in Cambodia (km2 )
Ref: Cambodia: First State of the Environment Report 1994

13.4 Land Tenure

One of the most important, and perhaps most controversial, issues with regard to land
resources in Cambodia is ownership of land which is known as land tenure. The law that
governs land tenure at the present time is the 1992 Land Law for the State of Cambodia. A
new law is being prepared but has not yet been presented to the National Assembly for
consideration.
According to the 1992 law:
• all the land in Cambodia belongs to the State and is to be governed and protected by the
Government;
• only property rights from 1979 onwards are recognized;
• Cambodian people have the right to possess and use land, and to profit from production
on the land they use;
• Cambodian people have the right of inheritance on the land they possess and use;
• any mineral deposits, cultural or historical sites on Cambodian land are the property of the
State;
• private possession of land is not permitted in forestry reserves, fishery reserves, water
reservoirs, cultural and historical sites, deep forest areas, schools, parks, other public
buildings, land reserved for road construction and maintenance, rail-roads, rivers and
seas.

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The major areas of public land that are important for natural resource management in
Cambodia are forests, protected areas and fishery reserves. Protected areas are covered in
Chapter 14, Wild Plant and Animal Resources, fisheries in Chapter 15, Fisheries and forests
in Chapter 17, Forests and Chapter 27, Forest Issues of Cambodia. This chapter will focus on
the issue of land tenure for private individuals.

13.4.1 Private Lands and the History of Land Ownership in Cambodia

Historically land in Cambodia officially belonged to the state. In practice however, it
belonged to the person working the land. The population was small and therefore there was
not a lot of pressure on the land. There was no communal land and no land registration.
Peasants paid tax on harvest, rather than on land.

The French introduced the concept of individual land ownership. After independence in 1953,
the concept of individual land ownership continued. Some problems arose as wealthy
businessmen and officials accumulated rich rice land and land close to towns and cities and
lent money at high interest rates. By 1962, 16% of agricultural families did not own land. The
problem of landless rural poor had developed in Cambodia.

The problem worsened in the late 1960s as peasants became indebted to money lenders and
officials and army officers issued themselves titles of land which had been cleared and
worked by local peasant farmers. Local people were denied access to the land they had
traditionally used. Peasants joined revolutionary movements, including the Khmer Rouge 1 .

During the period 1970 - 75, with the American bombing and the civil war it became
extremely difficult to survive in the countryside. Many people were forced from their lands to
the cities. During the Khmer Rouge period from 1975 -79, the urban population was forced
out of the cities and everything became common property except the clothes people wore. The
system of collective property rights was maintained under the State of Cambodia.

13.4.2 Current Laws on Land Titling

The Constitution of the State of Cambodia, promulgated on 5 May 1989, reintroduced private
property rights and gave Cambodians full right to own and use land.

Currently, the legislation and policies governing land use in Cambodia are the “Enforcing
Instruction No.3 of the Principles for Possession and Use of Lands”, passed by the Council of
Ministers on 3 June, 1989 and the Land Law, passed by the State of Cambodia on August 11,
1992, Sub-Decree No 25.

Instruction No. 3 directs policies for ownership of housing and occupational rights for
agricultural land. It classifies land under three general categories: housing, cultivation and
concession land. Housing land is limited to 2,000 square meters (1/5 ha) per family.

1
Ref: Women and land Rights in Cambodia by Kyoko Kusakabe, Wang Yunxian, and Govind Kelkar
published in Economic and Political Weekly October 28, 1995.
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Cultivation land is limited to 5 hectares per family. Concession land is defined as land greater
than five hectares, allocated for the production of crops to “support the national economy”.

In 1990 the State of Cambodia created the Cadastral Department. The Cadastral office was
initially under the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, but is now directly under
the Council of Ministers. According to the Land Law, land must be registered in the Cadastral
Office in order for an individual to acquire possession or ownership rights, to transfer
ownership, or to convert temporary possession into ownership 2 .

The land titles issued to date have mostly been limited to title of the land on which house and
garden are located. The state has also made a large number of leases or concessions,
including timber concessions and concessions for palm oil, rubber, and cashew plantations.
These concession agreements, issued for a specified period of time, are signed by the
Government and a private investor for the exclusive right to manage and harvest a certain area
of land or forest in exchange for certain investments and certain fees. The military have also
been granted concessions to develop or lease large areas of land.

13.4.3 Steps in Obtaining Title to Agricultural Land

The steps involved in obtaining title to agricultural land are shown in Fig. 13.1. If a land
occupant wants to gain title to the land he or she has occupied, then all 10 steps have to be
followed.

Figure 13.1 Process for Obtaining Land Titles

2
Ref: “Options for Land Security Among Indigenous Communities, Rattanakiri, Cambodia ”
by Sara Colm consultant to NTFP project.

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13.5 Land Issues in Cambodia

Among the problems associated with land in Cambodia are the small number of farmers who
hold title over the land they live and work on; and the fact that priority is often given to
business developments over farmers. The Cambodia Daily of March 3, 1998 reported on the
sale of 60ha of land in Kampot to a company. It was suggested that local officials had profited
from the sale. When referring to the case, Second Prime Minister said “Investment in the
country does not mean that people should be forced to live in the mountains ….. The people
must get benefits from investment.”

Another area of concern is the reclamation of areas of wetland (in the name of
development) that are essential for storage of flood waters.

One of the major concerns regarding public land in Cambodia is the number of
leases and concessions that have been made in recent years. Problems related to the
granting of these leases and concessions 3 include:
• a lack of policy framework and accurate information to guide land use
allocation;
• selling of national assets for very low prices to businessmen and foreign
investors;
• short term gains for investors which do not benefit the central economy;
• medium and long-term environmental, social and economic costs are unknown;
• no map showing the concessions granted;
• lack of assurance that rights to the concession or lease are exclusive;
• lack of consideration for local people who live in or near concessions and who
depend on natural resources for their livelihood;

Butterfield suggestions for optimizing use of Cambodia's land resources include:

• incorporate social, environmental and economic costs when considering the
benefits of any land developments;
• Consider the public assets for future generations need;
• introduce and implement measures to protect soil and water resources ( to
prevent floods, ensure safe water supplies, and protect farm production);
• ensure compatibility of land-use allocation with local communities who use or
need access to the same piece of land.

References and Recommended Further Reading

Byrne, K. 1997. Environmental Science – University of Bath 16 – 19.

Butterfield, R. 1997 Land Use Allocations and Community Livelhoods: Policy Issues – A
discussion paper

3
Identified by Butterfield, ARD and published in the Forest Policy Reform Project
Report.
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GAIA, 1994. The GAIA Atlas of Planet Management

Pickering, K.T. and Owen, L.A. 1995. An Introduction to Global Environmental Issues

Prins, A.F., 1997 Environmental Land and Natural Resource Management Rattanakiri
Province – Report and Recommendations

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Chapter 14

Wild Plants and Animals

14.1 Introduction
Biological diversity or biodiversity refers to the variety of plant and animal life present on
Earth. The term “biological diversity” encompasses three different aspects: genetic diversity
within a species, species diversity and ecosystem diversity. Biological diversity contributes
toward a stable and sustainable environment because biological resources are renewable.
Plants and animals provide industrial, agricultural and medicinal products as well as food
which enables humans and other species to survive.

14.1.1 What is a Species?

The different kinds of organisms in the world are divided into species. A species is
defined as a group of similar organisms that are able to breed with one another and
unable to interbreed with other species.

Fig. 14.1 The Tiger and Ele phant are two of the most well-known large mammals in
Cambodia (WPO)

14.1.2 How Do New Species Form?

New species form from existing ones, when a species splits into two or more populations
which then evolve independently of each other, or because of mutations in the DNA of some
members of a population. For example, the original population may be separated by a road or
a landslide, or due to the destruction of the habitat previously joining the two populations.
The new population may become genetically distinct from the rest of the species, and
eventually give rise to a new species. The subject of evolution and speciation is beyond the
scope of this book. If you want to learn more about how species form, and evolve, refer to a
biology book.

14.1.3 How Quickly Do New Species Form?

Fossil records are studied to find out how quickly new species form. The records
show that species may form quickly, slowly, or at a rate in between. The fossils
show that some species existed and have existed for millions of years with very
little change and without giving rise to new species. Then, in a short period of
geological time, related but different species appeared. Sometimes these new species

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replaced older ones, and sometimes the old and the new species coexisted for
awhile. Even though species are continually evolving, the rate at which new species
are formed is very, very slow, and is definitely not fast enough to match the rate at
which species are being lost because of human activities.

Figure 14.2 Leaf Fossil (Arms, 1990)

14.1.4 How Many Plant and Animal Species are there?

The exact number of plant and animal species which exists is not known. Most
biologists estimate that there are at least 5 to 10 million different species, but some
think that there may be as many as 30 to 100 million. So far, approximately 250,000
flowering plant species, 800,000 lower plant species, and 1.5 million animal species
have been identified. Of the animals about 90% are insects.

14.1.5 Biodiversity of Cambodia

Cambodia has an extremely rich biological diversity. The forest, wetlands and other
habitats support many species of flora and fauna, which is believed to include 212
species of mammals, 720 species of birds, 240 reptile species and more than 2,300
vascular plants (UNDP 1994; Ashwell 1994). The World Conservation Monitoring
Centre estimates that 15,000 different species of plants, nine percent of which are
endemic, exist in Cambodia.

The forest ecosystems are biologically rich. Tree species present include the
Dipterocarpaceae, Leguminosae, Lythraceae, and Fagacae families. The Tonle Sap
and its floodplain support a rich diversity of plants and animals that have adapted to
seasonal fluctuations. As many as 850 species of fish have been recorded in the
Tonle Sap Lake and Mekong river. The marine waters contain coral reefs, seagrass
beds, 435 species of fish and marine mammals such as dugong and dolphins.
Cambodian coastal wetlands are also a diverse ecosystem and are reported to
contain at least 74 tree species.

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14.2 The Importance of Biodiversity

Humans depend on thousands of different plant and animal species for their
survival.

14.2.1 Genetic Reserves

In some communities, plants and animals provide food, clothing and housing
materials. In other societies, people do not go to gather food from the forest but they
still depend totally on plants and animals. People use plants and animals for food,
medicines, chemicals, clothing, structural materials, energy and many other
purposes. Only about one hundred and fifty species of plants provide the great
majority of the world’s food: therefore, it is important that their genetic diversity is
preserved. There are also tens of thousands of other plants, especially in the tropics,
that have edible parts and might be used more extensively for food, and perhaps
cultivated in the future. Ref: UNEP

During the green Revolution of the 1960s and 70s, plant scientists developed
genetically uniform, high-yielding varieties of important food crops such as rice.
However, it was found that the genetically uniform crops were more susceptible to
pests and diseases. By crossing these new strains with more genetically diverse
relatives, resistance to diseases and pest can be reintroduced into such crops.

Genetic engineering, including the incorporation of genes from one organism into an
entirely different species, makes it possible to use the genetic resources of living
organisms. Although genes can be transferred from one organism to another,
scientists do not have the ability to make genes. Genetic engineering depends upon a
broad base of genetic diversity from which it can obtain genes possessing the
required traits. It has taken hundreds of millions of years for evolution to produce
the genetic diversity found in organisms living on our planet today. This diversity
may hold solutions not only to problems we have today but to problems that will
develop in the future. It is therefore very important that we conserve this
biodiversity.

14.2.2 Medicinal Uses

More than 60% of the world’s people depend directly on plants for their medicines:
the Chinese use more than 5,000 of the estimated 30,000 species of plants in their
country for medicinal purposes. The majority of western medicines owe their
existence to research on natural products that organisms produce. Less than one
percent of all plant species have been analyzed for bioactive components. The use of
traditional knowledge increases the efficiency of screening plants for medicinal
properties by more than 400%. The 1996 value of the world market for medicinal
plants derived from the experience of indigenous and local communities was
estimated to be US$43 billion. Ref: TRIP

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14.2.3 Agricultural Uses

Agriculture, which provides humans with the food they need to survive, is
completely dependent on plants and animals. The number of foods people regularly
eat is limited, when compared with the total number of edible species on earth.

Plants are important to industry because they provide many products including oils
and lubricants, perfumes, dyes, paper, rubber, resins, waxes, poisons, and fibers.
Animal products and uses include wool, silk, fur, leather, lubricants, waxes, and
transportation. Both plants and animals are important in scientific research.

14.2.4 Indigenous Communities

Indigenous peoples and local communities rely on plant and animal resources
collected locally for up to 95% of their basic needs. The conservation and
development of biodiversity is for them a matter of life and death.

Much of the food eaten by indigenous communities is gathered from the forest and
the agriculture systems used are often based on the ecology of the tropical forest.
Some communities only gather food directly from the forest but others also practice
agriculture outside the forest. The agricultural systems depend on inputs from the
forest through soil and water conservation, and organic fertilizer. The link between
indigenous communities and the environment is dealt with in detail in Chapter 31.

14.2.5 Essential Services

As defined in Chapter 3, the term ecosystem describes a community of different
plant and animal species interacting with their non-living environment. Essential
services provided by natural ecosystems, include protection of watersheds, the
regulation of local and global climates, the maintenance of atmospheric quality,
absorption of pollution, and the generation and maintenance of soils. Ecosystems,
functioning properly, are responsible for the Earth’s ability to capture energy from
the sun and transform it via photosynthesis into food necessary for all life. Much of
the quality of ecosystem services will be lost or damaged if the present loss of
biodiversity continues.

14.2.6 Recreational, Ethical and Aesthetic Importance

Wildlife not only contributes to human survival and physical comfort; it is also
important for inspiration and our spiritual well being. The strongest ethical
consideration involving the value of wildlife is how humans view themselves in
relation to other living things. Humans can see themselves:
• as masters of the rest of the world and it’s resources,
• as caretakers of the plants and animals which should be protected,
• as having only equal rights to plants and animals, neither as master or caretaker,
or
• as parasites because of our dependency on plants and animals for our survival.

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Fig. 14.3 Elephant treks are popular tourist activities in Thailand

Wild plants and animals are also a source of beauty and joy and provide recreational
pleasure for large numbers of people. Many people participate in bird watching,
photography and other non-destructive forms of outdoor recreational activity
involving wildlife. Wildlife tourism - ecotourism - is of growing importance to the
economies of many countries, including Malaysia and Thailand. Many tourists travel
to Malaysia and Thailand each year specifically to visit the National Parks and
Marine Parks where they can observe tropical plants and animals.

14.3 Extinction, Endangered, Threatened and Rare

• Extinction is the term used to describe complete disappearance of a species
from Earth. It occurs when the last individual member of a species dies.
Extinction is irreversible - once a species is extinct it can never reappear.
• An endangered species has so few members left alive, that it could soon become
extinct if nothing is done to save it.
• A threatened species has some members living in natural habitat but is likely to
become endangered if nothing is done to reverse the problems reducing the
population. These are mainly species whose population sizes are decreasing or
whose habitat is being steadily lost in all places where the species occurs.
• Rare species are species that are few in number but are not in immediate danger
of extinction. They are usually species found in local populations in particular
habitats or are thinly scattered over larger areas.

14.3.1 Extinct, Endangered and Threatened Species in Cambodia

Species of mammals which were present in Cambodia in the past, but are now
believed to be extinct or critically endangered include the kouprey and the Asian
rhinoceros. Endangered species include the Asian elephant, tiger and gibbon. Other
mammals which are vulnerable or rare now are the banteng, brown-antlered deer,
gaur, pygmy loris and sunbear. Birds that are now endangered include the greater
adjutant stork and the sarus crane.

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14.3.2 The Reasons Why Species Become Endangered or Extinct

Currently, the earth’s biological diversity is disappearing at an alarming rate.
Estimates suggest that at least one species becomes extinct every twenty minutes
and that it seems certain that greater than 25% of the Earth’s biodiversity will be
lost during the next few decades. There are many reasons why plants and animals
become endangered or extinct.

Fig. 14.4 The Kouprey is critically endangered and the Banteng is rare (WPO)

14.3.2.1 Habitat Loss

The greatest threat to most wild species is destruction, fragmentation, and
degradation of their habitats. Such disruption of natural communities threatens
wildlife species by destroying migration routes, breeding areas, and food sources
and will also impact on plant populations which rely on wildlife for pollen dispersal
and pollination. Deforestation is the greatest cause of habitat loss and degradation
globally, followed by destruction of coral reefs and wetlands and conversion of
grasslands for agricultural production. Other serious factors threatening habitats of
animals and plants are forest fires and pollution.

Fig. 14.5 A reminder that humans are the main cause (Stacey and Lucas,1987)and Forest
destruction at Kirirom (ETAP)

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In Cambodia, the destruction of the forests, including the mangrove forests and
flooded forests of the Tonle Sap has destroyed the habitats of many plants and
animals. The building of roads for the removal of logs has also increased access to
forested areas which had been inaccessible until recently. The improved access has
made it easier for wildlife hunters and traders to capture animals which are then sold
locally or exported to Vietnam or Thailand. The conversion of wetlands to land
suitable for building or agriculture which is taking place close to urban centers, is
reducing the area and quality of wetland habitats. Dynamite fishing in coastal waters
off the Cambodian coast is destroying much of the coral reef, and thereby reducing
the diversity of marine species.

14.3.2.2 Hunting and Wildlife Trade

Hunting of wildlife takes place for three reasons: to provide food, as a sport and for
commercial reasons. Commercial hunting involves capturing or killing animals for
profit from sale. As more of the world’s species become endangered, their economic
value and the demand for them on the black market may rise sharply, hastening their
extinction.

Trade in wildlife and associated products is a major threat to some species of

animals and, to a lesser extent, plants in Cambodia. Of particular concern is the
internal and illegal export trade, which continues despite a ban. Animals are
exported to Thailand via Laos, and to China via Vietnam for food or medicinal
purposes, and as decorative plants. The high price offered for certain species is a
major reason why so many animals are traded. Also Cambodia is not a member of
the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora and therefore is not able to participate fully in international efforts to control
illegal trade.

14.3.2.3 Predator and Pest Control

Extinction or near extinction can also occur when people attempt to exterminate pest
and predator species that compete with humans for food. For example, shrinking
animal habitats frequently force animals, e.g. elephants onto croplands where they
are killed by farmers who are trying to protect their crops

14.3.2.4 Pollution and Climate Change

Toxic chemicals degrade wildlife habitats and kill some animals and plants.
Pesticides, which take many years to break down have caused populations of some
bird species to decline. Climate change is also likely to have a large impact on
wildlife in the future e.g. changes in rainfall patterns and temperature regimes,
increasing frequency of storms and sea-level rise.

14.3.2.5 Introduction of Alien Species

An alien species is one that has been deliberately or accidentally introduced to a
new geographical region. Many of these alien species are introduced because they

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provide food or beauty to the new environments and occasionally to control pests.
Some alien species have no predators or competitors in their new habitat. That
allows them to dominate their new ecosystem and reduce the population of many
native species. Eventually, such alien species can cause the extinction, near
extinction, or displacement of native species. Two species of weed that are alien to
Cambodia are the water hyacinth and Mimosa Pigra (known as Baan Lar Youn in Khmer).
Water hyacinths cause problems by clogging water ways but it is used as a food source.
Mimosa Pigra, however, spreads rapidly, has no use, and has a negative impact on fish
breeding. It produces 10-12,000 seeds m2 and spreads rapidly after flooding.

14.3.2.6 The Human Impact

The underlying causes of extinction are population growth of humans, increased
affluence and poverty. As the human population grows, it occupies more land and
clears and degrades more forest to supply food, fuelwood, timber and other
resources. Increasing affluence leads to greatly increased average resource use per
person, which is a prime factor in destruction and degradation of wildlife habitat.

14.3.2.7 Natural Process

Some species have natural traits that make them more vulnerable than others to
premature extinction. One trait that effects the survival of species under different
environmental conditions is their reproductive strategy. Species that have small
adults of short life span that have many small young at an early reproductive age
have a better survival chance than large animals that live long lives and have fewer
young at a later reproductive age.

14.3.2.8 Additional Reasons for Loss of Plants and Animals

There are many more specific reasons why biodiversity is being lost at the rate of
one species every 20 minutes. Some of these are as follows:
• economic systems and policies that fail to adequately value the environment and
its resources;
• inequity in the ownership, management and flow of costs and benefits from both
the use and conservation of biological resources;
• lack of knowledge and its application;
• legal and institutional systems that promote unsustainable exploitation.
• lack of adequate support to research and conservation projects.
• ethical considerations (particularly the belief that everything can be renewed,
selfishness and greed).

14.4 Methods for Protecting and Managing Wildlife

Protection and management of wild plants and animals can take a species approach or an
ecosystem approach:
• The species approach involves identifying endangered species, giving the species legal
protection, propagating species in captivity and reintroducing species in suitable habitats.

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• The ecosystem approach involves establishing legally protected areas and wildlife
reserves, and eliminating alien species from an area.

14.4.1 The Species Approach

14.4.1.1 International Agreements

There are a number of major conventions and agreements which help to protect wild species
of plants and animals.
The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitat
(Ramsar, 1971)
All countries who sign the Ramsar convention agree to use wisely all wetland resources under
their jurisdiction and to designate for conservation at least one wetland of international
significance.
Cambodia is a member of Ramsar and Boeung Chhmar on the Tonle Sap is a designated
Ramsar site.

The Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage (Paris,
1972). {World heritage Convention}
The convention recognizes the obligation of all states to protect unique natural and cultural
areas and recognizes the obligation of the international community to help pay for them. In
Cambodia the Angkor Temples have already been designated a World Heritage Site. A
proposal to designate the Tonle Sap lake as a World Heritage Site is currently under
discussion and such a designation would assist the preservation of certain species in the Tonle
Sap.

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES), developed by the

World Conservation Union (IUCN) in 1975 and administered by the United Nations
Environment Program (UNEP). This treaty lists species that cannot be commercially traded
as live specimens or wildlife products because they are endangered or threatened.
Enforcement of this treaty is difficult for the following reasons: convicted violators often pay
only small fines, member countries can exempt themselves from protection of any listed
species and much of the trade in endangered species takes place in countries that have not
signed the treaty . Cambodia is not a member of CITES.

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (Bonn, 1979)
The convention obligates parties to protect endangered migratory species and to try to
conclude international conservation agreements for the conservation of vulnerable species that
are not yet endangered. The Convention precludes commercial taking of listed species; it also
encourages member states to conserve and restore habitat areas for migratory species.

14.4.1.2 Protection of Wildlife in Cambodia

The Wildlife Protection Office (WPO) of the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries(MAFF), which was set up in 1992, is the Government Department concerned with
the protection of wildlife in Cambodia.

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During the French Period, the law governing protection of wildlife only protected 11 large
species of mammals and did not mention reptiles or birds. This law was not replaced until
1980 with Draft Decree No. 5 on forest management. Six articles in this decree relate to the
protection of wildlife. The decree prohibits hunting of all species until the issuing of a Prakas
that identifies the protected animals. In 1994 the list of protected species was declared. It
includes 36 species of mammals, 6 species of reptile and 102 species of birds. People found
breaking this law for the first time have their equipment and catch confiscated and are fined.
People found breaking the law for the second occasion can be imprisoned for 3 months - 3
years.

Additional legislation includes a 1996 joint declaration of the MAFF and the MoE that
clarified penalties for those found breaking the law and a declaration by the Department of
Forestry and the WPO that prohibited the hunting of pythons. At the present time, a new
forest law has been presented to the National Assembly and a new wildlife protection law is
being discussed within the MAFF.

14.4.1.3 Gene Banks, Botanical Gardens and Zoos

Botanists preserve genetic information and endangered plant species by storing their seeds in
gene banks which are refrigerated environments with low humidity. Gene banks of many
known and some potential varieties of agricultural crops and other plants now exist
throughout the world.

The world’s 1,500 botanical gardens and arboreta hold about 90,000 plant species and also
help preserve some of the genetic diversity found in the wild. However, these sanctuaries
have too little storage capacity and too little money to preserve most of the world’s rare and
threatened plants.

Worldwide, zoos house about 540,000 individual animals, many of them from species not
threatened or endangered. Zoos and animal research centers are increasingly being used to
preserve a representative number of individuals of critically endangered animal species.

Fig. 14.6 The gene pool: each species has a gene pool from which an extraordinary array of individuals
can be selected (GAIA Atlas, 1993)

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14.4.1.4 Phnom Tamao Zoo

Phnom Tamao zoo is a Wildlife Protection Office programme. The area around Phnom
Tamao was a forestry reserve area during the Sihanouk regime. The forest was severely
degraded during the Pol Pot regime and the years that followed. In 1992 the Department of
Forestry and Wildlife established a reforestation project at Phnom Tamao. Public awareness
campaigns took place with local communities. People were encouraged to collect leaves,
twigs and small branches and to avoid cutting down trees. The success of the project is visible
as the dry dipterocarp forest is regenerating.

Fig. 14. 7 Lion from Russia, Asian Wild Dog, Storks, Tiger, Leopard Cat, Clouded Leopard Cat, Black
Gibbon and Hog Badger at Phnom Tamao Zoo (WPO)

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Fig. 14.8 Sign welcoming visitors to Phnom Tamao Zoo and education center (WPO)

By 1995 the WPO was faced with the problem of dealing with animals that were confiscated
from hunters and traders. Since many of the animals had been held in captivity for a long
period of time and others had been injured, it was not possible to release the animals into the
wild. The WPO decided to bring the animals to Phnom Tamao. It was found to be a suitable
location when the first animals, pythons, reptiles and turtles were taken there. In May 1995, it
was decided to create Phnom Tamao zoo. The zoo now houses a large number of animals,
including a tiger, leopard, clouded leopard, 3 leopard cats, golden cat, one lion brought from
Russia, 5 gibbons, 7 sunbears, an Asian black bear, one banteng, a hog badger, Asian wild
dogs, 3 Greater Adjutants, 2 Sauras cranes, a black-headed Ibis, 2 Oriental darters and many
more mammals, birds and reptiles.

The development of the zoo continues: a new cage was provided by the "Free the Bear Fund"
of Australia and the European Union funded the construction of the Education Center and
some animal cages. Phnom Tamao has become a very popular tourist destination for
Cambodians.

14.4.2 The Ecosystem Approach: Protecting habitats

Most wildlife biologists believe that the best way to prevent the loss of wild species is to
establish and maintain a worldwide network of reserves, parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and other
protected areas. The ecosystem approach attempts to protect many species from becoming
endangered by human activities and is also be cheaper than managing endangered species one
by one.

Protected areas - legally established sites managed for conservation objectives - are an
essential way of saving plant and animal resources. Worldwide, more than 8,000 protected
areas cover over 750 million hectares of marine and terrestrial ecosystems, amounting to
1.5% of Earth’s surface. These areas are managed with objectives ranging from strict nature
prevention to controlled resource harvesting. However, in the majority of these parks,
protection of species is not being enforced.

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There are many different zoning systems for protected areas. A well-designed biosphere
reserve (protected area specifically designated to protect plants and animals) has three inter-
related zones:
• a core area containing an important type of ecosystem that has had little, if any,
disturbance from human activities;
• a buffer zone, where activities and uses are managed in ways that help protect the core;
and
• a second buffer or transition zone, which combines conservation and forestry, grazing,
agriculture, and recreation carried out in sustainable ways. Buffer zones can also be used
for education and research.

14.4.3 The Reasons for Establishing a Protected Area System

Protected areas can serve a number of conservation functions, including one or all of the
following:
• Protection of characteristic or unique examples of ecosystems such as tropical evergreen
forest, wetlands;
• Protection of wildlife or plant species of special interest, including endangered species or
others requiring special management such as elephants, crocodiles;
• Protection of landscapes or geophysical features of aesthetic or scientific value such as
unusual rock formations;
• The maintenance of ecological services such as hydrological functions and soil resources
such as watershed protection or non timber forest products;
• Protection of sites of special scientific interest;
• Protection of historic or archaeological sites;
• Provision of opportunities for the generation of alternative incomes and foreign exchange
through the promotion of nature-based tourism;
• education

14.4.4 Protected Areas in Cambodia

In November 1993, His Majesty King Norodom Sihanouk issued a Royal decree “The
Creation and Designation of Protected Areas”. The Royal Kret provides for a range of
management objectives which closely parallel those recommended in the United Nations List
of National Parks and Protected Areas (IUCN 1994). The Royal decree was developed by the
Ministry of Environment with assistance from IUCN. It designates 23 protected areas which
feature critical and fragile sustainable habitats and/or species .

According to the Royal decree the MoE is responsible for supervising the planning and
development of a National Protected Areas System which includes the protection of
terrestrial, wetland and coastal environments, as well as cultural sites. The selection of the
sites builds heavily upon designated and proposed areas from the 1920's and 30's.

14.4.4.1 Protected Areas as Defined by IUCN

There are four categories of protected areas in Cambodia: National Parks, Wildlife
Sanctuaries, Protected landscapes, and Multiple-use Management Areas. These categories

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were defined by IUCN and are internationally accepted. IUCN defines protected areas as
"areas and/or seas specially dedicated to the protection and maintenance of biological
diversity, and of natural and associated cultural resources, and managed through legal or other
effective means". The objectives of each of the four categories are described in detail as
follows:

National Parks Wildlife Sanctuaries

1. Kirirom 8. Aural
2. Phnom Bokor 9. Peam Krasop
3. Kep 10. Phnom Samkos
4. Ream 11. Roniem Daun Sam
5. Botum-Sakor 12. Kulen Promtep
6. Phnom Kulen 13. Beng per
7. Virachey 14. Lomphat
15. Phnom prich
16. Phnom Nam Lyr
17. Snoul

Protected Landscapes Multiple-Use Areas

18. Angkor 21. Dong Peng
19. Banteay Chmar 22. Samlaut
20. Preah Vihear 23. Tonle Sap
Fig. 14.9 Protected Areas of Cambodia

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National Park
To manage and protect natural or scenic areas of national or international importance for
scientific, educational and recreational purposes.

Wildlife Sanctuary
To assure the natural conditions necessary to protect nationally significant species, group of
species, biotic communities, or physical features of the environment where these may require
specific human manipulation for their perpetuation. Controlled harvesting in some areas may
be permitted.

Fig 14.10a Images of Cambodia’s National Parks (SPEC /MoE)

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Protected Landscapes
To maintain nationally significant natural landscapes which are characteristic of the
harmonious interaction of humans and land while providing opportunities for public
enjoyment through recreation and tourism within the normal lifestyle and economic activity
of these areas. These are mixed cultural/natural landscapes of high scenic value where
traditional land-uses are maintained.

Multiple-Use Management Areas

To provide for the sustained production of water, timber, wildlife, pasture and tourism, with
the conservation of nature primarily oriented to the support of the economic activities,
although specific zones may also be designated within these areas to achieve specific
conservation objectives.

14.4.5 Challenges Facing National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries

The problems facing the protected areas of Cambodia are numerous. The main issues are
outlined in this section.

14.4.5.1 Legislation and Policy

The Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resource Management, which was
promulgated by the King on 24 December 1996, requires additional legal instruments in order
to implement the law on National Parks and Protected Areas. At present the draft legal
instrument on protected areas is being prepared by the Ministry of Environment.

The challenge for the Government and the MoE is to improve the human resource skills and
capacity in order to formulate and implement effective policies to manage protected areas.
The MoE with the support of international organizations have been working to strengthen the
MoE’s capacity to manage a number of parks.

14.4.5.2 Finances
Management of protected areas requires a large budget to pay staff salaries, to map the park
boundaries so that communities are aware of the protected area, to carry out research on the
plants and animals which inhabit the park, to undertake projects with communities which live
in the buffer zones, to prepare the park to receive visitors in the appropriate manner for a
protected area, and to design brochures and displays for visitors to educate them about the
park and its plants and animals and how they can help protect Cambodia’s natural resources.

14.4.5.3 Human Resources

Management of protected areas needs skilled human-power; managers, rangers, researchers,
community development workers, etc. A number of international organizations and non-
governmental organizations have been assisting the MoE to train staff, to develop
management plans and to implement the most urgent protection actions at Kirirom, Bokor,
Virachey and Ream national parks.

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14.4.5.4 Logging
As discussed in Chapter 27, logging is the most urgent environmental problem facing
Cambodia. The protected areas are not safe from the saws of loggers. Illegal cutting has been
reported in almost all of Cambodia’s protected areas. The selective logging of some species
over the last five years has had a major impact on a number of important species. It is
extremely difficult for the Ministry of Environment to prevent illegal logging as park rangers
are unarmed and have very little resources or training.

14.4.5.5 Land Grabbing

Conversion of forest lands to agricultural lands is also a problem in the protected areas of
Cambodia. Local communities and investors have marked off and sold land in a number of
the parks. Once again it is difficult for the park staff to prevent such actions as they are
powerless against influential investors. Stronger laws and enforcement capabilities are
desperately needed. Equally important is the need for central and local government to
demonstrate serious commitment to protect and maintain the protected areas.

14.4.5.6 Wildlife Hunting

A number of Cambodia’s protected areas were designated so, because of their importance as
wildlife habitats. For this same reason they are the focus of traffickers in wild animals and
plants who are hunting wild animals to sell as decorative animals, as food delicacies and as
medicine. Many of the animals are being exported through Thailand and Vietnam to the more
lucrative markets of China, Hong Kong and Taiwan. It is extremely difficult to implement the
law banning the export of endangered animals and plants as customs resources are limited.

14.4.5.7 Lack of Awareness

Environmental education and awareness in schools and in communities has been limited to
date. As a result, people are not aware of the purpose of national parks and of their
importance to Cambodia.

14.5 The Goal of Biodiversity Conservation

The 1992 report “Global Biodiversity Strategy” by WRI, IUCN, and UNEP suggests
that successful action to conserve plant and animal species must address the full
range of causes of their current loss. The campaign to conserve biodiversity outlined
in the report is broken down into three components:
• Saving Biodiversity,
• Studying Biodiversity, and
• Using Biodiversity sustainably and equitably.

Saving biodiversity means taking real steps to protect genes, species, habitats and
ecosystems as suggested in section 14.4.

Studying biodiversity means documenting its composition, distribution, structure,

and function; understanding the roles and functions of genes, species, and
ecosystems; understanding the complex links between modified and natural systems;

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and using this understanding to support sustainable development. It also means

building awareness of biodiversity values, providing opportunities for people to
appreciate nature’s variety, integrating biodiversity issues into educational
curricula, and ensuring that the public has access to information on biodiversity,
especially on developments that will influence it locally.

Using Biodiversity sustainably and equitably means managing biological

resources so that they last indefinitely, making sure that biodiversity is used to
improve the human condition, and seeing that resources are shared equitably. “Use”
does not necessarily mean consumption. The best economic use of biodiversity may
be to maintain it in its natural state for its ecological or cultural values.

14.5.1 Need for a Broad-based Approach to Biodiversity Conservation

In the past biodiversity conservation was limited to protected areas, threatened
species, zoos or seed-banks and the staff that managed them. According to WRI,
IUCN, and UNEP report “Global Biodiversity Strategy” , conservationists now
believe that there must be a much broader involvement of all levels of society and
that biologists and resource managers must come together with social scientists,
political leaders, businessmen, religious leaders, farmers, journalists, artists,
planners, teachers, and lawyers. All the stakeholders including central and local
government, industry and citizen’s groups, including non-governmental environment
and development organizations, and women’s and indigenous peoples' organizations
must be involved in the discussions because effective conservation requires:
• Efforts in the fields, forests, watersheds, grasslands, coastal zones, and
settlements where people live and work;
• Government efforts to address the many aspects of biodiversity conservation
which are beyond the capacity of local communities or involving resources that
are of national importance;
• International cooperation because of the global nature of the biodiversity crisis
and the lack of natural resources in many countries.

Biodiversity conservation is a long term task. Policies, institutions, laws and

attitudes take years to change. Education and awareness raising, research, and
biodiversity inventories take time and money, but they do create an environment in
which lasting change can take place and emergency measures have at least a hope of
succeeding.

References and Recommended Reading

Allaby, M. 1996. Basics of Environmental Science

Arms, K. 1990. Environmental Science

Fullick, A. 1994. Biology – Heinemann Advanced Science

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Khim, L. and Neth, B., 1997. Current Issues of Conservation of Biodiversity Resources in
Cambodia.

Martin, E.B. and Phipps , M. 1996. A Review of Wild Animal Trade in Cambodia. TRAFFIC
Bulletin Vol. 16 No.2

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

Nijar, G.S., 1996 Trade Related Intellectual property Rights and Biodiversity - The Threat
and Responses: A Third World View

Raven, P., 1994. Why It Matters – An explanation of the value of biodiversity and practical
means for its preservation. Our Planet Volume 6 No 4, 1994.

Raven, P., Berg, L. and Johnson, G., 1993. Environment

UNDP, 1997 Biodiversity Prospectus of Cambodia.

UNDP, 1994. Cambodia: First State of the Environment Report

UNEP, WRI and IUCN, 1992 Global Biodiversity Strategy

UNEP, 1995. National Biodiversity Planning – Guidelines based on Early Experiences

Around the World.

WPO, 1998. Interview with Sun Hean, Deputy Director, Wildlife Protection Office, Ministry
of Agriculture, Forests and Fisheries.

UNEP, 1992. Global Biodiversity Strategy.

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Chapter 15

Fisheries

15.1 Introduction
Freshwater and marine fisheries are very important food resources for most
countries in the world. Fish and other seafood are highly nutritious because they
contain high-quality protein that is easily digestible. Fish and other seafood
provides approximately 5 percent of the total protein of the human diet worldwide;
milk, eggs, meat and plants are the other important sources of protein. In certain
developing countries that have large rivers and long coastlines, fish and seafood
makes a much larger contribution to the total protein in the human diet.

Fleets of fishing vessels harvest most of the world’s marine catch. In addition
numerous seafood is captured in shallow coastal waters. The world’s total marine
catch has increased greatly since 1950. The rate of increase has slowed in recent
years, due to diminishing fish stocks, which clearly indicates a limit to the oceans
fish resources. Furthermore each type of fish has a maximum sustainable harvest
level; if a particular species is over-harvested, its numbers drop and harvest is no
longer economically feasible.

Fig. 15.1 Major types of seafood that are commercially harvested globally
(Raven et al. 1993)

15.2 Problems and Challenges for the Fishing Industry Worldwide

No country lays legal claim to the oceans. As a result the resources in the oceans are
more susceptible to over-use and degradation than are resources on land, which
individual nations own and for which they feel responsible. The most serious
problem for marine fisheries is that many marine species have been over harvested
to the point that their numbers are severely depleted. Fishermen tend to concentrate

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on a few fish species with high commercial value, while other species are under
utilized. In response to over-harvesting, many countries have adopted a policy of
ocean enclosure, which puts the living organisms within 370km of land under the
jurisdiction of the country bordering the ocean. This allows countries to regulate the
amounts of fish and other seafood harvested from their waters, thereby preventing
over-exploitation. The establishment of the 370km border often leads to boundary
disputes with neighboring countries, as is the case with Cambodia and Thailand.

Fig. 15.2 Map of the world and the territorial waters (Raven et al. 1993)

One of the major issues facing the fisheries industry is that the oceans, lakes and
rivers are used as dumping grounds. Everything from accidental oil spills to
deliberate dumping of waste pollutes the water. Heavy metals such as lead, mercury,
and cadmium are finding their way into the aquatic food chain, where they are
highly toxic to both fish and humans.

Construction and developments in coastal areas have a major impact on tidal

marshes, mangrove swamps, and estuaries which provide extremely important
habitats or breeding grounds for as much as 60 to 80 percent of all commercially
important ocean seafood. Destruction of these ecosystems therefore has a major
impact on fish and other marine populations.

15.3 Fisheries in Cambodia

Fish production in Cambodia comes from inland, marine and aquaculture sources.
Inland fisheries are based on the Tonle Sap Lake, the Mekong, other tributaries and,
to a lesser extent, the flooded rice fields. Marine fisheries cover the inshore areas
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close to the coast and offshore areas in deep water. Aquaculture, based on
introduced and indigenous species, is practiced in inland areas and in Koh Kong.
Inland fish catches are Cambodia’s most important fishery in terms of both
production and value.

The fisheries sector plays a significant role in the economy of the country
representing up to 5% of GDP, or US$44-58 million a year. Next to rice, fish is the
most important component of the Cambodian diet. As much as 75% of the protein
eaten in the country comes from fish and about one million people depend directly
on the Lake’s fisheries for their livelihood. The Government receives substantial
revenue from the Tonle Sap fisheries through fishing lot rental fees, the sale of
harvesting permits, and fines. In 1994 the total revenue from both inland and marine
fisheries was approximately 7.1 billion Riel (US$2.9 million) [Ref NEAP].

Fig. 15.3 Fresh fish and dried fish on sale in Phnom Penh.

15.3.1 Freshwater Fisheries

The productivity of the freshwaters of Cambodia is among the highest in the world
due to high temperatures of the Great Lake and the annual flooding. The role of the
flooded forests is very important in contributing to the overall productivity of the
system; the rapid development of micro-organism, phytoplankton and zooplankton;
provision of shelters for juvenile fish and/or specific adult fish species; and
reproduction zones for some fish.

15.3.1.1 Freshwater Species

More than 200 fish species inhabit the inland waters of Cambodia. Most of these
fish are well adapted to a widely fluctuating water level, and have a wide tolerance
for temperature, pH, and dissolved oxygen.
The major species of fish are normally divided into four groups:
1. Species that are associated with the big rivers and the Great Lake;
2. Species that are associated with the big rivers and streams, but migrate to the
flooded areas for spawning;
3. Species which can stay in the swamps and flooded plains all year round; and

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4. Smaller, fast growing and opportunistic species, which are able to utilize the
flood period for rapid growth. These are the fish mainly used for “prahoc”,
fermented fish, fish sauce and dried fish.

15.3.1.2 Freshwater Fish Production

Freshwater fish production (tonnes) in Cambodia, 1940 - 1994 is recorded in Table
15.11 . These figures indicate a decrease in fish production since 1960.

Year Production Sources of Information

1940 120,000 Chevey and Le
Poulin,1949
1957 130,000 Bardach, 1959
1960 138,000 Department of Fisheries
1970 100,000 Department of Fisheries
1982 65,700 Department of Fisheries
1991 74,700 Department of Fisheries
1994 65,500 Department of Fisheries
Table 15.1 Freshwater fish production (tonnes) in Cambodia, 1940-1994

15.3.1.3 Management of the Fisheries Sector

The Department of Fisheries of the MAFF is responsible for the management of the
fisheries sector. The fisheries legislation is aimed at ensuring resource conservation
and regulation of the exploitation of Cambodia’s freshwater and marine resources. It
auctions and monitors commercial fishing concessions, demarcates and protects
sanctuaries and spawning grounds, operates hatcheries and regulates catch
techniques.

Under the current fishery regulation, fishing is divided into three categories;
industrial (large scale), medium scale (artisanal) and small or family scale
(subsistence). The large and medium scale fisheries require licenses and tax
payment for operation in the demarcated and open access areas. The large scale
industrial fishing is based on “fishing lots” or concessions which are allocated
through an auction system for exclusive exploitation over a two year period. The
larger lots are typically 15-20 km long and 5-10km wide. The fishing lots cover as
much as 80% of the lake’s shoreline. The medium-scale and the family fishers fish
outside the lots.

By law each level of fishing must follow regulations regarding the type and the size
of equipment used, location of fishing, yield, length and width of nets or fish traps,
size and number of fish hooks, etc. Family fishery is permitted all year round and
the other types are prohibittted between June 1 and September 30, when the level of

1
Taken from the paper “Mekong River and the Great Lake in Cambodia and, the
Environmental Trends” by Tana, T.S. of the Department of Fisheries.
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the water is high and fish migration and breeding are at their peak. A large diversity
of fishing gear and methods are used depending on the stages of the annual flooding
cycle and on the species being sought. Estimates suggest that about 70 different
techniques and gears are being used by fishers in Cambodia.

Eight deeper sections of the Tonle Sap lake have been designated, under the
Fisheries Law, as fish sanctuaries or reserves (Ref: NEAP). These reserves
incorporate deeper portions of the lake to protect concentrations of fish during the
dry season when the lake’s surface area decreases dramatically. Fishing is banned in
the sanctuaries, but enforcement is weak and it is likely that most fishers are not
aware of the reserve boundaries.

15.3.2 Present and Potential Threats to Inland Fisheries of Cambodia

Table 15.1 shows that the annual catches in the Mekong and Tonle Sap have
declined. Although this decline in fish catch has not been fully investigated, several
factors are suspected of causing this decline. These factors are destruction of the
flooded forests, use of pesticides, sedimentation, over-fishing, fishing gears and
dam construction.

15.3.2.1 Destruction of the Flooded Forests

The flooded forests of the Great Lake are very important as fish spawning grounds.
These forests are threatened by the
demand for firewood and fuelwood,
and conversion to agricultural lands.
Destruction of these forests will have
a major impact on the productivity of
the lake, because the absence of trees
makes them unattractive as breeding
grounds for fish as eggs and young
fish are more vulnerable.

Fig. 15.4 Clearing of channels in the

flooded forests of the Tonle Sap - these
channels are illegally used for trapping
fish as the flood waters recede(EU/SPEC)

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15.3.2.2 Use of Pesticides

Agricultural crops are grown in areas close to the lake and it’s tributaries. Use of
pesticides on these crops may have a negative impact on fish stocks.

15.3.2.3 Sedimentation
Increased rates of sedimentation due to deforestation, land clearing and mining in
the surrounding provinces may lead to a reduction in the depth of the lake. This may
hamper the movement of migrating fish. Sedimentation may also lead to fish
mortality because of increased temperatures in the lake.

15.3.2.4 Dams
The potential impact of dams on the Mekong and it’s tributaries is of major concern
to the fishing industry of Cambodia. A reduction in flooding would reduce the area
available for fish breeding and feeding. Regulation of the water level of the Great
Lake resulting from the construction of any dams would almost certainly lead to a
reduction in fish production from the lake and the river. If dams are to be
constructed, such fish losses would have to be carefully weighted against the gains
from the projects.

Fig 15.5 The proposed site of the Mekong dam at Kopi, Kratie Province - such a dam would
have a major impact on fish migration

15.3.2.5 Outdated Fishery Laws and Management

The institutional and legal capacity of the Department of Fisheries to manage,
monitor, and control fishing activities is weak. The intensive fishing of recent years
has led to a reduction in catches of some large size fish species, such as the giant
catfish Pangasiondon gigas and Catlocarpio siamensis. Both species are protected
in Cambodia and when they are caught they must be returned to the water unharmed.
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Enforcement of this regulation is very difficult. As with other natural resources

corruption and other illegal activities is having a negative impact on fish stocks.

15.3.2.6 Fishing Lot System

The present industrial “fishing Lot” system does not encourage fishers to conserve
fish stocks, as the lots are auctioned every two years. This leads to fishing at an
unsustainable level, as the lot owner tries to gain maximum profit in that two year
period. If the leases were for a longer period of 5 or 10 years, then the lot owner
would have to implement better management practices of the fish stocks.

Fig. 15.6 Fishing gear being prepared on the Tonle Sap

15.4 Marine Fisheries in Cambodia

Cambodia’s 435 km coastline is shared by the provinces of Koh Kong, Kompong
Som, and Kampot. The marine fisheries account for 30,000 tonnes of fish annually.
Koh Kong was reported to have the biggest catch at 22,570 tonnes in 1990, 20,000
in 1991, and 17,000 in 1992. Only about 5% of the population live in these
provinces.

Cambodia has declared an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) which is from shore to
380km off shore. The NEAP reported that most of the boats fishing in Cambodia’s
EEZ are Thai or Vietnamese but that in Kompong Som province alone, 174 vessels
were registered in 1995. There is limited data available on marine fish stocks.
Information is available from one study carried out between 1983 and 1986 by the
Scientific Research Institute for Oceanography and Fisheries of the USSR. The

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study found more than 400 fish species and crustacean species from 94 families in
the EEZ. Very little information is available on catch statistics, and the data
available is probably an underestimate of the catch because it does not account for
foreign boats fishing in the EEZ and the fact that family fishers do not supply data.

15.4.1 Threats to Marine Fisheries

Mangrove forests are extremely important breeding grounds for many marine
species (see Chapter 9 for detail). Therefore the destruction of the mangrove forests
will have an adverse effects on fish stocks. Conversion of mangrove forest-land to
shrimp farms has serious impacts on the fish breeding grounds. Coral reefs which
are important fish habitats have already been damaged by human activities.
Destruction of seagrass beds is also likely to have an impact on fisheries. Oil
exploration and the development of any productive wells is likely to lead to the
contamination of certain areas of the Cambodian marine waters, which will also
have an impact on fish stocks.

The management or lack of enforcement of Marine Fisheries Law is also having an

adverse effect on fish stocks. Destructive fishing methods such as dynamite and use
of electricity is destroying fish breeding grounds and fish stocks. The Department
of Fisheries has little capacity to enforce the law, or to collect the data that is
needed to develop an appropriate marine fisheries management plan.

15.5 Aquaculture
Aquaculture or fish farming for raising fish and other aquatic food items in coastal
areas such as mangroves, as well as paddy fields, small ponds and other water
bodies, is widely practiced in South East Asia.

Fig 15.7 Large-scale shrimp farm operating in Koh Kong (IDRC/MoE)

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15.5.1 Coastal Shrimp Aquaculture

Coastal shrimp aquaculture and the trade in cultured shrimps has changed
dramatically since the 1960s and 1970s when industrial processes were introduced
so that large quantities of shrimp could be intensively raised for Japanese, North
American and European markets. These new techniques resulted in the expansion of
coastal shrimp aquaculture throughout Asia. Large tracts of coastal farmland and
mangrove forests were cleared to make way for these new industrial-scale
operations. In 1990, 556,500 metric tons of shrimps were collected in Asia,
representing 80% of the world’s shrimp aquaculture production, and more than
800,000 hectares of land were being used for coastal shrimp farming in Asia.

Although, large scale shrimp aquaculture has brought large short term benefits to
many private investors and multi-national corporations, it has also brought
numerous severe social and environmental problems. Traditional and more
sustainable methods of aquaculture have been replaced and now the shrimp
aquaculture is threatening much of the world’s mangrove forests and coastal
ecosystems.

15.5.1.1 Environmental Impacts of Shrimp Aquaculture

Mangroves have been depleted because of industrial development, the mangrove
charcoal industry and tourism, but in recent years hundreds of thousands of hectares
of Asian mangrove have been deforested and replaced by the shrimp aquaculture
industry. The shrimp industry has also been responsible for the degradation of large
tracts of productive farmland and a wide range of other natural resource-use, land-
use and pollution problems.

Fig 15.8 Cleaning of shrimp pond (IDRC/MoE)

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Apart from the destruction of the mangrove forests, the environmental problems
associated with shrimp farming include:
• The spread of diseases such as viruses, bacteria and infecting protozoa that
destroy crop after crop of shrimps. The farmers dump waste water directly into
canals and coastal waters thereby releasing the diseases into open seawaters;
• The intensive use of dangerous chemicals and antibiotics which decrease the
resistance of shrimp to diseases, but also affect plants and marine life of the
coastal environment and cause health risks to farmers and shrimp consumers;
• Ground subsidence and flooding is caused by over exploitation of ground water
supplies by farmers who need fresh water to mix with the salt water from the sea
in areas where shrimp farming is intensive;
• Contamination of groundwater supplies by pollutants and by salt water;
• Contamination of productive farmland by polluted and saline pond waters which
often leach into the surrounding soils,
• Coastal pollution, which causes many shrimp farms to fail.

Fig 15.9 Waste emissions from shrimp farm (IDRC/MoE)

15.5.1.2 Shrimp Farming in Thailand

Traditional style shrimp farming was first practiced in Thailand about 60 years ago.
No processed food, chemical additives or antibiotics were used then. Tides regulated
the water quality of the shrimp/rice rotating systems that developed. While some
mangroves were cut down to make way for the ponds, destruction was minimal
because shrimp aquaculture was conducted on a small scale. In the early 1970s,
intensive shrimp farming was introduced. The industry expanded rapidly and, by
1991, Thailand was exporting 111,000 metric tons of shrimp.

Massive areas of mangrove forests have been converted into shrimp farms and this
form of intensive farming has caused a large amount of pollution. Excessive
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pumping of groundwater has led to land subsidence and contamination of

groundwater supplies. As a result of the pollution of coastal waters, many of the
shrimp farms have failed. In other areas, large amounts of chemicals and antibiotics
are being used to prevent diseases from killing off whole crops of shrimp. While
these chemicals often fail to control the disease, they increase the level of pollution.
Some shrimp farmers have become wealthy, but many more have gone bankrupt
after the environment became poisoned and their valuable crops of shrimp have
failed. Most private Thai banks now refuse to give loans to Thai shrimp farmers
because of these problems.

Shrimp farming has already failed in many parts of Thailand, and the Thai
production of shrimps is likely to continue to decrease in the future with increased
pollution. However some of the large shrimp companies, who have benefited from
shrimp farming, are looking for shrimp farming opportunities in other countries.

15.5.1.3 Shrimp Farming in Cambodia

In 1993 about 200ha of large-scale shrimp aquaculture were established on
Cambodia’s coasts, and Thai companies are interested in expanding the shrimp
aquaculture industry here. These proposed shrimp farming projects could cause the
destruction of large tracts of mangrove forests and could contribute to coastal
pollution and other environmental and social problems in the same way that shrimp
farming has affected Thailand’s coastal environment

Figure 15.10 Aerial view of shrimp farms in Koh Kong (IDRC/MoE)

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Experience from Taiwan and Thailand has shown that intensive shrimp farming does
not bring benefits to coastal villagers. Such projects may benefit foreign investors,
but create environmental and social problems for Cambodians to reconcile.

15.5.2 Inland Aquaculture

Fish is the most important source of protein in Cambodia, but stocks have been
declining and this has reduced the quantity of fish available for consumption by the
rural population. This in turn has led to poor nutrition and health problems. To
improve a number of organizations in cooperation with the Department of Fisheries
have established appropriate and sustainable small-scale integrated farming systems
(IAQS). One of the biggest of these projects is SCALE {Southeast Asian Outreach
Cambodia Integrated Aquaculture on Low Expenditure} whose aim it is to assist the
Cambodian Government develop the productivity of inland fisheries.

The SCALE project has three important components:

• a detailed baseline analysis conducted in 1991-93 that provided detailed
knowledge and understanding of the project area;
• a pilot programme that facilitates farmer research using Farmer-Based Trials
(FBTs) owned and implemented by farmers. These FBTs test and refine potential
IAQS according to local physical and socioeconomic conditions. Sixty FBTs
have been carried out by 69 farmers over a four year period.
• promotion of farmer led extension to assist in establishing community-led
Farmer Clubs in each area where participating households are clustered. This is
seen as the key to wider implementation of the IAQS.

Some of the general results of the IAQS for 1995-1996 were:

• a pond fish yield of 3.8t/ha/yr;
• the fish harvest was made up of 73% cultured fish, 15% fingerling recruits and
12% wild fish;
• participants sold 51% of harvested fish, ate 43% at home and gave 6% as gifts.

Fig 15.11 Fish Pond at SCALE Kandal Project

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The significance of the project for participating villages has been:

• increased fish protein the diet of participating households;
• additional income brought by fish sales for participating households;
• increased availability of fish protein for sale in the village;
• improved self-esteem of participants as they become confident in sharing the
new knowledge and skills with others;
• improved status of women as they take in more and more pond management
activities and increased involvement in decision making.

15.6 Community Fisheries in Laos

Community fisheries has been adopted in some communities in Laos as one method
of managing fish stocks and addressing fish resource problems. The programme is
described in the following extract taken from “Inland Community Fisheries in
Southern Laos” by Ian. G Baird as reported in Naga -The ICLARM Quarterly,
January 1996.

Inland wild capture fisheries resources are extremely important to the people of
Khong District, Champasak Province, Southern Laos, which borders Cambodia and
is best known for the islands in the middle of the Mekong River. Almost every
family, that lives in the 135 villages on these islands, catches fish for daily
consumption and income. Apart from rice farming, fishing is the most important
occupation. However, fish catches have been declining over recent years.

The Lao government has recognized that there is considerable local knowledge
about aquatic life and problems related to its exploitation, and that a top down
management system is not the appropriate way to regulate the use of these
resources. Even if the Government had enough knowledge about the aquatic
ecology of the region and the socioeconomic factors affecting the resources to
design regulations to deal with the key issues, it would be extremely difficult to
enforce them in remote areas.

For these reasons, a co-management aquatic resource management system has been
developed by the provincial Agriculture and Forestry Division, the district
administration, and an NGO-supported government project called the Lao
community Fisheries and Dolphin Protection Project (LCFDPP). Since 1993, a co-
management system has evolved and been adapted to take local realities into
account. By 1996, 44 communities had set up and implemented fisheries and aquatic
resources management rules.

As part of the process to develop a co-management system for each village, a one
day workshop is held. The workshops have two main points:
• to outline the importance of sustainably managing fisheries and aquatic
resources, and
• to agree on a set of management and conservation measures.

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The village is not allowed to make discriminatory rules that give themselves greater
rights to resource exploitation than their neighbors and village leaders from
neighboring villages attend to give their opinions on the appropriateness of the
rules. Under Lao law, village rules are fully recognized, and village administrations
are entitled to enforce them on their own. Some villages chose warnings and social
pressure to ensure that rules are abided by, while others chose stronger measures to
ensure that the fish stocks are not exploited.

At the end of the workshop when all the measures for management have been
discussed, the rules are recorded and become “village law”. The village rules
development process is flexible, and as villagers gain experience, the rules can be
altered at village meetings if the majority of villagers agree.

In terms of the actual impact that conservation measures have had on fisheries and
other aquatic resources, the project recognizes that many positive results will not be
measurable for many years. Also, some measures may only slow the decline of
resources rather than stop it or increase populations. The villagers and the project
are also aware that many natural and human factors, such as seasonal flood levels,
forest destruction, industrial pollution and the construction of large dams are beyond
their control and may cause declines of particular resources in the future.
Nevertheless, in some of the villages species which have been depleted are showing
signs of recovery and these increases have been attributed to rules that have been
implemented since 1995.

15.7 How to Improve Fisheries Management

Possible actions for improving fisheries management include:
• Involvement of fishers and other stakeholders in planning and management of
fish stocks may reduce the over-harvesting of fish stocks. Lessons might be
learnt from the experience of community fishers in Laos.
• Developing the capacity of the Department of Fisheries.
• Adopting a co-management approach with the Department of Fisheries, fishers
and other local stakeholders, in order to increase the capacity to enforce
fisheries regulations.
• Developing alternative livelihoods for families living on or near the lake, in
order to provide an important source of income.
• Planning developments on the Mekong in Laos, Thailand and Vietnam, that will
not have adverse effects on the Mekong river, the Tonle Sap lake and their fish
stocks.
• Updating the Fisheries Law, and improving enforcement of the law.
• Reducing deforestation in the Tonle Sap watershed, to reduce the amount of
sediment entering the lake.
• Promoting reforestation projects in degraded forests in the Tonle Sap watershed.
• Preserving the flooded forests around the lake, since they are important fish
breeding grounds.

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• Promoting sustainable agricultural systems on the land surrounding the lake.

Agricultural pesticides and fertilizers may have disastrous effects on the ecology
of the lake.
• Providing of an alternative source of fuel (e.g. biogas), and/or introduce wood
efficient stoves.

References and Recommended Further Reading

Allaby, M. 1996. Basics of Environmental Science

Arms, K. 1990. Environmental Science

Baird, I.G., 1994. Community Management of Mekong River Resources in Laos

Baird, I.G. 1995. A Rapid Study of Fish and Fisheries; and Livelihoods and Natural
Resources along the Sesan River, Rattanakiri, Cambodia.

Baird, I.G., 1996. Inland Community Fisheries in Southern Laos

Baird, I.G. and Quarto, A., 1996. The Environmental and Social Costs of
Developing Coastal Shrimp Aquaculture in Asia.

GAIA, 1994. The GAIA Atlas of Planet Management.

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

Ministry of Environment, Cambodia, 1997. National Environmental Action Plan.

Raven, P., Berg, L. and Johnson, G., 1993. Environment

Tana, T.S., 1996. Mekong River and the Great Lake in Cambodia and the
Environmental Trends.

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Chapter 16

Agricultural Resources

16.1 Introduction
One of the greatest challenges facing the world today is to produce and distribute
enough food to feed the entire population. Millions of people, particularly in the
developing world, lack adequate nutrition. In the developing world, most farming is
at a subsistence level, with farmers producing barely enough food to feed
themselves and their families, with almost none left over as a reserve. Food supply
problems are being exacerbated because of the increasing human population.

Food and farming vary enormously in different parts of the world. But of the 3,000
or more plants and the 60 or more animals that people eat, a small proportion
supplies most of the world’s food. As agriculture becomes more intensive, the
number of plants and animals cultivated decreases. During the last fifty years,
increases in agricultural productivity have been quite amazing, but these have come
from less than ten species. In developed countries, energy intensive agricultural
methods produce high yields of food but cause environmental problems such as soil
erosion and pollution. Farming practices have also become more uniform due to the
transfer of agricultural practices and varieties developed in the developed world to
developing countries.

16.1.1 Nutrition
People are consumers; they cannot make their own food internally, but must take in
organic food from the environment. The nutrients that an animal must take in as
food may be divided into macronutrients and micronutrients. Macronutrients are
needed in large quantities and micronutrients are needed in smaller amounts.

16.1.1.1 Macro-Nutrients
The macronutrients are fats, carbohydrates and proteins. All three serve as sources
of the energy that people need to survive. The amount of energy available from a
given amount of macronutrient is commonly measured as the number of kilocalories
of heat it gives out when it is fully broken down. All three classes of macronutrient
also provide carbon atoms that are used by the body to form organic molecules. In
addition, proteins are digested to form amino acids, sub-units used to build the
body’s own proteins.

Macronutrients can be stored in various ways until the body needs them for energy.
Carbohydrates are stored in muscle and liver, and fats are stored as fat. Excess
carbohydrate is broken down and stored as fat.

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Fig. 16.1 Foods rich in proteins

16.1.1.2 Micro-Nutrients
Micronutrients are substances an organism must have in its diet in small quantities.
Micronutrients can be divided into vitamins, which are organic compounds, and
minerals, which are inorganic. Vitamin rich foods include fresh fruits and
vegetables, milk, liver and fish oil. Some minerals are needed in relatively large
amounts. Sodium and potassium, for instance, are vital to the working of every
nerve and muscle in the body. Sodium is used in the regulation of human body
temperature. Calcium is required for muscular activity and, with phosphorous, is
needed in large amounts for bone formation. Foods rich in minerals include meats,
milk and cheese, nuts and legumes.

Fig. 16.2Foods rich in vitamins and minerals

16.1.2 Food Problems

The three main food problems found in the world are under-nourishment, over-
nourishment and mal-nourishment.

16.1.2.1 Under-nourished, Malnourished and Over-nourished

The average adult must consume enough food to get approximately 2,100 - 2,600
kilocalories per day. If a person consumes less than this over an extended period of
time, their health will decline, even to the point of death. People who receive fewer
calories than they need are said to be under-nourished. Starvation is the word given
to death from lack of food.

The total number of calories consumed is not a measure of good nutrition, however.
People can receive enough calories in their diets but still be malnourished because
they do not receive enough of the essential nutrients such as proteins or vitamins.
For example, a diet of rice will provide enough calories, but it lacks sufficient
amounts of proteins, lipids, minerals, and vitamins to maintain normal body
functions. People suffering from malnutrition are more susceptible to disease and
have less strength to function productively than those who are well nourished.

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The main cause of under-nutrition and malnutrition is poverty and inadequate

knowledge regarding nutrition. The world’s poorest people often do not own land on
which to grow food and invariably, do not have the money to buy food.

Eating food in excess of what the body needs is called over-nutrition. Over-nutrition
is most common in developed nations. Generally, a person suffering from over-
nutrition has a diet high in saturated (animal) fats, sugar and salt. Over-nutrition
results in obesity, high blood pressure, and an increased likelihood of diabetes and
heart disease.

16.1.2.2 Nutrition in Cambodia

According to the 1997 UNDP report “Poverty and Human Development in
Cambodia” about fifty percent of all children aged 0-5 years are either stunted or
underweight, which appears to be due to long term chronic under-nutrition rather
than wasting from short-term, severe food shortages. Secondly, data suggests that
malnutrition of children is spread across all sectors of the population, with as many
as one third of all children aged 0-5 from the richest economic group (the richest
20% of the urban population) being underweight and almost 40% stunted. These
figures suggest that poverty is not the only factor contributing to child malnutrition
in Cambodia. Cultural and social factors appear to play an important role in child
malnutrition.

Explanations given for the high level of malnutrition are inadequate food intake
combined with diets and breast feeding customs of newborn babies and very young
children. Average intake per person is 2,300 calories per day in the rural areas and
only 2,150 calories in urban areas. The poorest 20% in urban areas consume, on
average, only 1,900 calories per person per day – 200 fewer calories than the
minimum daily calorie requirement proposed by FAO. The predominance of rice in
the Cambodian diet is believed to be a contributing factor, as the number of calories
per kilogram of rice is very low and therefore people may not be able to eat enough
calories to meet their energy needs.

16.1.2.3 Producing and Distributing Food

Producing enough food to feed the world’s people is the largest challenge in
agriculture today; the challenge is made all the more difficult because of the rate at
which the population is increasing. Currently 1.2 billion metric tonnes of grain such
as wheat, corn, rice and barley are required to feed the world’s population for one
year. An additional 250 million tonnes of grain must be produced each year to feed
the increase in population in that year.

Even if enough food could be produced in the world, there would still be financial
obstacles to feeding the world’s population. Production, transportation and
distribution of food costs money and the countries with food shortages are least able
to pay these costs. The developed countries that produce surplus food cannot afford

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or are unwilling to give away food free of charge. As a result, getting food to the
people who need it, is mainly an economic problem. Conflicts and political regimes
also add to food production and distribution problems.

16.2 The Main Types of Agriculture

Agriculture is often divided into two main types: high-input or intensive (industrial)
agriculture and subsistence agriculture. Most farmers in developed countries and
some in developing countries practice intensive agriculture. It is called intensive or
high input because it relies on large inputs of energy, mostly from fossil fuels, to
produce and run machinery, irrigate crops and produce chemicals such as fertilizers
and pesticides. High-input agriculture produces high yields of food per hectare of
farmland, but the costs are high. High-input agriculture creates environmental
problems such as soil degradation, pest resistance and water pollution.

Figure 16.3 Intensive farming ( ProNatur 1989)

Most farmers in Cambodia and other developing countries practice subsistence

agriculture. This form of agricultural production provides enough food to feed
oneself and one’s family, with little left over to sell to make an income or to keep
for times when crops fail. Subsistence agriculture, also requires a high input of
energy, but from humans and animals rather than from fossil fuels.

Some types of subsistence agriculture require large areas of land. Swidden

agriculture as practiced in the northeast of Cambodia, involves clearing small areas
of tropical forest to plant crops. When cultivated, the productivity of tropical soils
declines rapidly. As a result, farmers practicing swidden agriculture move from one
area of forest to another approximately every three years (Fig 16.4).

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Fig. 16.4 Chamcar (ETAP)

Some farmers are changing to forms of agriculture that cause fewer environmental
problems. Sustainable agriculture or low-input agriculture relies on beneficial
biological processes and environmentally friendly chemicals that break down
quickly and do not persist as residues in the environment. Sustainable agriculture
encourages farming systems that require low input and produce little waste.

16.2.1 The Influence of Technology on Agricultural Output

Advances made by research scientists led to a dramatic increase in food productivity
in the developed world in the 1950s. Breeders developed plants that gave higher
yields. Also greater knowledge of fertilizers and pesticides to control insects,
weeds, and disease causing organisms increased crop yields. The introduction of
antibiotics to control diseases increased animal production. The introduction of
high-yielding varieties to Asia and South America in the 1960s, known as the Green
Revolution enabled these countries to provide adequate food supplies to feed their
populations. The new varieties required high inputs of fertilizers, pesticides and
mechanized machinery.

Although the new technologies enabled countries to produce more food, many
people believe that the problems created by the technologies outweigh their benefits.
Problems associated with the green revolution include the damage caused to the
environment by fertilizers, pesticides and soil degradation, and also the large
amounts of energy used to produce inorganic fertilizers, to operate farm machinery,
and to construct irrigation systems.

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16.2.2 Food Processing

Most of the food eaten throughout the world is processed after harvesting.
Processing has two main aspects:
1. procedures such as drying, freezing, canning, pasteurizing, curing, irradiating
and refrigerating food to keep it from decaying;
2. food additives - chemicals that alter the taste, color or texture of food, improve
its nutritional content and/or prolong the life of the food.
Since agriculture forms such a major part of the Cambodian GDP, it is expected that
food-processing industries will play an important role in the economy in the future.

16.3 Agriculture in Cambodia

Agriculture, fisheries and forestry accounts for 45% of Cambodia’s GDP and
employs 80-85% of the labor force. The industry sector contributes 15 - 20% and the
service sector 33 - 36% of GDP. Agriculture is considered to be a priority area in
national development policy. Strategies have been developed to improve food
security, to stimulate economic growth, to increase rural incomes and to develop
agricultural export industries.

Figures recorded in the early 1990’s show that Cambodia’s main agricultural crop
was rice and that it contributed an average of 17% of national GDP. Livestock is the
third largest sub-sector, contributing 13% of GDP, and other crops and rubber
makes the fourth largest sub-sectoral contribution, at 10% of GDP. (Economic
Intelligence Unit, 1998)

Fig. 16.5 Rice growing in Takeo

Rice production occupied 88% of the total cropped area in 1993 (refer to Table
16.1). Economically, rubber, maize and sweet potato cultivation has been the most
important non-rice crops in the early 1990s. Palm oil and cashew are emerging crops
with large plantations being developed along route 4 and other fertile areas.

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Crop Type Planted Area (ha)

Rice 1,891,600
Maize 48,000
Soy bean 16,000
Mung bean 23,000
Sweet potato 50,000
Cassava 16,000
Tobacco 18,000
Groundnut 7,000
Sesame 13,000
Jute and Kenaf 2,000
Sugar Cane 6,000
Vegetables- other No Figures
Rubber 53,000
Total Crop 2,143,600
Table 16.1 shows the crop areas for 1993 (Source: Adapted from Bulletin of Ag. Stats.
1993 No.4 as presented in CIAP Rice Production in Cambodia)

16.3.1 Farming Systems

There is an estimated 1.2 - 1.3 million farming households in Cambodia. These
farmers have been divided into four groups with different agricultural practices and
attitudes:
• rice producers, most of whom produce rainfed lowland rice and who own a few
animals and make a small income from sugar palm tapping; Other rice farmers
grow either flood recession paddy rice or floating paddy and earn money with
seasonal work in the cities and towns or by cutting and selling timber;
• commercially minded non-rice farmers who produce and sell crops such as
tobacco, fruits and vegetables on river banks, e.g. vegetable farmers in Kien
Svay;
• upland farmers who make a living from permanent or seasonal crops such as
soybean and mungbean, and keep some livestock and grow some rice;
• indigenous farmers who practice swidden agriculture in the northeast of the
country.
Ref: Cambodia: First State of the Environment Report 1994

16.3.2 Production Systems

Two main forms of production systems have been described for the country;
• rice-based farming systems which are described according to the flood regime,
planting season, level of water control, planting pattern, topography and soil
type; (See Chapter 6, Rice Ecosystems for more detail)

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• multicropping systems as practiced along the banks of the Mekong, on the brown
and red soil of Kompong Cham, Rattanakiri, Mondulkiri, and Kratie, and on the
black soils of Battambang.

16.3.3 An Integrated Farming System Promoted on Cambodian Farms

A number of organizations, have been encouraging small farmers to adopt a more
integrated approach to farming, in order to improve their food security, to produce
food that can be sold at the market and to improve the quality of the environment.
Such farms normally incorporate the following:
• Ricefield - the rice provides food for the family, seed for the following season,
and rice bran that can be used to feed fish or pigs
• A manmade fishpond for aquaculture - the fish provide an important source of
protein for the family and provides the farmer with a means of using various
wastes as food for the pond.
• A natural pond - duck weeds, particularly Lemna, Azolla and Wolfia can be used
as fish feed. These can be collected from ponds on the farm or from ponds
nearby.
• Pond dikes and surrounding areas are used for growing various vegetable and
fruits.Trees or small shrubs - Leaves Leucena, Sesbania , water hyacinth,
morning glory and Kapok are used with rice bran and fed to fish.
• Vegetable garden - farmers close to markets grow vegetables such as cucumbers,
chili, papaya, beans, egg plants, sweet potato, etc. The waste leaves are used to
feed fish.
• Cows and pigs - the animal wastes are used as fertilizer for plant growing and
for the pond. Pigs are raised as a source of income and waste from pigs can also
be used as a fertilizer. In a situation where there is a fishpond, the number of
mosquitoes will be high and these may cause a problem for pigs. The waste from
cows, pigs, or buffalo can be used to produce methane gas in a biodigester.
• Slaughter house - waste from a slaughterhouse can be used as feed for fish.
• Earthworm pit - earthworms are a source of fish feed. Earthworms can be
produced in small pits filled with productive manure that is inoculated with
worms. Collecting worms from paddy fields is not encouraged, as these worms
are useful for maintaining soil quality.
• Biodigester - the biodigester produces gas from animal waste and from latrines,
which can be then be used for cooking by the family. This reduces the amount of
firewood that the family needs to collect, saving both time and money.
• Compost - kitchen and plant waste is composted to prepare an organic fertilizer
that can be used for plants or for the fish.
• Tree nursery - in some areas farmers have included a small tree nursery in their
farm. In the nursery they cultivate native species of trees which can be sold to
schools and other farmers who want to plant native trees.

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Fig. 16.6 Use of waste on an integrated farming system compared with a conventional
system.

16.4 Plantation Crops in Cambodia

The only plantation crop of importance to the Cambodian economy has until
recently been rubber. However, 1995 saw the introduction of oil palm that is likely
to develop into a major export commodity in the future.

16.4.1 Oil Palm

Oil palm originated in West Africa and was brought to Asia in the nineteenth
century by European colonists. Oil palm production requires tropical climates with
2000mm of annual rainfall and a temperature range of 28-33°C. Countries within 5
degrees north or south of the equator have this climate, while those further away
have long dry periods which reduce oil palm yields if irrigation is unavailable.
Indonesia and Malaysia took up commercial planting of oil palm in 1915 and 1917
respectively. By the 1970s South East Asia had become the largest producer of
quality palm oil in the world. Oil palm has recently been introduced to Cambodia

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with a 20,000 ha plantation and mill in Rattanakiri province and plantations are
currently been developed in Koh Kong Province along Route 4.

Fig. 16.7 Oil palm Plantation Malaysia

16.4.2.1 Uses
Oil palm is used to produce vegetable oil for food
products, soap and detergents. Palm oil is a rich
source of Vitamin E.

Fig 16.8 Vitamin E

16.4.2.2 Plantation Site

Plantations are usually established in areas of primary or high secondary forest. The
forest is logged and the undergrowth is cleared and finally the remaining dried out
forest material is burned in preparation for the plantation.

16.4.2.3 Propagation
Oil palm is propagated from seed. Seed is heat treated and pre-germinated with the
subsequent germinated seeds planted into nursery beds or polythene liners.
Seedlings remain in the nursery for approximately 10-20 months. Prior to planting,
saplings are sorted and the weak plants are omitted.

16.4.2.4 Planting
Oil palm is planted with a plant density of approximately 150 palms per hectare. If
planted at a higher density palms may give a higher initial yield but the yield will
slowly decrease as the tree gets older necessitating more frequent replanting of the
plantation. The physical terrain determines the layout of the plantation. The first
fruit bunches ripen 3-4 years after planting.
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16.4.2.5 Husbandry
Undergrowth is controlled in the early years of a plantation to allow the palms to
establish. Weeds are controlled to avoid competition for fertilizer with the palms.
The removal of nutrients in fruit bunches is high and therefore soils are fertilized to
maintain optimum growth and yields. Oil palms are replaced when the yields of the
palms begin to drop significantly, which generally occurs after 25 years.

16.4.2.6 Harvesting
The time from flowering to harvesting of ripe fruits is 5-6 months. Fruit bunches are
borne in the axils of lower leaves in bunches with an average weight of 50kg. The
oil palm produces fruit bunches throughout the year. Fruit bunches are harvested by
workers who make harvesting rounds every 10 days because harvesting at the
correct time is crucial. Under ripe bunches have a low oil content and overripe
bunches produce oil with a high fatty acid content which is undesirable. One hectare
of oil palm can yield 5 tonnes of palm oil and 0.5 tonnes of palm kernel oil as a co-
product.

Fig. 16.9 Oil Palm Fruit

16.4.2.7 Processing
Oil is removed from the mesocarp (pulp) and the kernel (seed). Rapid extraction of
fruit from the bunch is essential to prevent an increase in free fatty acids that result
in lowering the quality of the oil. Processing of the bunches involves sterilization
and stripping, milling of fruit, extraction of the mesocarp oil, kernel extraction and
cleaning and processing. The resulting oil is crude palm oil and needs to be refined
further before use.

16.4.2.8 Environmental Issues Associated with Palm Oil Production

• Degradation of areas of primary or high secondary forest to plant oil palm
plantations with a subsequent loss in biodiversity etc.
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• Burning off of cleared forest areas. This has proven a major concern in
Indonesia where fires have got out of control and rekindled themselves
following the wet season. The resulting fires have not only caused loss of life
and losses of livelihood to many but have also resulted in major pollution
problems from Indonesia to Singapore, Malaysia and southern Thailand. In the
case of plantation crops this situation could be averted through improved
utilization of by products such as clearings. Ideally the clearings would be
chipped and the resulting mulch used to conserve moisture in the plantation and
also contribute to the fertilizer requirement of the plantation on rotting.
• The wood from old plantations could be used in furniture making or as a
building material therefore avoiding burning.
• Palm oil processing plants need to be located near a good source of clean water.
Over time this may become polluted from effluent, affecting users downstream.
• Waste plant material from the processor could be used as a source of power in
the mill as is done with the waste from sugarcane mills.
• To maintain yields at a commercial level, plantations require large amounts of
water to irrigate. If rainfall is not sufficient to satisfy the crop water
requirements or is not forthcoming at regular intervals, an irrigation source must
be provided. Over time as water use increases, the aquifer may become depleted
impacting other users of the aquifer in addition to the plantation owners.
• High levels of artificial fertilizers are required to maintain yields at commercial
levels, especially if plantations are planted on marginal land. This use of
fertilizer may contribute to pollution problems in the future if monitoring is not
carried out on a regular basis.

16.4.2 Rubber

Fig. 16.10 Rubber plantation, Kompong Cham

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Environmental concerns associated with rubber plantations are similar to those

associated with oil palm. They include:
• loss of land by indigenous communities to business developers and the
associated loss of livelihoods and traditional ways of life;
• clearing of natural forests to make way for the plantation, leading to a loss of
biodiversity;
• loss of non-timber forest products for local communities;
• air pollution when burning is used to clear the land;
• increased pests and rodents;
• increased use of pesticides and fertilizers which pollute nearby water sources;
• pollution from the processing of latex; and
• increased soil erosion and reduced run-off control.

References and Recommended Further Reading

Allaby, M. 1996. Basics of Environmental Science

Arms, K. 1990. Environmental Science

AIT ?????

CIAP, 1994. Rice Production in Cambodia.

FAO, 1994. Cambodia – Agricultural Development Options Review (Phase 1)

GAIA, 1994. The GAIA Atlas of Planet Management.

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

Palm Oil ????

Raven, P., Berg, L. and Johnson, G., 1993. Environment

UNDP, 1994. Cambodia: First State of the Environment Report

UNDP, 1997. Poverty and Human Development in Cambodia: A National Human

Development Report

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Chapter 17

Forests

17.1 Introduction
Forests cover approximately one-third of the earth’s total land area. During the last
40 years, at least one third of the world’s forests have been cut down and converted
to other uses. In Cambodia forests still cover a large portion of the land, but all
remaining forests have been sold as concessions to commercial companies.

17.1.1 The Importance of Forests

Management and protection of the remaining forests is extremely important for the
environment because:
• Forests play an essential role in global biogeochemical cycles, particularly, the
oxygen, carbon and nitrogen cycles. Photosynthesis by trees removes large
quantities of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and fixes it into carbon
compounds. At the same time, oxygen is released into the atmosphere and
energy from the sun is converted into a usable form.
• Tree roots hold large amounts of soil in place, reducing erosion. Forests are
effective watersheds because they absorb, hold, and slowly release water; this
provides a more regulated flow of water, even during dry periods, and helps to
control floods.

Figure 17.1 Forests play an important role in the hydrologic cycle by returning
most of the water that falls as precipitation to the atmosphere by transpiration.

• Forests also influence climatic conditions. The air inside a forest is cooler and
moister than the air outside the forest because of a biological cooling process

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called transpiration in which water from the soil is absorbed by roots and
transported through the plant, and then evaporated from their leaves and stems.
Transpiration also provides moisture for clouds, eventually resulting in
precipitation.

• Timber (wood) plays a part in more activities in the modern economy than any
other commodity, and almost every major industry depends on forest products in
at least one of its processes. Timber harvested from forests is used for fuel and
construction materials. Wood is also processed to make plywood, veneer,
hardboard, particleboard, chipboard and paper. The wood industry has expanded
by more than 50% since 1965 and the world’s industrial timber harvest now
amounts to 1.7 billion cubic meters per year (Fig. 17.2).

Fig. 17.2 Forest –Based Industries (Byrne, 1997)

• Forests also maintain ecological diversity; they provide essential wildlife

habitats; act as major gene reservoirs and are one of the main sites of the
emergence of new species.

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• Non-Timber Forest Products (NTFPs) such as fruits, rattan, bamboo and

vegetables are extremely important for communities living close to forests.

17.2 Forestry and Economic Development

When managed properly, forests provide many different products, on a renewable
basis, which can lead to the development of a number of separate industries. This
creates jobs and wealth for developing countries. Figure 17. 2 shows a simplified
guide to forest industries.

17.2.1 Timber Production

Figure 17.3 shows the pattern of trade in forest products in developed and
developing countries. Developed countries produce and consume most of the forest
products. In the past countries in Asia exported raw logs to Western countries. They
then imported the processed and more valuable products that the western countries
had made from the raw materials. In recent years such countries have developed
their own processing industries and therefore raised the value of products they
export.

In Cambodia woodfuels are the most popular sources of energy for the majority of
the population. Firewood and charcoal are the dominant source of energy for
cooking with the domestic sector, and are used extensively by industry and services.
Data from the National Institute of Statistics (1997) shows that 97.7% of the
population uses wood energy.

Fig. 17.3 Transport of firewood from the forest in Siem Reap and charcoal in
Kompong Chhnang

The subject of timber production from Cambodian forests is a very controversial

issue. It is therefore discussed separately in Chapter 27.

17.2.2 Non-Timber Forest Products

Forest products have customarily been divided into two groups: (a) major, and (b)
minor products. The first category consists of timber, small wood and fuel wood
while the second includes bamboo, rattan, grasses, barks, etc. and animal products.
This category even includes some intangible goods and services, such as soil and
water conservation, oxygen supply, restoration or maintenance of an ecological and

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environmental balance. All forest products other than wood have, therefore, been
classified as non-timber forest products (NTFPs). These products have numerous
direct and indirect uses, and generate tangible and intangible benefits for people, not
only those living in or near the forests but also outside. They also contribute to the
total revenue from the forestry sector.

The 1995 survey1 on NTFPs found that although NTFPs are harvested seasonally
and only on a small scale, they provide villagers in northern Rattanakiri with a large
percentage of their disposable income. A 1996-97 economic analysis of NTFPs
estimated that both subsistence (firewood, wood for house construction, medicinal
plants) and income-generating collection of forest products produced a value of
$3,992 per hectare in comparison with the collection of $1,708/ha by State from
timber royalties.

The most well known NTFPs collected in Cambodia are bamboo, rattan, eagle wood,
tannins and dyes, medicinal plants, edible products, gums and resins and products
from bees as described below.

17.2.2.1 Bamboo
Bamboo is used extensively as a substitute for timber in construction, scaffolding,
ladders, bridges, fences, etc. Many items used daily, including baskets, handles,
beds, sticks, brushes, pipes, toys, musical instruments, water containers, rafts, rods
and fishing traps, are made from various bamboo species. Bamboo shoots are a
popular food for people and bamboo leaves and young branches form a valuable
food for animals.

17.2.2.2 Rattan
Rattans are climbing palms whose stems are used in a wide variety of products,
ranging from baskets to furniture, fish traps and tying twine, being second only to
bamboo in the diversity of their uses.

Fig. 17.4 Rattan and bamboo

1
In Cambodia, the most detailed information on marketable NTFPs has been collected in
Rattanakiri by Ian Baird in 1995 and by Camille Bann’s team in 1996.
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17.2.2.3 Tannins and Dyes

Tannins and dyes are substances produced by almost every plant part - leaf, stem,
root, fruit and bark. Tannins are important in food processing, food ripening and in
the production of tea, cocoa and wine. Commercially, the extracts of tannins are
used for tanning leather, for inks and dyes.

17.2.2.4 Eaglewood
Eaglewood is an extremely expensive NTFP. Aquilaria trees produce a type of
fungus which when scraped off of the wood can be sold for hundreds of dollars for
very small amounts. It is in high demand in the Middle East where it is used as
fragrant incense. Over exploitation of eagle wood means that it is now extremely
difficult to find in Cambodia.

17.2.2.5 Traditional Medicines

Forests generate a number of drugs, which have been known to people for centuries.
Traditional health care has been based on herbal medicine and many of the modern
drugs are based on traditional medicines. Drugs are derived from various parts of
plants fruits, flowers, leaves, stems and roots.
The 1996 survey on medicinal plants in Rattanakiri2 found that:
• use of traditional medicine is widespread and essential to the rural communities
of the province;
• traditional healers use as many as 600 to 800 medicinal plants in their practice
of medicine;
• using traditional collection methods of plant materials for medicinal purposes
normally has limited effect on natural plant populations, but deforestation is
having a negative impact on supplies of traditional medicine;
• traditional doctors known as Kru, work within separate well-defined regions and
therefore they do not compete for plant resources and patients.

17.2.2.6 Food
In Cambodia, many people, especially the hill tribes and people living close to the
forests, rely on wild food for part of their diets. Plant parts can be classified as:
1. root, tuber
2. shoot
3. stem
4. leaf
5. bark
6. flower bud
7. fruit, seed, seed pod
8. seedling
For insects either the adults or the larvae are eaten. People living in or close to the
forest eat most species of wild birds and animals as food. Over exploitation of
wildlife has led to the depletion of most species in Cambodia.

2
by Pascale Derleth
220 Chapter 17
 Forests

Fig. 17.5 Resin tree

17.2.2.7 Products from Bees

The bee products known to have importance in Cambodia are honey and wax. The
main use of honey is for household use as food or a sweetener. Bees wax is used to
make candles.

17.2.2.8 Gums and Resins

Gums and resins have many uses in the food, paper, textile, printing,
pharmaceutical, paint, varnish and ink industries and are produced by many plant
families. In Cambodia, people regularly tap and burn holes in the trunks of large
dipterocarp trees to get resin. The use this for boat making repairs and for torches.
There is little documented information on other uses of gums and resins.

17.3 Management of Forests

When forests are managed, their species composition and other characteristics are
altered. Specific varieties of trees are planted, not only to conserve the forest in
areas where trees have been removed by fire or commercial harvest, but also to
prevent soil erosion and preserve watersheds. Forest management often results in
low-diversity forests. In northern latitudes where pine forests are grown for timber
and paper production, all the trees are the same age and are planted in rows a certain
distance apart. These forests are monocultures - areas covered by one crop, like a
field of rice. Rubber and palm oil plantations are also monocultures. Among the
disadvantages of monocultures are that:
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• they are prone to damage by insect pests and disease-causing micro-organisms

and consequently pests and diseases must be controlled in managed forests,
usually by applying pesticides;
• they lack the non-timber forest products that provide food and important
incomes for local communities;
• a lack of biodiversity;
• often their root systems are not as effective in preventing erosion and controlling
run-off as are diverse forests;
• vast quantities of water are often needed for irrigation, e.g. oil palm.

What is sustainable forest management?

There are several related definitions of sustainable forest management.
According to The World Resources Institute in its report “ Surviving the Cut:
Natural Forest Management in the Humid Tropics” to most foresters, natural forest
management is
“the controlled and regulated harvest of timber species in natural forests, combined
with the use of various silvicultural and protective measures to sustain or increase
the commercial value of forest stands that return after the initial logging”.

In contrast the International Tropical Timber Organisation (ITTO) defines

sustainable forest management as the
“process of managing permanent forest land to achieve one or more clearly defined
specific objectives of management with regard to a continuous flow of desired
forest products and services without undue reduction in its inherent values and
future productivity and without undesirable effects on the physical and social
environment”.

The ITTO definition is important because it recognizes the importance of non-

timber forest management. The Smithsonian Tropical forestry Workshop defined
sustainable forest management as
“harvesting that does not diminish the benefits of future generations; this requires
protection of soil, water, wildlife & and timber resources in perpetuity”.

17.3.1 Harvesting Techniques

Trees are harvested in several ways - by selective cutting, seed tree cutting, clear
cutting, and whole-tree harvesting. Selective cutting, in which mature trees are cut
individually or in small clusters while the rest of the forest remains intact, allows
the forest to regenerate naturally. The trees left by selective cutting produce seeds
that germinate and grow, replacing the trees that have been cut. Selective cutting has
less negative impacts on the forest environment than other methods of tree harvest,
but it is not as profitable as timber removed in large quantities (See Fi.17.6a)

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17.6 (a) Selective cutting of mature trees (Raven et al. 1993)

17.6 (b) Clear cutting of forests (Raven et al. 1993)

In seed tree cutting, almost all trees are harvested from an area; a small number of
trees are left behind to provide seeds for the regeneration of the forest. Clear cutting
is the removal of all trees from an area. After the trees have been removed by clear-
cutting, the area is either allowed to re-seed and regenerate itself naturally or it is
planted with other crops. Timber companies prefer clear-cutting because it is the
most profitable way to harvest trees; also very little road building has to be done to
harvest large numbers of trees. However, clear-cutting is ecologically disastrous. It
destroys wildlife habitats that may take years to restore. It is possible that animals
may become extinct during this time. On sloping land, clear-cutting increases soil
erosion. Also the benefits of the forests for local communities and for tourism are
lost when clear cutting occurs.

17.3.2 Sustainable Management of Natural Forests

Normally, management of natural forests involves selective cutting, but some
approaches may involve clear felling in narrow strips or small patches. Sustainable
timber production demands that harvests, averaged over time, do not exceed the
forest’s regeneration rate and that topsoil, site fertility, and the genetic potential of
the desired species are not irreversibly lost. Some forms of natural forest
management emphasize multiple-use, however, including timber harvesting.

Many traditional communities living in the tropical forests have for centuries been
concerned about the sustainability of forests as they hold their land in trust for
future generations. Current concepts of sustainable management of tropical forests
come from timber management techniques developed in Europe. Many of the

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techniques were simply transferred from temperate and northern coniferous forests
to the tropics where they were often found to be inappropriate. As a result very little
of the world’s tropical forests are being managed sustainably for timber production.
According to the WRI report it is often socio-political obstacles that prevent
sustainable management rather than technical obstacles.

Few forestry experts define sustainability explicitly in terms of natural forest

management. Instead, the emphasis is on a continuous yield of timber. Some include
the maintenance of other forest values such as biodiversity and ecological functions,
but don’t specify what is to be sustained. Others claim that natural forests, with all
their diversity cannot be completely protected within the framework of commercial
forestry. Without banning people from the forests, preserving all of the forests’
attributes is considered impossible by many.

Defining sustainability narrowly as the production of a continuous yield of

marketable timber is seen as a mistake by WRI, even if NTFPs are taken into
account. By definition, natural forest management should keep human uses of
forests at a level compatible with the maintenance of the ecological processes that
sustain them. Even if timber production is the primary management objective,
sustaining some level of environmental services and biological diversity should be
part of that objective, along with maintaining the forest’s capacity to meet diverse
human needs apart from those for employment or wood products.

Land conversion, over-exploitation, or institutional and economic instability mars

the results of most attempts to manage natural forests worldwide before conclusive
evidence of sustainability becomes available. Agricultural clearing, timber
poaching, and conversion to oil palm and rubber plantations have meant the end of
sustainable practices in Indonesia, Malaysia, Ivory Coast and Columbia.

17.3.3 Management of Cambodian Forests

The Department of Forestry and Wildlife of the MAFF manage Cambodian forests.
The main objectives of the department of Forestry and Wildlife are towards
sustainable forestry and the maintenance and stability of forest biodiversity. Of the
total forestland, 31% lies within protected areas, 60% has been allocated as forest
concessions, with only 9% unallocated. Detailed information on concessions is
available in Chapter 27, Forest Issues in Cambodia.

17.4 Community Forestry

FAO (1978) has defined community forestry as any situation that intimately
involves local people in a forestry activity. A wide range of activities can therefore
be classified as community forestry: the establishment of communal (commune)
forests for fire wood and local timber use; community protection and management
of existing virgin forest areas; the planting of trees in a village school, along local
roads and other communal areas; and incorporating trees on farms. Objectives may
be focused on specific timber and forest resource needs for local communities or on
224 Chapter 17
 Forests

broader environmental regeneration/protection, or (most often) a combination of

these. As the name implies, there are two main aspects of any community forestry
initiative, the community and the forest. Both are equally important and
independent.

The Term Community Forestry

The “Community” concerns the people aspects of forestry and includes building
community commitment, strengthening of community groups, education, networking
and defining roles and responsibilities.
The “Forestry” involves the technical aspects of forestry and agro-forestry, species
selection, tree propagation, nursery management, forest maintenance and care,
sustainable harvest approaches, etc. It also includes developing diversified farming
systems that incorporate trees.

17.4.1 Main Principles and Characteristics of a Community Forestry

Project
Community forestry is not a technology in itself, but rather an approach to forest
management, and can take on many forms depending on the social and ecological
environment in any given area. So although it is difficult to describe an ‘ideal’
community forestry initiative, there are main principles and characteristics that
make a sound project:

Community Participation - Although outside development workers can certainly

play a role in terms of coordination, facilitation, and technical training and support,
a community forestry initiative is not likely to be effective unless the idea gains
support from the community itself, and the community participates in the planning,
implementation and management of the project from beginning to end.
Responding to Genuine Community Needs / Priorities - Problems perceived by
outsiders are often very different from those perceived by local people. Local needs
/ priorities must be identified and it must be clear that a community forestry
initiative will respond to these in a practical way. A balance between long-term
environmental considerations and practical short - term needs for food and income
must be met.

Education / Awareness - It is necessary to generate awareness and discussions about

problems and strategies relating to forestry, natural resource management and
farming by working together with schools, village elders, religious leaders and other
community groups. It is useful if these issues can be incorporated into existing
educational and cultural activities. Learning and sharing with other groups and
communities working on similar initiatives is an effective way of raising awareness
of the benefits of community forest projects. Linking and fostering good relations
with surrounding communities/villages and government officials is also important.

Gender Analysis / Involvement of Women - Because women are usually responsible

for the gathering of forest foods, firewood and water, women have often been more
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adversely affected by the loss of forests than any other groups in the community.
Analysis of male / female roles in forest-related activities should be part of the
baseline survey. The role that women will have in planning and decision making and
the way that the community forestry project relates to both practical and strategic
needs of women as well as those of men must be clear and must a priority.

Clear Roles, Guidelines and Responsibilities - Issues that need to be clearly defined
are
• the areas to be protected or planted,
• the people who will do the planting,
• the role of existing community groups,
• the individuals or groups who are responsible for forest protection and
maintenance,
• the role of NGOs and outside agencies, and
• Community guidelines and rules.

Legal and Land Tenure Issues - It needs to be established whether or not the
villagers have a legal right to plant and manage forests on the designated area, and
support needs to be got from the local government and forestry officials.

Technical Training and Extension - NGOs and facilitators can assist with tree
propagation, planting techniques, maintenance and care, pest management, nursery
management, agro-forestry, species selection, etc.
Sustainable Forest Product Harvesting - Community guidelines for sustainable
harvesting of timber, bamboo, mushrooms, fruit, rattan, wild honey, herbs and other
forest products for consumption and marketing of forest products must be prepared
and agreed on by community members.

Exploring Alternatives to the Use of Wood - Use of alternative technologies such as

low-fuel cookers, biogas, mud bricks, etc. must be investigated to reduce
dependence on forest products, especially timber. NGOs can normally assist with
this type of training.

Links with Sustainable / Integrated Agriculture - It is extremely important to link

community forestry to more sustainable and diversified farming systems if forest
encroachment is to be reduced.

Minimize Dependence on External Support and Funding - The community should be

clear that its aim is towards a self-managed ‘low external input’ system in the
future.

17.4.2 Issues and Obstacles Affecting Community Forestry

Despite the fact that the idea of community involvement in forestry programmes is
being increasingly promoted not just by NGOs and community groups, but also by

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 Forests

governments, academic institutions and large international development agencies

(including FAO and UNDP), there is still a large gap between reality and rhetoric.
In addition, there are many institutional, legal and socio-economic obstacles that
need to be overcome before widespread promotion and adoption of community
forestry is possible.

The primary issue for consideration is land tenure and government policy on
community management of forestland. In many cases it is the loss of local and
customary land rights that has contributed to the degradation of the forest. Many of
the traditional communities that have sustainably managed the forest in the past
have no legal land rights. It is up to governments to develop policies and
institutional mechanisms that support community forestry.

Other obstacles include lack of technical skills, resources and seeds; the need for
coordination between villages; conflict of interest within and between communities;
conflict with commercial logging interests, and the immediate and practical needs of
communities for fuelwood and food which often have to take precedence over long-
term activities such as community forestry.

17.4.3 Community Forestry in Cambodia

Community forestry is a relatively new concept in Cambodia. The two best-known
community forestry projects that have been successfully implemented are an MCC
project in Prey Ler Forest Takeo and the Concern project in Kompong Chhnang. A
recent proposal by six hill-tribe villages in Rattanakiri is also an interesting example
of a potential community forestry project. This report uses the MCC projects as an
example of community forestry in Cambodia

17.4.3.1 “Prey Ler” Forest, Tramkok District, Takeo Province

The first community forestry project established here in 1992 was on 500 hectares
of degraded forest at Prey Ler, Tramkok District, Takeo province. The NGO, MCC,
cooperated with the Central Forestry Department to implement an integrated
community development project in 12 villages adjacent to the forest.

The development of the project from the inception are outlined as follows:
1. Identification and prioritization of needs (low soil fertility, low rice yields and
rice shortages) by the target villages;
2. Establishment of rice banks, green manure trials and fertilizer revolving funds to
address the priority needs;
3. Discussions with villagers to help identify the link between the priority needs
and the environmental degradation;
4. Workshops to determine villagers dependence on forest products, documentation
of useful species from the forest, prediction of the impact of further forest
degradation on the villagers; identification of the constraints to sustainable
management of the state forest land and options for tenure of state forest land;

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design of agroforestry systems based on the needs, preference and experience of

the villagers;
5. Definition of goals for wanting to protect secondary forest.
6. Election of a Forest Protection Committee (FPC) by each village;
7. Development of village level management and decision-making institutions;
8. Formation of village forest protection guards and demarcation and patrolling of
the community forest;
9. Development of guidelines for official recognition of village community forest
areas and approval of guidelines by the Forestry Department;
10. Demarcation and mapping of boundaries by consensus with village FPC;
11. Establishment of low-input, village managed tree nurseries.

17.4.3.2 Poey Commune, Rattanakiri

In 1997, six Kreung hill-tribe villages in Poey commune, Rattanakiri, applied for
permission to protect 5,000 hectares of forestland for 99 years. The objective of the
villagers is to have continued access to the natural resources that they traditionally
had access to. Under the forest management plan, the Ya Poey Community Forestry
Association pledges to use the natural resources just for its needs. Members may cut
and collect bamboo, rattan and other plants for village use, but not for commercial
exploitation. Hunting of small animals and fish is permitted, but only with
traditional gear such as crossbows and nets. Hunting endangered species such as
elephants and tigers is prohibited. Regulations also prohibit clearing land for
gardens or farms with the designated area.

At the present time, March 1998,villagers still wait for national recognition. The
issuing of new forest concessions by the government in the same area of Rattanakiri
province may influence their decision on allowing this community forestry project
to progress.

Fig. 17.7 Location of Poey commune

228 Chapter 17
 Forests

References and Recommended Further Reading

Allaby, M. 1996. Basics of Environmental Science

Arms, K. 1990. Environmental Science

Baird, I.G. 1995. A Rapid Study of Fish and Fisheries; and Livelihoods and Natural
Resources along the Sesan River, Rattanakiri, Cambodia.

Bann, C., 1997. An Economic Analysis of Tropical Forest land Use Options,
Rattanakiri Province, Cambodia.

Byrne, K., 1997. Environmental Science: University of Bath –Science 16-19.

Derleth, P., 1996. Medicinal Plant Survey, Rattanakiri, Cambodia.

FAO, 1985. Non-wood Forest Products in Thailand.

GAIA, 1994. The GAIA Atlas of Planet Management.

Johnson, N. and Cabarle, B., 1993. Surviving the Cut: Natural Forest Management
in the Humid Tropics.

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

NTFP, 1997. Unpublished. Community Forest Management Plans for Poey

Commune

Raven, P., Berg, L. and Johnson, G., 1993. Environment

UNDP, CEMP and IDRC, 1997. Wood Energy Flow Study of Phnom Penh.

Anon, 1994. Report on Sustainable Management of Natural Resources Through

Community Participation – Indochina Regional Workshop

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Chapter 18

Energy

Compiled by: Peter Johnston, ETAP

18.1. Introduction
Energy – the ability to do work – is a key requirement for all living things. It is essential for
all aspects of life: growing crops, cooking food, transporting people, operating a business,
keeping warm or cool, producing goods in factories, etc. In general, people are not interested
in energy itself but rather in the essential services which energy can help to provide. This
chapter discusses the use of both commercial and non-commercial energy in Cambodia.

Energy is described as ‘commercial’ if it is usually traded, bought or sold for money

commercially. A rapid increase in national commercial energy consumption is often
considered by government planners as a key engine of economic growth and development.
Examples of commercial energy are petroleum products (such as gasoline. Kerosene and
diesel fuel), nuclear energy, gas and coal. Often international statistics on energy use which
are prepared by the United Nations or the World Bank refer only to commercial energy,
particularly oil and electricity. ‘Non-commercial’ energy use is primarily wood and other
biomass used by families for cooking and by businesses and industry for heating. As in most
developing countries, traditional (non-commercial) energy accounts for over 80% of total
national use but commercial energy accounts for nearly all of the money invested in energy
infrastructure and spent on energy production. 1

18.2. Commercial Energy

Figure 18.1 provides information on commercial energy use, measured in kgoe or
‘kilogrammes of oil equivalent’ for different classifications of countries. Based on data from
the World Development Index (World Bank, 1998) the data show that Cambodia uses
relatively little commercial energy per person, about 50 kgoe. Other low-income countries
typically use about eight times as much commercial energy per person as Cambodians. East
Asian and Pacific countries use nearly thirteen times as much and the ‘average’ world citizen
almost thirty times more than a Cambodian.

1
If energy is called ‘non-conventional’, this usually refers to energy produced by the sun
(solar energy), wind and water (hydropower and wave power) and sometimes wood and
crop residues (biomass).

230 Chapter 18
 Energy

Cambodia

Low Income
Countries
East Asia &
Pacific
The World

0 500 1000 1500

Figure 18.1: Commercial Energy Use per Person (kgoe

From 1986-1996, the Cambodian economy grew nearly 6% per year but commercial energy
imports (and consumption) grew twice as fast2 . If the economy continues to become more
integrated with those of Cambodia’s neighbors as expected, and continues to grow, a huge
increase in commercial energy use can be expected. The environmental impacts could include
increased air pollution, more oil spillages, ground water pollution and poorer health of those
living in areas of heavy traffic. Rapid growth in energy imports would also require a great
deal of money and could result in a non-sustainable future for the country. However, good
energy planning and implementation can reduce the rate of growth of energy use – and its
economic and environmental cost – quite substantially even with continued rapid economic
growth.

Petroleum, the main global source of commercial energy, has been both plentiful and cheap in
late 1998. However, twice since the early 1970s there have been sudden supply restrictions
and large disruptive price increases. Some oil experts expect another global “energy crunch”
within a decade or so. This could be worse than the earlier ones because oil is being used
much more quickly than new supplies are being discovered. A wise energy policy would
consider ways to provide Cambodia’s people with goods and services in a way, which does
not require a massive increase in petroleum imports.

Fig. 18.2 Petrol Sales in Phnom Penh

2
The Word Bank indicates that the Cambodian Gross Domestic Product (GDP) grew at a
rate of 5.9% annually from 1986 to 1996. Cambodian government trade statistics show
commercial energy use (petroleum imports) growing by 12.6% per year from 1985-1995.
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With the assistance of the Asian Development Bank (ADB), the Ministry of Industry, Mines
and Energy (MIME) studied Cambodia’s energy use in 1995. Essentially all commercial
energy use was from imported petroleum fuels. Of the total, nearly 2/3 was used for
transportation, over a fourth was for electricity generation and the remaining 10% was used
directly by households, businesses and industry.

Energy for Transport

65% of commercial energy use in Cambodia is for transport by motorcycles (motos), cars,
buses, trucks, etc., a percentage similar to other ‘less-developed’ countries. A considerable
amount of fuel is used by aircraft and ships and a small amount for railways. Although there
are no accurate data on the number or ages of vehicles in Cambodia, the MIME/ADB study
estimates that there are about 451,000 motorcycles, 32,000 cars, 5,400 trucks and 530 buses
on the road (excluding military vehicles). Although 85% of Cambodia’s households are rural,
about 60% of motorcycles and over 90% of cars are apparently used in urban areas, mainly
Phnom Penh. There are various opportunities to conserve energy use within transportation
which are discussed later.

Electricity
Electricity is the second major use of petroleum fuel in Cambodia after transport. Although
most (58%) of the nation’s electricity in 1995 was produced by Electricité du Cambodge
(EdC), nearly a third is from small, privately-owned generation. In Phnom Penh alone there
are approximately 25,000 private generators.3 Not only are they expensive, inefficient, fuel-
wasting, and underused, they are sources of considerable noise, plus some air and ground
water pollution. In 1994, according to the Human Development Report (UNDP, 1997) the
‘least developed’ countries typically consumed 74 kWh 4 of electricity per person compared to
763 kWh/person for all developing countries and 2,558 kWh for the world as a whole.

In Cambodia, only 5% of Phnom Penh households, 3% of other urban households, and 0.8%
of rural households had access to electricity in 1993/94, the last year for which data are
readily available. Since only 1.7% of all Cambodian households had electricity, it is not
surprising that Cambodians consume only 27 kWh per capita, only 1/3 that of most other least
developed countries.5 As the national economy grows, however, electricity demand is likely
to increase quite rapidly from this low base. For better efficiency, lower costs to the
consumer, and less noise and pollution, it is important that urban growth is planned by
Electricité du Cambodge and the provincial authorities, rather than left to small inefficient
private suppliers.

3
Various surveys have suggested between 11,000 and 40,000 generators in Phnom Penh
in 1993/94. The MIME/ADB study uses 25,000 as a more reasonable estimate.
4
KWh is ‘ kilowatt hour’ or thousands of watt-hours. A kWh is the same as the ‘unit’ of
electricity billed by EdC or by neighbourhood suppliers.
5
This was calculated from 1994/1995 data in Cambodian Energy Statistics: Sources of
Energy Data and Methods of Estimation (MIME/ADB, Phnom Penh, August 1996).
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Fig 18.3 Problems associated with electricity generation – inefficient generators and poor
distribution

Improving the efficiency of commercial energy use

By reducing the rate of growth of commercial energy use (i.e. petroleum fuels), we can reduce
the growth in air and ground water pollution and Cambodia’s relatively small contribution to
the global greenhouse effect discussed in Chapter 22, Climate Change. More efficient energy
use can also significantly reduce the cost of new investments and the cost of energy supplied
to people.

There are numerous ways to reduce energy use in road transport:

• rough dirt or gravel roads require about 22% more fuel than smoothly paved roads;
• a good system of reliable traffic signals can greatly improve the flow of traffic, saving 10-
20% in fuel cost;
• the choice of a particular model of automobile or motorcycle is important, the most
efficient models often using 1/3 less fuel than the least efficient with the same engine
size;
• vehicle maintenance is important, with dirty air filters typically causing a 20% penalty in
fuel use.
In some countries, high taxes on large cars, low taxes for diesel fuel and encouragement of a
good public bus system, and heavy parking fees have reduced vehicle fuel use. These may be
impractical today but are possible options for the future.

In Cambodia, a considerable amount of electricity is ‘lost’ due to numerous old, run-down

generators and an old poorly maintained transmission and distribution system with a confused
mass of tangled power lines. In 1994, about 30% of EDC electric power sent out from the
power station was not accounted for in sales. Some of these losses are normal and
unavoidable for technical reasons.6 Perhaps a third or fourth of losses are ‘non-technical’

6
For example, some of the energy sent over power lines and through transformers (to
convert a high voltage to a low voltage which households can use) is ‘lost’ as heat.
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losses, some due to power used but not paid for. In a well-designed and well-maintained
system, the losses might be about 12-15% indicating that there is considerable room for
improvement in Cambodia. In addition, many of the appliances (TVs, air conditioners,
refrigerators, etc.) and machinery available in Cambodia uses electricity inefficiently. Many
studies in various countries suggest that 15-20% of electricity 7 can be economically be saved
in a short time period by various efficiency measures. Over the long term, savings can be far
higher. Means of saving commercial energy can be highly technical. This chapter does not
discuss these issues in further detail but concludes that there are numerous options available
to use energy in a cleaner and less costly manner. In general wise decisions about energy
policies and investments today can have a great impact on the amount, type and impacts of
energy used in Cambodia in the future.

Cambodian Oil and Gas Reserves

Off-shore oil and gas exploration activities have been undertaken in Cambodia since the
1960s. The Ministry of Industry, Mines and Energy (MIME) which has jurisdiction over oil
exploration grants licenses to foreign companies to conduct oil and gas exploration.
Petroleum experts believe that Cambodia has a high potential for natural gas but exploration
to-date has not discovered reserves worth developing for now at least.

18.3. Non Commercial Energy: Fuelwood

The 1996 MIME/ADB study showed that less than 18% of Cambodia’s energy use is
commercial. The remaining 82% is from wood (80.5% including charcoal) plus other biomass
sources such as crop residues (1.6%). For 92% of Cambodia’s households, wood is the major
fuel for cooking with petroleum accounting for less than 2% of household energy use. For
rural households, wood was the major cooking fuel for 95% of households.
In principle, wood is a renewable resource which can provide household energy needs
infinitely. However, as discussed elsewhere (Chapter 17, Forests and Chapter 27, Forestry
Issues of Cambodia), wood is often consumed at a greater rate than it is replanted –
potentially causing degradation in forest cover, loss of wildlife habitat, soil loss and erosion,
loss of soil fertility, downstream flooding, sedimentation and turbidity in water bodies, and a
range of other problems.

7
15-20% of the kWh can be saved but also a similar saving can be made in ‘maximum demand’ which
measures the size of the generating equipment needed. A smaller generator costs less to buy so the country,
the company and the consumer save if maximum demand can be reduced.

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These are seldom caused by the use of trees for the cooking needs ofthe local community but
rather the cutting of forests for fuelwood 8 and charcoal demands in urban centers.

Fig 18.4 Transportation of firewood by truck and boat

Fig 18.5 Firewood for sale

This supply of fuelwood and charcoal is informal, complex and unregulated with supplies
coming from forested areas of at least five provinces (Kratie, Kampong Thom, Kampong
Speu, Pursat and Kampong Chhnang). Since 1970, the forested areas of these provinces have
been much reduced and the forests degraded. This is due in part to the large flows of wood to
Phnom Penh but wood energy trade is no doubt often secondary to land clearance for
agriculture.

8
This discussion excludes deforestation for commercial logging which is covered
elsewhere.
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Fig 18.6 Charcoal being transported to Phnom Penh along Route 5

With the population of Phnom Penh growing at roughly double the national population
growth rate, fuelwood use is expected to continue to grow – although at a slower rate than
population. There are numerous social and economic issues (more studies on impact of
fuelwood on deforestation, more efficient charcoal production methods, land tenure,
community forestry policy, provincial planning, perhaps improved cooking stoves) which
may need to be addressed to assure the continued flow of fuelwood to urban Cambodia in a
socially and environmentally acceptable manner.

18.4. Other Non Commercial Energy

There have been several recent studies which suggest that by the early Twenty-first Century a
significant portion of the world’s energy supplies could be met economically on a sustainable
basis. This would require a combination of biomass technologies to produce liquid fuels to
replace petroleum fuels, electricity through wind, solar and possibly wave energy, and a huge
improvement in the efficiency of energy use. For example, an automobile typically uses about
12-15 litres of petrol per 160 kilometers of travel but even today’s ‘off the shelf’ technologies
could reduce fuel use to 1.6 – 2.2 l/100km. Lights and refrigerators are available which use
only one fourth of the electricity of typical lights and fridges. Wood stoves and charcoal
production techniques are available which are considerably more efficient than those in
common use in Cambodia.

In the short term, what options does Cambodia have for sustainable energy use? The most
common response would be electricity from hydropower. Over the past thirty years there have
been dozens of studies of possible sites along the Mekong and its tributaries. A small hydro
system operates near Banlung in Ratanakiri, one previously provided electricity at Bokor, and
several dams were begun but not completed. Several alternative sites along the Sesan and
Sekong rivers have recently been evaluated by the Mekong River Commission in cooperation
with the Asian Development Bank (See Chapter 11 Water Resources for more information on
hydro-power generation).

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Cambodia has a large number of potential hydro sites, mainly far removed from the urban
areas where demand is high. The map below shows a list of these but there are numerous
other sites as well.

A well-conceived hydropower project can be a valuable and sustainable source of renewable

energy from local resources. However, a poorly planned hydro project can have significant
negative social and environmental impacts. These could include economic benefits for the
country overall but with most costs borne by the local people who are not properly
compensated, downstream changes to water flow which reduce fish production, loss or
damage to important wetlands, disrupted seasonal distribution of water downstream,
floodplain salinisation, increased salinity near coastlines due to reduced water flows, habitat
destruction, etc. On the other hand, a well-designed hydro system can offset (or ‘mitigate’
these effects). In addition it might, for example, hold water in the reservoir during the wet
season when water flows are otherwise excessive and release it for power during the dry
season when the additional water can also be used to increase food production. In general,
hydro is neither ‘good’ nor ‘bad’ but depends on the situation and the care taken in design and
in consideration of the social, environmental and economic impacts.

Biogas
Methane gas is produced when organic material (waste from pigs, cows or from a family
latrine) is broken down by bacteria in anaerobic conditions (absence of oxygen). This process
occurs naturally in streams and ponds, but technology was developed in the early 1900s to
produce methane from primary and secondary sewage sludge 9 . Since the 1970s low
technology digesters have been used to produce methane gas for cooking and home heating.
Biogas was introduced to Cambodia in the early 1990s by a number of NGOs working with
rural communities where the availability of firewood was a serious problem.

There are several designs of biodigester but the principles for all are the same. The three
components of biogas production are:
1) the organic matter ;
2) Anaerobic conditions; and
3) Bacteria (microbes) which work in anaerobic conditions.

9
Primary and secondary sewage sludge are produced from sewage treatment. Sewage
treatment usually involves a preliminary screening stage to remove larger suspended and
floating material, followed by primary sedimentation to separate out solids, and then a
secondary, biological treatment of the sludge, commonly associated with anaerFobic stage in
a digester and an aerobic stage in settling tanks.
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Fig 18.7 Schematic daigram of a bidigester

Fig 18.8 Digester and stove of a biodigester in Prey

Veng

All materials needed to build a biodigester are available locally in Cambodia. Figure 18.7
illustrates the structure of a typical biodigester that Padek has installed in Prey Veng. The
main parts are:
• the source of the organic matter, a latrine or animal waste pit.
• the plastic bag known as the digester in which the organic material is broken down by
anaerobic bacteria (Fig 18.8),
• the plastic gas reservoir which stores the methane after it is produced (Fig 18.9), and
• the stove where the methane gas is used for cooking (Fig 18.8).

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Fig 18.9 MoE staff examine gas reservoir and the fence built to protect the digester

An analysis of the environmental and social benefits of biogas by Padek found that:
• Smoke and soot are no longer a problem in the house.
• Kitchen utensils are kept cleaner.
• Cooking time is reduced.
• Time spent collecting firewood is saved.
• Money spent on firewood is reduced.
• More efficient use of manures.
• Waste from biogas is good for feeding fish in fish ponds.
• Prevents cutting trees for firewood.

A 1996 analysis of the economic costs of installing a biodigester calculated that it cost
150,000 riels to install a biodigester. The analysis of the expenditure on firewood estimated
that fuel wood costs ranged from 60,000 – 240,000 riel per year depending on the number of
people in the family. The study distinguished between minimum, medium and maximum use
but did not define minimum, medium and maximum in terms of number of people. The
report concluded that a family, which is in the highest category of fuelwood use, would save
money in the first year and the family using the least amount of firewood would have to wait
until the third year to show savings on their investment. In provinces where fuelwood is cheap
or readily available, the economic benefits of installing a biogas will be far less.

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Chapter 19

Mineral Resources

19.1 Introduction
Minerals provide the material used to make most of the things of industrial-based
society; roads, cars, computers, fertilizers, etc. (Refer Table 19.1) Demand for
minerals is increasing world wide as the population increases and the consumption
demands of individual people increase. The mining of earth’s natural resources is
therefore accelerating, and it has accompanying environmental consequences.

A mineral is a pure inorganic substance that occurs naturally in the earth’s crust. All
of the Earth’s crust, except the rather small proportion of the crust that contains
organic material, is made up of minerals. Some minerals consist of a single element
such as gold, silver, diamond (carbon), and sulfur. More than two-thousand minerals
have been identified and most of these contain inorganic compounds formed by
various combinations of the eight elements (O, Si, Al, Fe, Ca, Na, K, and Mg) that
make up 98.5% of the Earth’s crust. Examples are salt [NaCl Sodium chloride],
quartz [silicon dioxide SiO 2 ] and apatite from which phosphate fertilizers
(Ca 5 (PO 4 )3 F) are produced. Industry depends on about 80 of the known minerals.

Fig 19.1 Two minerals used for construction of roads and buildings

A mineral deposit is a concentration of naturally occurring solid, liquid, or gaseous

material, in or on the Earth’s crust in such form and amount that its extraction and
its conversion into useful materials or items are profitable now or may be so in the
future. Mineral resources are non-renewable and include metals (e.g. iron, copper,
and aluminum), and non-metals (e.g. salt, gypsum, clay, sand, phosphates).

19.2 Use of Mineral Resources

The use of minerals varies greatly between countries. The greatest use of minerals
occurs in developed countries. Like other natural resources, mineral deposits are
unevenly distributed around on the earth. Some countries are rich in mineral
deposits and other countries have no deposits. The use of the mineral depends on its

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properties. For example aluminum is light but strong and durable so it is used for
aircraft, shipping and car industries.

Building materials Sand, gravel, stone, cement, steel, glass, aluminum,

asphalt
Plumbing (Water &Waste) Iron, steel, copper, lead, brass, asbestos, glass
and wiring (electricity)
Paint Mineral pigments such as iron & zinc and fillers such as
talc and asbestos
Electric Appliances Iron, copper, and rare metals
Furniture Steel / cast iron
Table 19.1 Minerals Used in Building

Fig. 19.2 Mineral uses photographed in Phnom Penh – cyclo, office furniture, steel wire,
lamp, construction equipment, galvanized roof and car and motorbike.

19.3 Mineral Exploration and Extraction

In the past miners discovered mineral deposits by simply looking at the surface of
rocks. Modern exploration is a much more detailed and complex process. The two
techniques most widely used today are field survey and remote sensing. Remote
sensing is the study of an object using instruments placed at a distance from that
object. See Chapter 38, Remote Sensing and Geographical Information Systems for
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more detail. Field survey techniques include simple observation, analysis of the
rock composition and geophysics.

19.3.1 Methods of extraction

Extraction of a mineral can occur through dredging or mining. Dredging is a form of
surface mining in which sand, gravel and other surface deposits which are covered
with water are collected using special buckets. There are four types of mining:

Strip or open cast mining

When a mineral is situated close to the surface, the soil and the overlying layers are
removed and the minerals dug out. Economically this is the cheapest form of
mining, but environmentally it is very destructive.

Quarrying
When the mineral is present at the surface, it can be simply dug out or blasted out
with explosives. Building and road stone is provided in this way.

Adit mining
A horizontal shaft can be tunneled out when a mineral is situated in a horizontal
seam.

Shaft Mining
A vertical shaft is sunk deep into the earth, from which a series of galleries are
made at different depths.

Once removed from the ground the minerals must be processed to remove waste
minerals which have no economic value. The production processes vary from simple
washing and screening to electrolysis.

(a)
Fig 19.3 a Underground shaft mining

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(b) (c)
Figure 19.3 (b) Opencast mining (c) Small scale pit miming

19.4 Mineral Resources of Cambodia

The 1993 ESCAP study investigated the occurrence of mineral deposits in
Cambodia. The mineral deposits were divided into four categories: industrial
minerals and construction minerals, metals, precious stones and ornamental stones.
The Ministry of industry, Mines and Energy is responsible for the management of
the country’s mineral resources.

19.4.1 Industrial minerals and Construction Minerals

According to ESCAP, raw materials for construction are not lacking in Cambodia.
The following minerals which are used for road and building construction are
quarried at the respective sites:
• basalt in Kompong Cham and Snoul,
• granites at Phnom Basset and in Kompong Chhnang,
• limestone in Sisophon, Battamabang and Kampot,
• rhyolite from several hills near to Phnom Penh,
• quartzites at Takeo and Kep, and
• marbles at Stung Treng.
Limestone and dolomite which are used in the cement industry are quarried and
processed in Kampot, and phosphate deposits which produce phosphate suitable for
phosphate fertilizer are located in Batambang and Kampot.

19.4.2 Metals, Precious Stones and Ornamental Stones

There are two main areas (geological formation) where gems stones are found. The
sapphire-ruby-zircon gems of Pailin are heavily exploited, but in Rattanakiri the
zircon, gold and sapphire mining is only carried out on a small scale during the dry
season. The ornamental stone pagodite, from Pursat, is used for the production of
Khmer ornaments. Fig. 19.4 Mechanized mineral extraction at Pailin: The
bulldozer lifts the soil into trucks which transport it to the washing facilities.

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Fig 19.4 Excavator used for extracting gem rich soil in Pailin

Fig. 19.5 Screening for gems at the mines in Pailin.

19.5 The Environmental Impacts of Mineral Extraction

Mining and processing of mineral resources normally have a considerable impact on
land, water, air, and biologic resources. Social impacts result from the increased
demand for housing and other services in mining areas. Fig. 19.6 summarizes the
environmental effects of the extraction, processing and transport of minerals.

244 Chapter 19
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Fig 19.6 The environmental impacts on mining

19.5.1 Pollution
Mining operations often pollute the atmosphere, surface waters and groundwater.
Rainwater seeping through spoil heaps may become heavily contaminated, acidic or
turbid, with potentially devastating effects on nearby streams and rivers. Trace
elements (cadmium, cobalt, copper and others) when leached from mining wastes
and concentrated in water, soil or plants, may be toxic or may cause diseases in
people and other animals who consume contaminated water or plants, or who use the
soil. Specially constructed ponds to collect runoff can help but cannot eliminate all
problems.

Huge volumes of dust generated by explosions, transportation and processing may

lead to the death of surrounding vegetation. Chemicals used in the extraction
processes, such as drilling muds, are often highly polluting substances.

19.5.2 Dereliction of Land

Mining activity can cause a considerable loss of land because of chemical
contamination, destruction of productive layers of soil, and often permanent scarring
of the land surface. Large mining operations disturb the land by directly removing
material in some areas and by dumping waste in others. There can be a considerable
loss of wildlife habitat. Fig. 19.7 shows the soil before and after mining at Pailin.
The sediment is washed into the streams which flow into the Stung Stangke river,
which flows into the Tonle Sap.

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Fig. 19.7 (a) Soil is extremely rich before extraction and screening

Fig.19.7 (b) During screening all of the clay is washed away, only stones remain at
the mines of Pailin

19.5.3 Subsidence
The presence of old, deep mines may cause the ground surface to subside in a
vertical or horizontal direction. This may severely damage buildings, roads and
farmland, as well as alter the surface drainage patterns.

19.5.4 Noise
Blasting and transport cause noise disturbance to local residents and to wildlife.

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19.5.5 Energy
Extraction and transportation requires huge amounts of energy which adds to
impacts such as acid rain and global warming.

19.5.6 Impact on the Biological Environment

Physical changes in the land, soil, water and air associated with mining directly and
indirectly affect the biological environment. Direct impacts include death of plants
or animals caused by mining activity or contact with toxic soil or water from mines.
Indirect impacts include changes in nutrient cycling, total biomass, species
diversity, and ecosystem stability due to alterations in groundwater or surface water
availability or quality.

19.6 Long-term Supplies of Mineral Resources

The economies of industrialized countries require the extraction and processing of
large amounts of minerals to make products. As other economies industrialize, their
mineral demands increase rapidly. The mineral demands of countries in Asia, such
as Malaysia, Thailand and South Korea have grown phenomenally in the last twenty
years.

Fig. 19.8 War absorbs vast quantities of minerals

Since mineral resources are a non-renewable resource, it is important for all

countries to take a low-waste sustainable earth approach to dealing with them.
Developed countries need to change from a high-waste throw away approach and
developing countries like Cambodia need to insure that they do not adopt such an
approach. Low-waste approach requires emphasis on recycling, reusing and waste
reduction and less emphasis on dumping, burying and burning.

Recycling and reuse benefit the environment because they:

• extend the supply of minerals by reducing the amount of materials that must be
extracted
• require less energy than extraction
• cause less pollution and land disruption
• reduce waste disposal costs and prolong the life of landfills by reducing the
volume of solid waste.

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Fig. 19.9 The flow of minerals in an industrial society. (a) is the situation when all goods
are disposed of when finished with, (b) shows the situation when goods are reused and
recycled.

Reducing unnecessary waste of non-renewable resources can extend supplies even

more dramatically than recycling and reuse because it reduces the need to extract
more resources, thereby reducing the impact of extraction and processing on the
environment.( See Chapter 24, Solid Waste )

References and Recommended Further Reading

Allaby, M. 1996. Basics of Environmental Science
Arms, K. 1990. Environmental Science
Byrne, K. Environmental Science: University of Bath – Science 16-19
Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992
Raven, P., Berg, L. and Johnson, G., 1993. Environment
UNDP, 1994. Cambodia: First State of the Environment Report.

248 Chapter 19
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Chapter 20

Environmental Problems

20.1 Introduction
Worldwide, in developed and developing countries environmental problems are among the
most important concerns facing people and their governments. The problems include
population growth, deforestation, and pollution of water, air and soils, waste disposal, poverty
and loss of species. The environmental problems facing Asia are similar to those of the rest of
the world, although there are some local variations.

20.1.1 Population growth

The world population has grown rapidly from 2.2 billion in 1950 to 5.840 billion in mid-1997.
This number is predicted to reach 6.894 billion by 2010 and 8.036 billion by 2025. As the
“doubling time” is 47 years at the current population growth rate, the world population could
reach 15 billion by the end of the twenty-first century (2100). In Asia population growth is of
particular concern as the Asian population was reported to be 3,552 million in 1997 with a
“doubling time” of 44 years at the present growth rate. In Cambodia the population is believed
to be 11.2 million at present with an annual growth rate of 2.8%. The population is predicted to
reach 15.7 million by 2010 and 22.8 million by 2025. Ref: 1997 World population Data Sheet
published by the Population Reference Bureau.

The population growth in Asia means a drain on many resources: fish, meats, grains, fruits,
vegetables. To obtain this food, they will need productive croplands, grazing lands and fishing
grounds. To cook this food, many will need fuelwood. They will need water for drinking,
washing and preparing food and for their crops and animals. And they will need places to live,
materials to build with and natural resources for their agricultural, commercial and industrial
enterprises. Increasing numbers of people mean more industrial, agricultural and human waste
and the need to dispose of it. The more people there are the more difficult it is to cope with
disease, malnutrition and other symptoms of poverty, let alone improve the quality of live in
general.

Environmental impact is a function of population, affluence and technology. In developing

countries such as Cambodia, rising populations tend to be the driving force in land use change.
In richer countries, consumption per person poses as great a threat to the global environment
as population increases.

20.1.2 Air Pollution

Air pollution is one of the most discussed of all environmental problems. In the
Asian region, air pollution is considered to be a recent problem but increasing
urbanization in Asia is bringing serious air pollution problems to most of it’s

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major cities (e.g. Bangkok). Air pollution is caused by industrial activity, burning
of fossil fuels in cars, motorbikes and other vehicles and burning of fuelwood.
Many health problems in cities are caused by air pollution. {See chapter 21, Air
Pollution}
Air pollution is a problem in itself at local level, but it also gives rise to three
phenomena, which are of global concern:
1. acid rain,
2. ozone depletion, and
3. climate change (which includes global warming).

The burning of fossil fuels in power stations, factories and motor vehicles causes
acid rain. Acid rain drains into lakes and rivers, upsets the chemical balance of
the water and often kills aquatic life. Acid rain also corrodes buildings and
monuments and damages trees and crops. The problem of acid rain is
intensifying in Asia with industrialization and increased urbanization. {See
Chapter 21} A number of chemicals released into the atmosphere are damaging
the ozone layer that protects people, animals and plants from ultraviolet (UV)
radiation. {See Chapter 21}

Burning of fossil fuels and deforestation adds carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) to the
atmosphere. As the concentration of CO 2 and a number of other gases
increases, most climate scientists believe that the Earth’s climate is becoming
warmer. Increased temperatures will affect food production, rainfall and water
distribution, cause a rise in sea level and more frequent floods and droughts.
{See Chapter 22, Climate Change}

20.1.3 Solid Waste Disposal

Solid waste disposal is an issue for all countries. Most countries produce millions
of tons of household waste and industrial toxic waste from factories, industries
and hospitals. This waste is polluting the air, soil and water because most
countries and communities do not have a means of safely disposing of it. When
waste is burned, toxic gases spread into the air. The dumping of some waste can
be dangerous for public health because acids and non-decomposable organic
material seep through the soil and contaminate the drinking water and pollute the
farming land. As a result waste causes dangers to public health. Waste takes up
space and has unpleasant smells. The consumer societies of the industrialized
countries produce the largest quantity of waste, but the developing countries
have their own problems, especially a lack of affordable technology that can
safely get rid of the chemical toxic waste.

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Fig. 20.1 Rubbish is a common sight in urban areas

20.1.4 Loss of Ecosystems and Species Extinction

Each day the destruction of forests and other habitats causes the extinction of
hundreds of different species of plants and animals. Tropical forests suffer the
most; they only cover 7% of the earth’s surface but they provide habitats for 50
to 70% of all species on earth. Coral Reefs, the second most diverse ecosystem
and essential for many edible fish and crustaceans, are also being seriously
threatened worldwide.

Forests cover approximately one third of the earth’s total land area. Tropical
forests in the Asian and Pacific region cover about 300 million hectares. They
produce about 70 percent of the world's tropical wood exports but they are
disappearing at an alarming rate.

Fig. 20.2 Freshly cut logs in Rattanakiri Provin c e

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According to experts, soil erosion is considered to be the second most important land related
environmental problem in Asia. Desertification, a major problem in Asia, is the reduction of
land productivity from one of several causes, including deforestation, soil erosion, waterlogging
and salinity, chemical action and land mismanagement.

Tropical regions in Asia and the Pacific contain some of the most diverse forms of wildlife in
the world. The most important cause of species extinction is direct and indirect destruction of
wildlife habitat.

20.1.5 Water Pollution

Marine and freshwater pollution is a major environmental problem. Aquatic ecosystems
downstream from urban areas and industrial ports are often polluted because of improperly
treated or untreated wastes. Domestic waste is usually the major pollutant. Mining, dredging,
oil tanker discharges and shipping accidents also cause pollution. Some positive measures
undertaken by nations in Asia to reduce the impacts of water pollution include improving
drinking water and sanitation, installing treatment plants, regulating effluent and reforesting to
stop siltation.

Fig. 20.3 (a) Open Sewer (b) Drainage pipe emptying sewage water into the Tonle Sap
River

20.1.6 Noise Pollution

Noise pollution is often a serious environmental problem in urban areas, where there is a
concentration of personal and commercial vehicles, aircraft, sirens, speakers, air conditioners,
generators etc. Such noise intrudes on people aesthetically and physically and leads to mental

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Problems

fatigue, stress and damaged hearing.

20.1.7 Urbanization
Growth rates of urban populations in Asia present environmental challenges of large
proportions. The growth rate of the urban population is twice as high as that of the population
in general. Thirty-three percent of the Asian population lives in cities. With the spread of
urbanization, the quality of water supplies and sewage facilities generally declines. Typical
urban environmental concerns include lack of sanitation and water supply; air and water
pollution; shrinking open spaces and recreational areas; traffic congestion; waste disposal
problems, etc.
Poverty directly affects the health of people. Inadequate water supply for drinking and other
consumption uses and inefficient or non-existent sanitation facilities are very important aspects
in the relationship between poverty and health. It has been estimated that 80 per cent of the
diseases in the developing countries are directly traceable to unsafe water and poor sanitation.
In addition to water, polluted air can also create health problems, particularly when it is not
clean. Increased air pollution brings increased incidence of respiratory and other diseases.

20.2. Cambodian Environmental Problems

20.2.1 Deforestation
Deforestation and its consequences are possibly the most serious and most
widespread of the environmental problems facing Cambodia today. An inventory
of forests in Cambodia in the early 1960's showed that about 73 % of
Cambodia's total land area was covered with forests. There are no consistent
recent data but 1998 reports indicate that between 35 and 63 % of the land is
covered with forests.

The causes of deforestation in Cambodia are:

• Increased internal demand: during two decades of war thousands of wooden

houses were destroyed. The replacement of these homes has created a high
demand for timber. There is a population growth of 2.8 % per annum in
Cambodia that has also increased the demand for timber and fuel wood.
Almost 97 % of the energy required for cooking and heating of water in
Cambodia is met from the use of fire wood;

• Increased external demand: intensive commercial logging of forested areas

has exceeded the rate at which forests can be sustained. Laws and
effective monitoring arrangements to control logging activities have not yet
been enforced. Commercial exploitation of highland forests has and is having
a major impact on the practices of traditional farmers in those areas. These
traditional farmers have lost control over the forest areas where they have
lived in harmony for centuries.

Chapter 20 255
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• Agriculture: indiscriminate clearing of forests for the expansion of

agricultural land occurred during the Pol Pot regime (1975-1978). Areas,
which suffered most from logging during this period, include the provinces of
Takeo, Prey Veng, Svey Rieng, Kandal, Kampot and Kompong Speu. The
increasing demand for agricultural land continues to add to this problem.

• Swidden agricultural practices: Forests have been seriously affected by the

accidental and/or deliberate burning of forests during the clearing of land for
farming, (mostly during the dry season months of March and April), and the
shortening of the fallow periods of traditional swidden agricultural practices.
The fallow periods have been reduced from 10 to 15 years to 3 to 5 years,
particularly in areas where people have been moved to poorer quality land or
have less land per household than in the past. This process has destroyed
large tracts of forested land.

• War and large population movements: one of the negative effects of the long
period of war and civil strife is the insecurity and instability suffered by
people, with the resulting movements of populations from war torn areas to
towns and cities. This increased concentration of populations has contributed
to the increased demands for wood and charcoal for domestic use in certain
areas. Also, during the war period, policies were adopted to clear large
forest areas for security reasons. The clearing of large areas of forests
increased security by ensuring that the guerrilla insurgents' traditional hiding
places, the forests, were destroyed. Hundreds of thousands of hectares of
primary forests were, as a result, destroyed and/or degraded or transformed
into secondary forests or reduced to a form of savanna.

• The lack of clear forest policy and the Government’s lack of commitment to
protect and manage forest resources are the main threat to forests in the late
1990s.

20.2.2. Siltation
The Tonle Sap was once one of the richest inland fishing lakes in the world. It is
now under ecological threat. Overfishing has and is having a major impact on the
fish stocks of the lake. Deposits of silt in the main river channels are negatively
affecting fish migration, while the increased siltation of the Great Lake has
caused rapid heating of the water, resulting in fish mortalities. The heavy
siltation is, most probably, being caused by the deforestation in the upper
reaches of the Tonle Sap watershed and around the Great Lake, and by the gem
mining in western Battambang.

256 Chapter 20
 Environmental
Problems

20.2.3. Soil Erosion

Another result of deforestation is the erosion of the soil. Once the land is cleared it is more
susceptible to erosion by the heavy tropical rains. Forests maintain a watershed function and
once they disappear flooding and mud streams appear. In the Southeast region of the country
the hillsides are deforested and soil erosion is an increasing problem. A flood in 1992 in central
Cambodia caused an estimated 150 million dollars in damage to roads, reservoirs and irrigation
structures. This estimate does not include the many environmental and social costs.

20.2.4. Pesticides
The upward trend of indiscriminate use of fertilizers and pesticides is a cause for concern in
Cambodia. Highly toxic pesticides are being imported and sold at markets throughout the
country. This has raised concerns about the potential harm to health and to the environment as
most Cambodian farmers are using such pesticides without any knowledge of their toxicity.
There is a need to establish and enforce laws so that storage, selling, packaging and labeling,
usage and disposal, of pesticides is controlled. People need to be educated on the use of
natural fertilizers and pesticides.

20.2.5. Land Mines

A more unusual problem in the environment is that of land mines. There are estimated to be
between six and ten million mines in Cambodia. Estimates of up to 40 % of arable land in
Cambodia is mined and every day an average of 10 people are killed or injured. It is unlikely
that Cambodia will be fully demined for several decades.

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Chapter 21

Air Pollution
Compiled by: Sean Cotter, APSO/RUPP
21.1 The Atmosphere
The atmosphere is a thin layer of gas that surrounds the earth. It is
divided into three layers, the troposphere, stratosphere and
mesosphere. About 95% of the earth’s air is found in the inner layer
the troposphere which extends about 17 km above sea level. About
99% of the volume of clean dry in the troposphere consists of two
gases, nitrogen (78%) and oxygen (21%). The remaining 1% is made
up of argon, carbon dioxide and water vapor.

Figure 21.1 The troposphere, stratosphere and mesosphere (Raven

et al. 1993)
21.2 Pollutants in the Atmosphere
Increased levels of air pollutants in the atmosphere change its
composition. As a result, its ability to perform certain functions,
essential to life on earth, is impaired. Pollutants also result in poorer
air quality and a deterioration of public health. Hundreds of air
pollutants are found in the troposphere. The main classes of
pollutants are:
1. Carbon oxides - carbon monoxide* and carbon dioxide
2. Sulfur oxides - sulfur dioxide* and sulfur trioxide
3. Nitrogen oxides* - nitric oxide, nitrogen dioxide and nitrous
oxide
4. Volatile organic compounds - compounds such as methane,
benzene, chlorofluorocarbons , etc.
5. Suspended particulate matter* - solid particles such as dust, lead,
oil, pesticides, etc.
6. Photochemical oxidants - ozone (O 3 )*, hydrogen peroxide, etc.
7. Radioactive substances - radon-222, etc.
8. Heat - produced when any kind of energy is transformed from one
form to another, e.g. burning of oil in cars, generation of electricity
from oil, and burning of wood.
258 Chapter 21
 Air Pollution

The five pollutants marked with an asterix (*) are monitored in some
countries and are used as indicators of air quality. When their
concentrations in the air are above certain limits, then the air is by
definition polluted and dangerous to breathe.

Figure 21.2 Atmospheric Pollutants (Raven et al. 1993)

21.2.1 Primary and Secondary Pollutants

Once in the troposphere, these air pollutants mix vertically
and horizontally, often reacting with each other, or with
natural compounds of the atmosphere. A primary air pollutant
(such as sulfur dioxide) directly enters the air as a result of
natural events or human activities. A secondary air pollutant,
such as sulfuric acid, is formed in the air through a chemical
reaction between SO 2 , a primary pollutant, and a compound
present in air, water (H2 O).

21.2.2. How Long Do Pollutants Remain in the

Atmosphere?
Pollutants remain in the atmosphere for different lengths of
time depending mostly on the size of the particle. Large
particles (bigger than 10 micrometers) remain in the
troposphere for a day or two before falling to earth by gravity
or rain. Medium sized particles (1-10 micrometers) are lighter
and remain in the air for several days. Very fine particles
(smaller than 1 micrometers) may remain suspended in the
troposphere for one or two weeks or for one to five years in
Chapter 2 1 259
the stratosphere. This is enough time for the fine particles to
Environment: ETAP Reference Guide Book

be transported all over the world. These fine particles are the
most hazardous to human health because they are small
enough to penetrate deeply into the lungs.

21.2.3. Sources of Air Pollution

Pollutants are emitted into the atmosphere from:
• the burning of fossil fuels in cars, motorbikes, factories,
air planes, etc.
• the burning of wood, dung and crop residues in stoves and
open fires;
• the burning of forests and grasslands in tropical and
subtropical regions to create cropland;
• raising of livestock;
• spreading of fertilizer;
• use of weapons in war.

Figure 21.3 Pollution from trucks, electricity generation, cars

and motorbikes in Phnom Penh

21.2.4 Type of Pollution Source

Pollution source type is important. A point source, such as a
factory chimney, can be easily identified and monitored.
Dispersion of the pollutants can be predicted, if the direction
of the wind is known. Point sources can be removed from
residential areas where there are houses and schools. Line
sources, such as a major traffic road, (e.g. Monivong
Boulevard), are more difficult to measure and control.
Dispersion of the pollutants is also more difficult to predict
than point sources. Area sources are the total of many small
pollutant sources such as small industries and are very
difficult to regulate.

260 Chapter 21
 Air Pollution

Figure 21.4 Dust from construction, road repair and unsealed

roads is a major source of air pollution in cities and towns in
Cambodia
21.2.5 Pollution and Climate
The degree and severity of pollution in any city vary with the
weather. During the day the sun heats the earth and the air
near it. This warm air rises through the cooler air above,
carrying smoke from factories and other pollutants upward
into the atmosphere. Dirty air may rise more than 15
kilometers above the earth. Frequently, however, a
temperature inversion interferes. A temperature inversion
exists if there is warm air some distance above the earth.
When air rising from the earth meets the warmer air of the
inversion layer, it stops rising and is trapped under the
inversion.

Figure 21.5 Temperature inversion (Arms 1990)

A temperature inversion often occurs at night. When the sun

sets, the ground and the air near it cool faster than the air
higher up, creating an inversion. This type of inversion
normally disappears when the sun warms the earth in the
morning, but in colder climates, it may persist for days.

21.3 The Impact of Air Pollution on Human

Health
In many cities, the concentration and mix of air pollutants is
sufficiently high to cause illness amongst vulnerable groups such as
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the young and the elderly. Comparing the health of people living in
highly polluted areas with those who live in less polluted areas
provides some indication of the impact upon health from air
pollution. Such comparisons generally show a strong association
between pollution levels and incidence of respiratory infections and
may even show possible links with certain cancers and brain damage
in children where gasoline contains lead.
Many factors determine the health risks experienced by the general
public by exposure to air pollution, for example:
• toxicity of the pollutants or their derivatives;
• the amount of pollutants released and the height at which they are
released;
• atmospheric conditions;
• length of time of exposure;
• distance from the source of the pollutants;
• age and health status, activities and location of the general public
21.4 Major
at the time of the Air Pollutants
release.
Air pollutants have adverse effects on the local environment in which
they are released and on the people living in that environment. Air
pollution at a local level is a major problem for most of the cities in
the world, but there are three phenomena linked to air pollution that
are of global concern: ozone depletion, acid rain and climate change.
A brief description of the major air pollutants is given in the
following section; their role in ozone depletion and acid rain will be
discussed later, (Section 21.6 and 21.7) and climate change is dealt
with in Chapter 22.

21.4.1 Particulate Matter

Particulate matter consists of thousands of different solid and
liquid particles that are suspended in the atmosphere. Solid
particulate matter is often referred to as dust, and liquid
suspensions are often called mists. Particulates include soil,
sand, fecal matter, lead, soot, and sulphuric acid droplets. All
particulates eventually settle out of the atmosphere, but it is
possible for small particles to remain suspended for days or
weeks. Particulate matter is a particular problem in Phnom
Penh due to the unsealed roads and the number of construction
sites. Particulates are responsible for respiratory infections,
for eye infections and some diseases.

21.4.2 Nitrogen Oxides

Nitrogen oxides are gases produced by chemical reactions
between nitrogen and oxygen. They consist mainly of nitric
oxide (NO), nitrogen dioxide (NO 2 ), and nitrous oxide (N 2 O).
Nitrogen oxides inhibit plant growth and, if breathed in by
humans, can cause respiratory problems. They are involved in
the production of photochemical smog, acid rain and climate
change. Nitrogen oxides cause metals to corrode and fibres to
weaken and fade.
262 Chapter 21
 Air Pollution

Fig 21.6 Human respiratory system (Arms 1990)

21.4.3 Sulphur Oxides

Sulphur Oxides are gases produced by the chemical
interactions between sulphur and oxygen. Sulphur dioxide, a
colourless, non-flammable gas with a strong, irritating odour,
is emitted as a primary air pollutant when we burn coal or
petroleum products which contain sulphur. This gas causes
long term respiratory and heart disease. Breathing in low
concentrations over a few years causes lung disease and
bronchitis. Sulphur dioxide corrodes metals and damages
stone and other materials.

Sulphur dioxide reacts with oxygen to form sulphur trioxide a

secondary pollutant, which in turn reacts with water to form
another secondary pollutant, sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid
and sulphate salts that are produced in the atmosphere damage
plants and irritate the respiratory tract of human and animals.

21.4.4 Carbon Monoxide

Carbon monoxide is a colourless, odourless, and tasteless gas
which comes from the exhaust of vehicle engines, especially
when there is “stop and go” traffic and poorly maintained
older cars and motorcycles as in Phnom Penh. It builds up in
narrow city streets especially where there are tall buildings on
both sides. High concentrations occur during rush hours when
people are going to or leaving work. This gas causes
headaches, dizziness, and a sleepy feeling. It worsens heart
problems through long term exposure. Drivers, market sellers
and people living and working near the street are particularly
vulnerable. People who smoke cigarettes already have a high
concentration of CO in their blood, so a small increase in
atmospheric CO levels has a greater impact on them.
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Environment: ETAP Reference Guide Book

For Readers with some knowledge of Chemistry:

Carbon monoxide reduces the oxygen-carrying capacity of the
blood. It diffuses through the lungs, enters the blood stream
where it reacts with haemoglobin (Hb) to convert
oxyhaemoglobin (O 2Hb) to carboxyhaemoglobin (COHb).

O 2 Hb + CO → COHb + O2
Carboxyhaemoglobin is much more stable than
oxyhaemoglobin and prevents haemoglobin from carrying
oxygen to body tissue. Moderate exposure to
carboxyhaemoglobin leads to short-term and reversible
effects, but high exposure in closed or open environments can
lead to permanent health damage, or even death.

Carbon monoxide remains in the troposphere for about 4

months and is then oxidised to carbon dioxide by the hydroxyl
radical.

.
CO + HO → CO 2 + H
This process is undesirable because it produces carbon dioxide, a
greenhouse gas, and also results in the removal of a hydroxyl
radical which is an atmospheric cleansing agent.
Measures to control human-caused emissions of carbon
monoxide into the atmosphere have so far concentrated on
cars and other vehicles. Emissions may be reduced by
employing a leaner air-fuel mixture, that is, one in which the
ratio of air to fuel is relatively high. Using an air-fuel
(weight-weight) ratio of more than 16:1, an internal
combustion engine emits virtually no carbon monoxide.
Modern automobiles also use technology called “catalytic
exhaust reactors” to reduce carbon monoxide emissions.

Carbon dioxide, also colourless, odourless, and tasteless, traps

heat in the atmosphere and is therefore involved in climate
change. Carbon dioxide is discussed in detail in Chapter 22,
Climate Change.

21.4.5 Hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbons are a diverse group of organic compounds that
contain only hydrogen and carbon. The smaller hydrocarbons
are gaseous at room temperature; methane (CH 4 ), for example
is a colourless, odourless gas that is the main component of
natural gas. Medium-sized hydrocarbons are liquids at room
temperature and the largest hydrocarbons are solids at room
temperature. Hydrocarbons have a variety of effects on human
and animal health; some appear to have no adverse effects,
some damage the respiratory tract and others cause cancer. All
except methane are important in the production of
photochemical smog. Methane is involved in climate change
264 and is discussed in detail in Chapter 22. Chapter 21
 Air Pollution

21.4.6 Ozone
Ozone is a form of oxygen, similar to that which we breathe.
The oxygen (O 2) we breathe is made up of two oxygen atoms
whilst ozone (O 3) consists of three oxygen atoms bound
together.

About 90% of ozone in the atmosphere is found in the

stratosphere, where it is produced naturally by the action of
sunlight on oxygen molecules;

O2 + sunlight → O + O

O2 + O → O3

The subject of ozone causes public confusion as scientists

warn of both too much ozone in the atmosphere and ozone
depletion! These are actually both real concerns , connected
with the fact that ozone is found in both the stratosphere and
troposphere. Ozone (O3 ) is a form of oxygen considered to be
a pollutant in one part of the atmosphere but an essential
component in another.

In the stratosphere, oxygen reacts with ultraviolet radiation

coming from the sun to form ozone. This stratospheric ozone
prevents much of the solar ultraviolet radiation from
penetrating to the earth’s surface. The damage to this layer of
ozone is discussed under ozone depletion.

Unlike stratospheric ozone, ozone in the troposphere is a

human-made pollutant. Tropospheric ozone is a secondary air
pollutant that forms when sunlight catalyzes a reaction
between nitrogen oxides and volatile hydrocarbons. It is the
most harmful component of photochemical smog, it reduces
air visibility and causes health problems.

21.4.7 Photochemical Smog

Photochemical “smog” is a major air pollutant which occurs in
urban areas when the combination of pollution emissions,
sunlight and atmospheric conditions are right for its
formation. In order for smog to form, relatively still air must
be subject to sunlight under dry conditions in the presence of
nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons, both of which are emitted
by vehicles.

Smog is a “secondary” air pollutant which is formed from the

presence of primary pollutants in the atmosphere. Ozone,
nitric acid and peroxyacylnitrate (secondary pollutants) are
formed by atmospheric reactions of nitrous oxides and
hydrocarbons (primary pollutants) in sunlight. They combine
Chapter 2 1 with suspended particle matter (dust and soot) to form small 265
particles known as “urban aerosols”. If the air is still, the
Environment: ETAP Reference Guide Book

therefore they are easily breathable and scatter light

efficiently. As a result, during smoggy conditions, visibility
can be low and people find it difficult to breathe.

21.4.7.1 Effects of Photochemical Smog

Smog can have harmful effects to human health and comfort,
plants, materials and the atmosphere. The exact degree to
which exposure to smog affects human health is not known
although serious effects are suspected;
• pungent smelling, smog-produced ozone, known to be
toxic, causes coughing, bronchial constriction and irritation to
the respiratory system even in healthy, exercising individuals;
• peroxyacylnitrates chemicals, formed by the
photochemical reaction of hydrocarbons, are eye irritants and
some are suspected to be carcinogenic (cancer-causing).

Peroxyacylnitrates (PANs) and ozone are present in the

photochemical smog. PANs attack the young leaves of plants,
causing the colour to change to brown and glazing the surface
of the leave and as a result their rate of photosynthesis is
reduced. PANs are most toxic to plants but fortunately they
are usually present at low levels. Plants exposed to ozone
levels above 0.06 ppm. may have rates of photosynthesis
reduced by half resulting in reduction in crop yields. Some
materials are also adversely affected by smog components.
For example, rubber has a high attraction for ozone and is
cracked and aged by it.

266 Figure 21.7 Chapter 21

Photochemical smog formation (Arms, 1990)
 Air Pollution

21.4.8 Lead
Most exposure to lead is from the exhausts of petrol-engined
motor vehicles, where lead compounds have been added to the
petrol (gasoline). The concentrations of these compounds can,
however, be reduced and a substantial proportion of petrol-
engined vehicles can use un-leaded petrol with little or no
modification to their engine. Unfortunately, the use of petrol
with a high lead content is still permitted in Cambodia.

Human exposure to lead also occurs through drinking water

supplied by lead pipes or eating food contaminated with lead.
Lead from vehicle exhausts enters shops and air-conditioners
at street level and it can also readily contaminate food sold on
the street. Airborne lead is of particular risk to children as
evidence shows that even low concentrations in the blood may
have permanent, damaging effects on their mental
development. In Bangkok, there is strong evidence that
children living near heavy traffic are less intelligent, due to
lead poisoning, than those living away from heavy traffic.
Adults exposed to lead suffer a higher risk of heart attacks and
strokes.

Ways of reducing the impacts of lead are:

• to use unleaded petrol in all vehicles
• to grow leafy trees with rough barks along busy roads;
• to locate schools and areas where children play away from
the main roads.

21.5 WHO Guidelines for Maximum Exposure to

Air Pollutants
The strong association between urban air pollution and poor health
has caused the World Health Organization (WHO) and the United
Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) to begin monitoring levels
of pollution. Table 21.1 lists the common and virulent (very
poisonous) air pollutants. It gives WHO guidelines for maximum
Pollutantand some possible
exposure W.H.O. Health
effects if these guidelines Effects
are exceeded.
Guideline
Pollutants formed by the combustion of charcoal, gas and oil
Sulfur Dioxide SO 2 3 Increased death rate due to respiratory
40 - 60 µg/m
illness, including chronic bronchitis.
(annual mean)
Smoke (particles formed 3 As above.
60 - 90 µg/m
by the combustion of
(annual mean)
solid fuel)
Pollutants from traffic emissions
Carbon monoxide CO 3 Reduced oxygen carrying capacity of the
10mg/m
blood and possible effects upon the
(over 8 hours)
central nervous system.

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Nitrogen Oxides No x 3 Increased respiratory illness in children,

150 µg/m
increased asthma in adults
(over 24
hours)
Lead 3 Blood enzyme changes, anaemia,
1mg/m
hyperactivity and neurobehavioural
(over 24
effects in children
hours)
Hydrocarbons (from Higher incidence of lung cancer
leakage and burnt petrol)
Ozone 120ppb. Eye irritation, respiratory symptoms
(secondary pollutant) (over 1 hour) when exercising outdoors
Table 21.1 Common and Virulent Air Pollutants

21.6 Ozone Layer Destruction

Ozone in the stratosphere is beneficial as it absorbs the dangerous
UV-B component of sunlight. If this did not occur, exposed forms of
life on earth would be severely damaged. Data collected since the
1950’s has shown scientists that stratospheric ozone levels were
relatively stable until the 1970’s when severe depletion began to
appear over Antarctica. This depletion in stratospheric ozone was
called the “ozone hole”. More recently, scientists have observed
other ozone holes over the northern hemisphere.

Fig. 21.8 Ultraviolet radiation and the ozone layer. (a) Ozone
absorbs UV radiation, (b) When ozone is absent, more high energy uv
penetrates the atmosphere to the earth’s surface. ( Raven et al. 1993)

21.6.1 Chlorofluorocarbon Compounds (CFC’s)

The major cause of ozone depletion is CFC's. These are
chemical compounds containing one carbon and one or more
of the halogen elements (fluorine, chlorine, bromine or
iodine). They are very stable and it is this characteristic which
endangers the ozone layer. Their stability enables them to
exist in the troposphere for many years and to drift up to the
stratosphere. Once in the stratosphere, the photochemical
breakdown of CFC's by intense solar radiation yields chlorine
atoms which catalyse the destruction of ozone.
268 Chapter 21
 Air Pollution

The role of CFC’s in the destruction of ozone

.
CF 2 Cl2 + sunlight → Cl +
.
CClF 2

These chlorine atoms catalyse the destruction of ozone;

. .
O3 + Cl →ClO + O2
. .
ClO + O3 → Cl + O2
Each chlorine atom causes the destruction of several thousand
molecules of ozone.

CFC's have been widely used in recent decades, mostly in

refrigerant fluid, for refrigerators. Other applications have
included solvents, aerosol propellants and blowing agents in
the fabrication of foam plastics. In 1987, representatives from
a number of countries met in Montreal, Canada to sign the
Montreal Protocol, an agreement to reduce CFC production by
50 percent by 1998.

Despite rapid reduction in the production of CFC’s the

following factors could delay the restoration of the ozone
layer:
• There is an international, illegal trade in contraband
CFC’s, estimated to be worth about $300 million. Russia has
been slow to phase out production of CFC’s and continues to
produce a large share of the world’s CFC’s.
• The Montreal Protocol allows developing nations to
produce and utilise CFC’s for another decade. In Cambodia
CFC’s are still used as coolants in refrigerators and air
cooling systems.

21.6.2 Nitric Monoxide (NO)

NO also contributes to stratospheric ozone depletion. Almost
all NO produced from human activities enters the atmosphere
as a result of the combustion of fossil fuels. Nitric monoxide
reacts directly with ozone producing nitrogen dioxide and
oxygen;
NO + O3 → NO 2 + O2

The effect of nitric monoxide on ozone levels is not as great

as CFC's, since one molecule of nitric monoxide only leads to
the destruction of one ozone molecule.

The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration of the

USA estimate that the ozone hole will not show signs of
improvement until 2008, and will not reach pre-ozone hole
Chapter 2 1 levels until 2050, due to the lag time between chemical 269
production and ozone damage.
Environment: ETAP Reference Guide Book

21.6.3 Effects of Ozone Depletion on the Earth

When stratospheric ozone diminishes, greater levels of UV-B
radiation are able to reach the earth's surface. Life on earth
has evolved to tolerate normal levels of this radiation but
exposure to UV-B radiation levels beyond these would cause
numerous problems, threatening the very survival of many
species of life.

Plants and food crops would be greatly affected as increased

levels of UV-B radiation would break down their leaves,
decreasing the efficiency of photosynthesis and water use.
Ultimately, ozone depletion could reduce the productivity of
many of the world's most important crops, making it difficult
to meet world food needs. The destruction of microscopic
plants (phytoplankton), which are the basis of the ocean's food
chain, could severely reduce the productivity of the world's
oceans.

Greater exposure to UV-B radiation would result in an

increased incidence of cataracts (an eye defect) and skin
cancer in humans. Skin cancers form because UV-B radiation
is absorbed by DNA and consequent photochemical changes
cause defects to occur to its structure. As a result the genetic
code is improperly translated during cell division. Although
fair skinned individuals have a higher risk of contracting skin
cancer, the risk for all skin types increases with exposure to
UV-B radiation. If the ozone hole continues to grow, most of
the world's population could eventually be subjected to an
increased risk of skin cancer.
21.7 Acid Rain
Approximately 100 million metric tons of sulphur enter the global
atmosphere every year as a result of human activities. The main
source of sulphur emissions is SO 2 produced by the combustion of
coal and other fossil fuels. Most nitrogen entering the atmosphere
from pollution sources is in the form of nitric monoxide, generated
from the combustion of fossil fuels in internal combustion engines. In
the troposphere SO 2 and NO are converted into sulphuric and nitric
acids respectively ;

SO 2 + 1\2O 2 + H 2O → H 2SO 4

2NO + 3\2O 2 + H 2O → 2HNO 3

These acids dissolve in water present in the troposphere, acidifying

the rain which results from deposition of the water. This acid
deposition is called ‘acid rain’ and is now a major pollution problem.

270 Chapter 21
 Air Pollution

Figure 21.9 Formation of Acid Rain (Raven et al. 1993)

Emissions from industrial operations and fossil fuel combustion are

the major sources of acid-forming gases, however acid rain has been
encountered in areas far from such sources. This is partly because
SO 2 and NO are first oxidised (reacted with oxygen) to acids and
then deposited over several days. During this time the air mass
containing the acids may have moved as much as several thousand
kilometers. Therefore acid rain is classified as a regional air pollution
problem in contrast to greenhouse gases which are a global one.

21.7.1 The Effects of Acid Rain

There is plenty evidence of the damaging effects of acid rain:
• Sulphuric and nitric acids are harmful to all plant life.
Acid rain burns the leaves of plants, causing them to turn
yellow and die. If acid rain occurs in a concentrated area,
entire forests, and the life they support, can be killed.
• Acid rain acidifies lakes and rivers, destroying their
ecological systems. In some countries there are lakes where no
ecological life can exist due to the effect of acid rain. In
regions where people depend on fish for survival, acid rain
can reduce fish yields, decrease incomes of fishermen and
increase fish costs in local markets.

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Fig. 21.10 Impact of acid rain on trees (Raven et al. 1993)

• Acid rain releases aluminium in soils and reduces the

availability of other chemicals such as magnesium and
calcium. This is known as leaching. Soil leaching has
complex effect. For example during the 1980’s the Titmouse
bird, native to the Netherlands, was found to be laying eggs
with defective shells. It is now believed that when the sulphur
dioxide produced acid rain, the rain leached calcium from the
soil. This reduced the availability of calcium to plants which
are eaten by snails causing the snails to become calcium
deficient. As snails are the principal source of calcium for
the Titmouse, the birds too became calcium deficient resulting
in the shells of their eggs being defective since calcium is the
major component of the shell.
• Aluminium released by acidification can enter rivers and
lakes where it poisons fish. It can be taken in by people
through associated drinking water sources.
• Acid rain reacts with building materials such as limestone
and marble. Both these materials contain calcium and/or
magnesium carbonate minerals which react with acid rain:

CaCO 3(Solid) + H 2 SO 4 → CaSO 4 +

CO 2 + H 2O
As a result building and structures containing these materials
become corroded and will eventually collapse if the action of
acid rain isn't reduced or prevented.

21.8 Reasons for The Increasing Air Pollution in

Cambodia
In Cambodia , particularly Phnom Penh, air pollution is worsening
272 due to the following factors; Chapter 21
 Air Pollution

• increased road traffic;

• stop and start traffic flows;
• old poorly maintained motobikes and cars;
• use of dirty fuels (e.g. gasoline with lead additives)
• use of outdated industrial processes;
• increased energy consumption and use of inefficient generators
for electricity production;
• lack of industrial zoning;
• lack of environmental regulations.

21.9 How to Control Air Pollution

Since we know the chemicals that cause air pollution then we can do
something to reduce them. Some actions that can be taken by any city
or country are listed as follows:
• use only unleaded petrol;
• use petroleum products that have a low sulphur content, etc;
• reduce the number of private vehicles on the road, develop an
efficient public transport system and encourage people to walk or use
bicycles;
• ensure that houses, schools, restaurants and places where children
play are not located on busy streets;
• plant trees along busy streets because they remove particulates
and carbon monoxide and absorb noise;
• dedicate streets in the city centre to pedestrians and and push
push bicycles;
• industries and waste disposal sites should be situated outside of
the city center, and preferably down-wind of the city;
• a narrow street lined with tall buildings causes a build up of high
levels of pollutants- therefore wide streets with lower buildings
should be encouraged;
• city planning with people in mind is very important;
• fit factory chimneys with the appropriate technology (e.g.
scrubbers) to remove particulate matter, nitrogen oxides and sulphur
oxides;
• use catalytic converters to help control the emissions of carbon
monoxide and hydrocarbons;
• impose taxes on carbon dioxide and sulphur dioxide emissions.

References

Allaby, M. 1996. Basics of Environmental Science

Arms, K. 1990. Environmental Science

Byrne, K. Environmental Science: University of Bath – Science 16-19

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

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Chapter 22

Climate Change

22.1. Introduction
The atmosphere acts as a protective blanket around the earth. It nurtures life on earth by
providing carbon dioxide (CO2) for plant photosynthesis, oxygen (O2) for respiration and the
inert nitrogen gas (N2) which reduces the oxidation activity of oxygen and provides nitrogen
for nitrogen fixing bacteria (See Chapter 3 for nitrogen cycle). It also protects the earth from
the hostile environment of outer space by absorbing most of the harmful cosmic rays from
outer space, therefore protecting organisms from their effects.

However, the atmosphere has been used as a dumping ground for many pollutant materials,
ranging from sulphur dioxide (SO 2 ) to the refrigerant freon. When amassed in significant
quantities, some pollutants threaten life on earth as seen in Chapter 21, Air Pollution.

22.2. Stratification of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere consists of several layers of which the most significant are the troposphere
and the stratosphere. The troposphere extends to approximately 11 km from the earth surface
and the stratosphere extends from the troposphere to approximately 50 km from the earth.
Excluding water, tropospheric air (the air we breath) consists of 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen,
0.9% argon and 0.03% carbon dioxide. It usually contains 1-3% water vapour depending upon
climatic conditions. The air also contains a number of trace gases of levels below 0.002%
(see Table 22.1).

Gas Major Source Percent volume

Methane CH 4 Biogenic 0.00016
Carbon monoxide CO Anthropogenic 0.00015
Nitrogen oxides NO x Anthropogenic 0.00006
Ammonia NH 3 Biogenic 0.00001
Hydrogen H 2 Biogenic 0.00005
Sulphur Dioxide Anthropogenic 0.000005
Chlorofluorocarbons CFC’s Anthropogenic 0.000003
Table 22.1: Trace gases found in the troposphere

22.3 The Greenhouse Effect

About half of the solar energy emitted by the sun reaches the earth’s surface where it is
absorbed. It is subsequently returned to space in the form of invisible infra-red radiation.
Naturally present in the troposphere are water, carbon dioxide, dinitrogen oxide, methane,
ozone and chloroflurocarbons, collectively known as greenhouse gases. These gases absorb
some of the emitted infra-red radiation and as a result they emit heat which warms the
troposphere and hence the surface of the earth (see Fig. 22.1).
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Fig 22.1 Greenhouse gases

The concentration of greenhouse gases naturally present in the troposphere maintains the
mean temperature of the earth’s surface at 16°C. This is crucial to ensuring climatic
conditions which can support present levels of life on earth. This effect is known as the
‘greenhouse effect’. It is a natural process responsible for keeping the earth warmer than it
would otherwise be.

22.3.1 The Enhanced Greenhouse Effect

If the concentration of greenhouse gases present in the troposphere increases, less infra-red
radiation emitted by the earth escapes back to space. This causes the temperature of the
troposphere to rise, in turn causing the temperature of the earth's surface to rise. This
phenomenon is known as the ‘enhanced greenhouse effect’.

Air pollution is increasing in almost all developing countries, including Cambodia. Rapid
urban growth, more road traffic, use of dirty fuels, increasing energy consumption and
consumerism, and a lack of environmental regulations have all contributed to higher levels of
greenhouse gases in the troposphere than are naturally found. This has resulted in less infra-
red radiation escaping the troposphere causing global warming of 0.3-0.6°C over the last
century. If the emission of greenhouse gases from human (‘anthropogenic ’ ) sources into the
troposphere continues, global warming will increase at a rate, and to a level, unprecedented in
human history.

There is much scientific evidence to show that the concentration of greenhouse gases in the
troposphere has significantly increased as nations have become more industrialised and as
forests have been converted to crop lands. Two of the more important greenhouse gases,
carbon monoxide and methane, are found in higher concentrations now than ever before.

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Figure 22.2 How the greenhouse effects global warming (Raven)

In 1990, the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) concluded that if current
emission trends continue, the mean global temperature will increase by 3°C before the end of
the next century, due to the enhanced greenhouse effect.

22.3.2 Sources of Green House Gases.

The main greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrogen oxides (NOx)
and chloroflourocarbons (CFCs). On a molecule to molecule basis, carbon dioxide absorbs
emitted radiation less strongly than other greenhouse gases. However, since the other
greenhouses gases are present in much smaller quantities their effect is much smaller; their
combined effect is estimated to be roughly equal to that of carbon dioxide. Table 22.2 shows
the current concentrations of the major greenhouse gases and their rate of increase through
human activities.

Gas Atmospheric Concentration Current Rate of Change

in 1800 in 1990 (per year)
Carbon monoxide 280 ppm. 353 ppm. 0.5%
Methane 0.8 ppm. 1.7 ppm. 0.9%
Nitrogen oxides 288 ppb. 310 ppb 0.25%
CFC’s 0 0.7 ppb. 8.0%
Table 22.2: Key Greenhouse Gases (source IPCC, 1990)

22.3.2.1 Carbon dioxide.

Energy use is responsible for about 75% of humankind’s carbon dioxide emissions. Oil, coal,
natural gas and wood supply the energy needed to run automobiles, cook food and power
factories. All of these fuels contain carbon and burning them produces carbon dioxide (the
most important greenhouse gas) as a by-product. Since the 1800’s carbon dioxide emissions
have gradually increased. Fuel which is not completely burnt produces other by-products such
as methane, also a greenhouse gas.

Fossil fuel + O2 → Heat + H 2O + CO 2

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Extracting, processing, transporting and distributing fossil fuels also releases carbon dioxide
and methane. These releases are sometimes deliberate, for example when natural gas is vented
from oil wells, but sometimes result from accidents, poor maintenance and leaks in pipe
fitting.

Fig 22.3 Storage of Carbon (Pickering and Owen)

Deforestation has a direct effect on the level of carbon dioxide in the troposphere. The leaves
on trees photosynthesise, absorbing carbon dioxide from the troposphere. Fewer trees on the
earth’s surface results in less carbon dioxide being absorbed from the troposphere. This is one
reason why planting forests is advocated as an important policy for addressing the problem of
anthropogenic emissions of carbon dioxide. Switching to alternative energy sources,
increasing energy conservation and reversing deforestation are options now being used to
reduce the rate of growth of carbon dioxide emissions.

Carbon monoxide emissions are another source of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide is
one of the most widely distributed air pollutants. The internal combustion engine is the
primary source of carbon monoxide emissions into the atmosphere. The lifetime of carbon
monoxide in the troposphere is approximately four months. It is generally agreed that carbon
.
monoxide is removed from the atmosphere by a reaction with the hydroxyl radical, HO
.
CO + HO → CO2 + H

This reaction is undesirable because it not only increases the concentration of carbon dioxide
but it removes hydroxyl radicals which are now recognised as an important atmospheric
cleansing agent.

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Fig. 22.4 Green houses gas levels have increased greatly since 1960

22.3.2.2 Methane
Methane is the second most important greenhouse gas produced by human activities
such as:
• livestock farming,
• fossil fuel extraction,
• wet rice cultivation,
• landfills, and
• domestic sewage.

Fig. 22.5 Methane is released by livestock and by wet rice cultivation

Domestically raised cattle (buffalo, sheep and goats) contribute about 20% of the methane
emissions caused by human activities. Much of the food eaten by these hoofed animals cannot
be digested until it has been fermented. This fermentation process produces methane as a by-
product, which is eventually released by the animal into the troposphere.

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 Climate Change

There are limited options for reducing methane emissions from livestock farming. One
possibility is to reduce the number of livestock animals. However in some countries families
try to own at least one cow to provide a secure source of essential nutrients in an often
vegetarian diet, to provide a source of fuel (cattle dung is an increasingly important fuel as
timber becomes more scarce) and for the status that ownership imparts. Newly developed
feeds can both raise the productivity of cattle and lower methane emissions. However, poor
farmers are unlikely to be able to afford the up-front investment required for the improved
feeds.

Rice fields produce about 60 million tonnes of methane a year which represents about 17% of
the total methane emissions resulting from human activities. Asia produces most of the
world’s rice. Virtually all this methane comes from wetland rice farming. Methane is
produced when plant organic matter in the flooded rice paddy is decomposed by bacteria.

Plant matter + H 2O → CH 4 + Other products.

Methane is primarily transported, from the paddy soil to the atmosphere, through the rice
plant itself with the stem and leaves of the plant acting like pipelines from soil to air. There
are limited options for reducing methane emissions from rice cultivation. Reducing rice
cultivation is not viable given the already tenuous food supply in many rice dependent
countries. Other options include replacing paddy rice with upland rice, developing strains of
rice plants that require less time in flooded fields and using different techniques for applying
fertilisers. These options require much more research before becoming widely practicable.

Landfill sites are also a source of methane emissions. Decaying organic matter such as
foodstuffs, plant and animal matter etc. produces methane which escapes into the atmosphere.
Technologies have been developed to trap this methane and to use it as an energy source, but
governments and the relevant authorities need to be encouraged to use these technologies.

22.3.3 The Effect of the Enhanced Greenhouse Effect on Global Climate

Scientific records show that the mean global temperature has risen by 0.3-0.6°C over the last
century. Weather during the 1980’s was the warmest since records began. However,
scientists are, as yet, unable to conclude whether this warm weather trend is resulting from an
enhanced greenhouse effect or is merely natural fluctuation. Uncertainty surrounding the
causes of climate change exists, but evidence linking greenhouse gases and climate change
continues to grow. Levels of emission are linked to population and economic growth,
technological developments. Government policies and changes to these factors are difficult to
predict, making it in turn, difficult to predict the climate changes that are likely over the next
century.

22.3.3.1 Sea Level Rise

A gradual rise in the sea level is anticipated as the world oceans expand. This is due to the
expansion of water as it is warmed and the melting of ice caps and mountain glaciers. The
IPCC predict a rise in sea level of around 65cm by the year 2100, if no specific measures are
taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, which is often termed “business-as-usual”. While
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this rise may appear insignificant it would actually affect millions of people and millions of
square kilometres of land.

The areas of land most at risk from a rise in sea level are the unprotected low-lying coastal
regions of the world, such as Bangladesh and Southern Vietnam. The flow of estuaries,
coastal rivers and wetlands would be affected and as a result tidal wetlands and mangrove
forests would be at risk due to increased erosion and salinity. Many small islands and some
tourist beaches would become submerged.

An article in The Cambodia Daily (March 17th, 1997) reports on changing weather patterns
being experienced on small islands in the Pacific ocean such as Kiribati and the Marshall
Islands. Frequent storms, and unexpected tidal waves have occurred causing considerable
flooding. People living on these islands are all too aware that global warming could cause the
seas to rise enough during the next century to obliterate some nations or render them
uninhabitable.

Figure 22.6 The impacts of Global warming (GAIA Atlas)

22.3.3.2 The Impact of Global Warming on Weather Patterns

Global warming of only a few degrees would have a profound effect on climate. Although
temperatures near the equator might change little, they would increase significantly at high
latitudes and near the poles. Global warming causes the rate of evaporation of water, from the
earth’s surface, into the troposphere to increase. The predicted rate of warming could cause an
7 - 11% increase in global rainfall per annum.

280 Chapter 22
 Climate Change

The most profound effects of an increase in global mean temperature would be experienced
during winter. Cold seasons would shorten and warm ones lengthen. In higher northern
latitudes, autumn and winter would be wetter and spring and summer drier. Rainfall would
increase in the tropics but sub-tropical regions might become drier. Increased rates of
evaporation would lead to drier soils over wider areas.

Precise effects on climate due to increased global mean temperature have yet to be
determined. However it is certain that any changes in natural climate systems will affect the
economic, social and political fabric of nations around the world. The productive
infrastructure developed over the next decade will also determine the kinds and quantities of
emissions that are released into the atmosphere throughout the next hundred years. In general,
modern societies have experienced moderate, stable climates, with natural, gradual variations.
The future prospect is that human activities will alter the composition of the atmosphere in
ways which could cause rapid changes to the earth’s climate.

22.3.3.3 El NINO
In a ‘normal year’, the variations in the atmosphere-ocean system produce a fairly predictable
pattern of ocean currents in the southern Pacific ocean, and in which the surface sea
temperature is highest in the west (>28°C), which helps to induce movement of strong warm
maritime South-East trade Winds into Indonesia and with them a heavy rainfall. A result of
this is that cold, nutrient rich bottom waters upwell to replenish surface waters off the western
coast of South America. This upwelling of nutrients is responsible for rich fishing waters off
the coast of Chile, Peru and Ecuador.

In contrast to such normal years, during an El Nino, surface water temperatures greater than
28°C develop much further eastwards and allow the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ)
to migrate southwards and suppress the South-East Trade Winds, or even reverse them. As the
cold currents along the coastlines of Chile, Peru and Ecuador are replaced by the warm
currents, the minerals in the cold currents can no longer reach the coasts. The result is the
depletion of aquatic production, less catches for fishermen, etc. The warm currents also bring
more rain. Countries in South America experience increased rainfall and flooding, and
hurricanes are more likely.

With less biological productivity, less CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere-ocean system
by organisms and, therefore, can lead to greater concentration of CO2, a greenhouse gas, in
the atmosphere.

The effects of El Nino are felt worldwide, long periods of drought lead to famine during
severe El Ninos in some parts of the world, e.g. Zimbabwe 1982, and severe flooding and
storms are experienced in other places, e.g. severe storms on the west coast of America 1998.
The full impact of the 1997-98 El Nino will become more visible as data is collected and
analyzed.

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Fig.22. 7 (a) Normal weather and ocean situation in the Southern Pacific Ocean

Fig.22.7 (b) Weather and ocean during an El Nino Occurrence (Pickering and Owen)

22.3.4 The Impact of Climate Change in South-East Asia.

Scientists believe that greenhouse gas emissions from human activities may raise
temperatures and change rainfall patterns in south-east Asia. The consensus is that,
if present levels of greenhouse gas emissions continue, over the next 100 years the
average annual surface temperature will increase by 1.5 - 4.5°C and annual rainfall
will increase by 7 - 11%.

The most serious threat to livelihoods would come from coastal flooding by rising
sea levels. Most scientists believe that by the year 2010 a rise in sea level of about
65 cm would result from higher atmospheric temperatures. Sandy coastlines backed
by densely populated, low lying plains make the south-east Asia region particularly
vulnerable to inundation. As much as 20,000 km 2 of land could be threatened with
flooding, including some of the most economically productive lands in south-east
Asia, for example land surrounding the Mekong river and Phnom Penh.

Rising sea level would have the following effects:

• the salinity of groundwater in some coastal region would increase, leading to
freshwater shortages and /or deterioration;
• the flow of estuaries, coastal rivers and low lying irrigation systems would be
changed putting the agricultural productivity of flat river deltas at risk;
• tidal wetlands and mangrove forests, which are critical breeding grounds for fish
and prawns, would face erosion and increased salinity;
282 Chapter 22
 Climate Change

• the disappearance of beaches would undermine tourism which is an important

source of income in south-east Asia.
Rapid population growth and expanding economic activity currently put enormous
pressure on water resources. Reduced water supply would place even greater stress
on people, agriculture and the environment. Conflicts over water resources will
worsen in a fertile basin like the Mekong and in regions with rapid population
growth and increasing drought.

22.3.4.1 Effects on Agriculture

Higher temperatures and changing rainfall patterns would probably reduce rice
production throughout the region. Besides the loss in cropland resulting from sea
inundation, yields on the remaining croplands would decrease as the potential for
growing two crops per year would be limited by:
• excess irrigation demands;
• high temperatures which would shorten the time available for crops to mature;
• increased rainfall which would cause erosion and soil leaching reducing the
amount of cropland suitable for rice production.

It has been suggested that increased concentrations of carbon dioxide in the

troposphere could increase plant production. Carbon dioxide is essentially a
fertiliser as its presence encourages plants to increase their carbohydrate level. The
net effect of increased levels of carbon dioxide in the troposphere on agriculture is
unclear however, partly because it would also cause pest plants to grow more
rapidly.

22.3.4.2 Effects on Human Health and Society

It is difficult to prove links between climate change and specific declines in human
health. Direct impacts on health are likely to include an increase in heat stress and
in respiratory, allergic and air borne diseases. Tropical diseases such as malaria and
dengue fever are also likely to spread as the habitats for the mosquito and vectors
expand when the temperature rises in temperate countries. Indirect health effects
would result from droughts, floods, social and economic disruption.

Poverty and high population densities would ensure that even small changes in land
or crop productivity would have serious social consequences. Many of south-east
Asia’s farmers and fishermen already struggle for their daily existence and do not
have the resources to adapt to climate change or to re-locate. They may see their
livelihoods destroyed in the future by reduced water resources, degraded soils and
impoverished forests and fishing grounds.
The predicted impacts of climate change would probably exacerbate hunger and
poverty around the world. The poor would suffer the most because they have fewer
options for responding to climate change.

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22.4 What can be done?

Of all environmental hazards, there is little doubt that major disruptions to the atmosphere and
climate have the greatest potential for catastrophic and irreversible damage. If levels of
greenhouse, and other pollutant, gases continue to increase at present rates, major
environmental effects are almost certain.

Air pollution and global warming are causes and consequence of excessive emissions of
pollutants into the atmosphere. The suggestions for minimising emissions and adapting to the
consequences are outlined as follows:

22.4.1 Minimisation
Minimisation involves reducing greenhouse gas emissions, switching to alternate energy
sources, increasing energy conservation and reversing deforestation. It is particularly
beneficial to use measures, which have other benefits besides the reduction of global
warming. These include re-forestation, restoration of grasslands, increased energy
conservation, and a massive shift to solar energy sources. A shift to nuclear-based energy
sources just to prevent possible global warming may not be advisable, as it can also have
major negative impacts on the environment.

22.4.2 Adaptation
Adapting to global warming would have to involve more efficient and flexible distribution
and use of water in many parts of the world. Important examples of this are introducing more
efficient irrigation practices and growing crops which require less irrigation.

Adaptation is particularly emphasised by those who argue that there is insufficient

information of the types and severity of global warming to justify introducing minimisation
and counteractive measures. In any case, adaptation will certainly have to be employed as one
means of coping with global warming.

22.4.3 Other Measures

Taxing the carbon content of oil, coal and gas would discourage the use of fossil fuels,
reducing carbon dioxide emissions. Many economists believe that a carbon tax would achieve
reductions in CO2 emissions at a minimum cost but the tax would need to be well designed
and administered to avoid hurting the poor. The most cost-efficient carbon tax would be
comprehensive and internationally co-ordinated but there are other difficulties involved with
the introduction of such a tax. Kuwait, Iran and other oil-producing countries are demanding
that industrialised nations provide financial compensation for their loss of revenue should a
carbon tax be introduced. Also ‘developing’ countries in general argue that the developed
nations, who have been responsible historically for overwhelming majority of human-caused
GHGs, should bear most of the costs of reducing GHG emissions, and adapting new
technologies.

A further option is the disposal of carbon dioxide into a sink other than the atmosphere, such
as the ocean, deep subterranean aquifers and exhausted oil and gas wells.

284 Chapter 22
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The “Tie-in Strategy”, proposed in 1980, is a method of dealing with the kinds of global
environmental problems discussed in this chapter. The strategy advocates taking “high
leverage actions”, designed to prevent the problems from occurring. The actions also have
substantial merit even if the problems they are designed to avoid do not materialise.

One example is the use of environmentally sound substitutes for fossil fuels in order to lower
atmospheric CO2 output and prevent global warming. Even if the greenhouse effect is
exaggerated, such substitutes would save the earth from other kinds of environmental damage,
such as disruption of land by strip-mining coal or prevention of damage from oil spills when
transporting petroleum. There are also certain economic and political benefits from reduced
dependence on uncertain, volatile petroleum supplies.

Increasing energy efficiency would reduce the production of both greenhouse gases and acid
rain, whilst reducing the need for, and production costs of, expensive and environmentally
disruptive new power plants. The implementation of these tie-in strategies requires some
degree of incentive beyond normal market forces, and is therefore opposed by some on
ideological grounds.

References

Allaby, M. 1996. Basics of Environmental Science

Arms, K. 1990. Environmental Science

Byrne, K. Environmental Science: University of Bath – Science 16-19

GAIA, 1994. The GAIA Atlas of Planet Management.

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

O’Meara, M. 1997. The Risks of Disrupting Climate. Published in World Watch Vol 10, No.
6, November/December 1997.

Pickering, K. T. and Owen, L.A., 1995. An Introduction to Global Environmental Issues.

Raven, P., Berg, L. and Johnson, G., 1993. Environment

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Chapter 23

Water Pollution

Compiled by: Sean Cotter, APSO/RUPP

23.1 Introduction
Despite water’s simple chemical formula , H2 O, it is a vital substance in all parts of the
environment. It covers about 70% of the earth’s surface and is found in different forms in all
parts of the environment: freshwater resources are finite because only a tiny proportion of all
freshwater is available for use.

In most parts of the world, freshwater resources are over-used. In addition, supplies are being
poisoned by industrial waste, sewage, silt (from eroded land) and chemical waste and
nutrients (from agricultural run-off). These poisonous substances make their way into rivers
and lakes and then later enter plants, animals and humans. Despite water being limited and the
essence of all life on earth, it is widely treated as an infinite and expendable resource.

Fig 23.1 Children playing and catching fish in dirty water being dredged from the Tonle Sap

23.2. Major Types and Effects of Water Pollutants

23.2.1 Pathogenic Organisms

In developing countries like Cambodia, the water pollutants which are of most concern are
pathogenic (disease causing) organisms, bacteria, viruses and parasites. The most serious
waterborne diseases are typhoid, cholera, bacterial and amoebic dysentery, enteritis, polio,
infectious hepatitis and schistosomiasis. Malaria is transmitted by insects that have aquatic
larvae. Nearly two thirds of deaths of children in Cambodia under five are associated with
waterborne diseases.

The main source of these pathogens is untreated, or improperly treated, human waste. Animal
waste, from feedlots or fields near waterways, and food processing plants with inadequate
waste treatment facilities are also a source of pathogenic organisms.

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Detecting specific pathogens in water is difficult, time consuming and costly. Therefore,
water is usually analyzed solely for the presence of “faecal coliforms”. These are one of the
many types of bacteria which live in human and animal intestines. A large number of faecal
coliforms in water normally indicates recent contamination by untreated faeces and therefore
the presence of infectious pathogens.

The faecal coliform test is used to establish water quality recommendations and regulations in
most countries. Ideally, drinking water should contain no faecal coliforms. The World Health
Organisation (WHO) recommends that water used for washing, bathing and irrigation of
uncooked vegetables contains less than 1000 per 100ml of water.

23.2.2 Oxygen Demanding Wastes

Oxygen is added to water by diffusion from air (especially when there is high turbulence and
mixing) and by photosynthesis of green plants and algae. Oxygen is removed from water by
respiration and by chemical processes which consume oxygen. The solubility of oxygen is a
function of temperature: the higher the temperature the lower the concentration of oxygen.
For example, oxygen saturation in many tropical countries, with air temperatures of 300 C -
350 C, is 7 - 8 ppm., while at near freezing temperature 0°C it is about double (14 - 16 ppm.).

The amount of dissolved oxygen (D.O.) in water is also an indicator of its quality and the
kinds of life it can support. Water with D.O. greater than 8 parts per million (ppm.) can
support many fish and other desirable forms of aquatic life, whilst water with D.O. less than 2
ppm. can only support worms, bacteria, fungi and other decomposers.

Some organic materials (e.g. sewage, paper pulp and food wastes), when added to water,
stimulate oxygen consumption by decomposers. This gradually depletes the D.O. level and if
re-aeration is inadequate invertebrate animals and fish die due to lack of oxygen. Pollution by
sewage (city wastewater) also adds suspended solids and toxins to water which magnify the
problem of de-oxygenation. As D.O. concentration falls the variety of animals is reduced,
whilst surviving species rise sharply in number.

Clean water invertebrates (animals without backbones) die if overcome by toxins and lack of
oxygen. Fish are affected by polluted water and may die if they cannot escape or tolerate the
conditions; the normal diversity of fish species does not reappear until a suitable habitat for
reproduction and feeding is re-established. Instead pollution invertebrates (mainly sludge
worms and algae blooms) thrive in the organic matter which blankets the bottom. Under
normal conditions, algae benefit river life by supplying oxygen during photosynthesis.
However, dense algae blooms turn the water green, produce an offensive odor and can create
a significant oxygen demand when they decompose at night.

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Fig. 23.2Stream recovery from oxygen-demanding wastes and heat. The dissolved oxygen curve is
shown in orange and the biological oxygen demand is shown in blue (Miller 1992).

23.2.3 Inert Solids

In most parts of the world inert solids (soil sediment and suspended solids) make up the
largest volume of water pollution. The common sources of inorganic suspensions are soil
erosion from agricultural land, deforestation of river banks, watersheds and lake shores,
quarrying operations and washing of sand and gravel. Rivers have always carried sediment to
lakes and oceans but erosion rates and thus sedimentation have been greatly accelerated by
these human activities.

The combined effects of increased turbidity and deposition on a river bed cause the reduction
of both population densities and the range of animals present in the water. It appears that very
fine suspensions indirectly eliminate animals by shading out plant life, thus preventing food
production.

In a polluted river:
• resident fish species find it difficult to feed as they mostly rely on sight
(although migratory fish may pass through unaffected);
• solids which settle on the bottom alter or destroy the vegetation on the river bed
with corresponding changes in the animal community;
• deposition of suspended solids can seriously damage spawning sites where fish
bury their eggs as the eggs are unable to breath because the small gaps in the
river bed become blocked.
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Figure 23.3 Polluting Effects of sediment on aquatic animals . (a) A stream without
sediment pollution can support diverse aquatic life. (b) The same stream after prolonged
exposure to sediment pollution (Raven 1993).

23.2.4 Toxic Water Pollutants (Toxins)

Toxins (poisons) can cause significant damage to plant and animal life in flowing waters.
They are classified as organic or inorganic depending on their chemical composition.

23.2.4.1 Organic Toxins

Thousands of different natural and synthetic organic chemicals are used to make
pesticides, plastics, medicines, paint pigments and other commonly used products.
Many of these chemicals are highly toxic and some are resistant to decomposition
(biodegradation), remaining in the environment for a very long time. The two of
most concern are pesticides, which run off agricultural lands, and industrial and
domestic wastes, if improperly disposed of.

Toxins have a direct impact on aquatic life. Many can kill fish directly by:
• sufficiently shifting the pH (acidity) of the water;
• covering the water surface thus causing a reduction in dissolved oxygen (D.O);
• building up to toxic levels, thus poisoning the fish.

If there are traces of toxic chemicals in water, then their concentration in algae will
be much higher. Aquatic invertebrates are plant eaters (herbivores) which feed on

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algae. Herbivores consume the algae and accumulate these contaminants in their
bodies. When fish feed on the herbivores the contaminant concentration is
increased further. This is known as “biological magnification” of chemicals.
Therefore, even a tiny amount of a toxic chemical in the water system can have
serious impacts on the fish, which live in that water system. Due to “biological
magnification” the concentration of the toxic chemical can be magnified to a
concentration, which kills the fish.

Figure 23.4 Biological Amplification of PCBs (polychlorinated biphenyls) in an aquatic

food chain, as recorded in the Great Lakes in Canada (Miller 1992).

The seriousness of biological magnification varies with different chemicals. They can
indirectly cause a decrease in populations, either by hindering reproduction or by influencing
body functions making the fish a less successful predator (hunter). In other instances, the fish
flesh may be tainted or inedible as you’ll notice if a small amount of kerosene leaks into a
water system where fish swim.

After a toxin enters a river its concentration slowly declines as it is diluted by water,
decomposed or neutralized by chemical reactions. Animal populations are initially reduced
but they slowly reappear in small numbers and increasing diversity. Both animals and algae
are affected differently by different toxins, and some populations recover sooner than others.
Heavy re-growth of algae may be easier than the return of invertebrates, because of the
absence of animals to graze on the algae. The algae will slowly decline in mass to a normal
balanced population.

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The effects of toxins on aquatic life can be magnified by environmental conditions. During
the cold season fish are much more resistant to toxins because the water contains more
dissolved oxygen. However, higher water temperatures, (i.e. decreased levels of dissolved
oxygen) increases their susceptibility to other unfavorable conditions and they are more likely
to die. During spawning, even slight pollution, including heat pollution, can cause damage to
the eggs.

23.2.4.2 Inorganic Toxins

Some dangerous minerals are present in rocks and soils. They are released from rocks by
weathering and carried into lakes and rivers by runoff, or percolated into groundwater
aquifers. This is part of the natural mineral cycle. In most waters, the very small concentration
of these minerals poses no threat to aquatic life and human health. However, human activities,
such as mining and processing and discarding of minerals, accelerate the transfer of minerals
from the ground to the water. In mining areas the concentration of these minerals may be
thousands of times above the ambient background level. At these high concentrations, heavy
metals such as mercury, lead, tin and cadmium are very poisonous. Other inorganic materials,
such as acids, salts, nitrates and chlorine, not normally toxic in low concentrations, may
become sufficiently concentrated to lower drinking water quality and adversely affect aquatic
life.

Mine drainage and leaching of mining wastes are significant sources of metal pollution in
water. In some cases, metal levels are two hundred times higher than WHO standards for
drinking water. Coal and oil combustion leads to the formation of sulfuric and nitric acids,
which are dispersed by atmospheric transport (see air pollution) and re-deposited in the form
of acid rain. This acid rain can significantly lower the pH of water. The pH of water itself has
damaging effects on most animals when the value is below five or above nine.

23.2.5 Thermal Pollution

Thermal pollution occurs when heated water, produced during many industrial processes, is
released into waterways. Thermal pollution affects a wide variety of wildlife, not just aquatic
organisms.

23.3. Cultural Eutrophication

The phenomenon of eutrophication is used in the study of rivers and lakes to describe normal
processes which occur in lakes and eventually lead to their extinction. Eutrophication means
an increase in nutrient levels and biological productivity and is a normal process over time in
lakes. Over a long period of time lakes tend to become more productive and fill up with
plants and other vegetation. Eventually they become marshes and then terrestrial ecosystems.
Human activities greatly accelerate eutrophication and increased biological productivity. This
ecosystem succession is called “cultural eutrophication”. This is caused by various factors,
but the most important human-induced reasons are domestic sewage and fertilizer runoff from
agricultural lands.

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Fig. 23.5 A comparison of oligotrophic and eutrophic lakes (Raven 1993)

Eutrophication is directly related to the aquatic food chain). Algae use carbon dioxide,
inorganic nitrogen, phosphate and trace nutrients for growth and reproduction. These plants
serve as food for microscopic animals (zooplankton). Small fish feed on zooplankton, and
large fish in turn consume these smaller fish. The amount of plant growth, and normal balance
of the food chain, are controlled by the limitation of plant nutrients.

When nutrients become more abundant through pollution sources the normal succession is
unbalanced, promoting blooms of blue-green algae. These are not easily used as food by
zooplankton and therefore, the water becomes turbid. Floating masses of algae are blown to
the shore by winds, where they decompose producing unpleasant smells. Decaying algae also
settle to the bottom, reducing D.O. which is associated with the reduction of commercial
fishing in some eutrophic lakes. Shorelines and shallow bays become choked with water
weeds. Preferred food-fish cannot survive in these unfavorable conditions and, as
eutrophication increases, they may be replaced by a succession of increasingly tolerant coarse
fish.

23.4 Water Pollution in Cambodia

Cambodia does not have a national water management policy addressing the varied issues of
water use. Surface water and ground water quality close to urban areas has deteriorated
because of the disposal of domestic waste water into fresh water bodies. The development of
paper and textile mills, chemical factories and food processing industries has probably caused
additional problems of industrial waste water disposal. The water quality of the Mekong river
system is also highly dependent on water management policies of countries whose territory is
in the upper catchment of the Mekong river.

23.4.1 Sources of Water Pollution

The sources of water pollution are classified into two types: point source pollution and non-
point source pollution. Point source pollution is discharged into the environment through
pipes, sewers, or ditches from specific sites such as factories or sewage treatment plants. Non-
point source pollution is caused by land pollutants that enter bodies of water over large areas
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rather than at a single point. It includes agricultural runoff, mining wastes, urban wastes, and
construction sediment. Soil erosion is a major source of non-point source pollution.

Point Sources Non-Point Sources

Sewage Treatment Plant Cities
Factories Agricultural land
Drainage pipe roads
Oil wells logged forests

23.4.1.1 Wastewater and Sewage

Wastewater management in Phnom Penh and other municipalities of Cambodia is extremely
poor. Sewerage systems have not been maintained over the past three decades and are in a
state of disrepair with 80% of the piping damaged. Drain water and sewage mixes with
drinking water with obvious health implications: diarrhoeal diseases are common throughout
the country and cholera outbreaks occur frequently. There are frequent floods in the city
during the rainy season as the sewers become rapidly clogged. The problems of urban
wastewater are particularly acute in the larger urban areas, such as Phnom Penh and
Battambang, where dramatic population growth is placing an additional burden on already
overloaded systems.

Fig. 23.6 An open sewer running through Stung Meanchey dump

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Most sewage and drain water is drained by open channels, or into ponds, in close
contact with people. Large cities such as Phnom Penh and Battambang are partly
served by combined sewage and storm drainage systems , i.e. both foul water and
storm water flows are removed by the same pipe network. These systems consist of
pour-flush or conventional flush toilets, sometimes draining to a septic tank. Large
solids are held by the septic tanks and sewage water flows to the street culverts to
mix with rainwater runoff. The culverts do not discharge to treatment systems, but
to waterways or water bodies, such as the Mekong river, which are used for drinking
water, bathing, swimming and irrigation.

In Phnom Penh a lot of the factories and handicraft centers are situated close to the
river bank. A large number of these producers ignore proper waste disposal facilities
and pour their waste directly into the Mekong river system. Night clubs, floating
houses and hotels along the river bank also contribute to degenerating water quality
as they are not equipped (or required by law to be equipped) with chemical reaction
or filter tanks to treat their waste before discharging it into rivers and lakes. The
Ministry of Environment has inadequate environmental legislation to deal with such
polluters. A laboratory was opened in the Ministry at the end of 1997, so in the
future the MoE should be better equipped to analyze polluted water.

In most areas of Cambodia there are no proper sanitation facilities and people
defecate in fields or water bodies, resulting in contamination of drinking water
sources. A 1993 Government/UNICEF survey of urban and rural Cambodia
indicated that for excreta disposal:
• 27% of the population use the border of their yards;
• 58% of the population use the fields;
• 13% of the population use latrines;
• 2% not reported

During the rainy season the effects are more serious, resulting in widespread excreta
contamination and disease outbreaks.

The same report shows that only 135 have access to sanitary facilities:
• Urban population: 53% (779,000 of all people living in towns and
cities)
• Rural population: 6% (463,800 of all people living in rural areas)
• Total population: 13% (1,242,800 of the total population of Cambodia)
The construction of latrines, sewerage systems and promotion of hygiene education
are urgently required.

23.4.1.2 Fertilizers
Fertilizer use in Cambodia is less per capita than in other countries in the region. In
1993, 40,000 tonnes of inorganic fertilizer were applied. In per capita terms
Thailand uses about four times as much as Cambodia. Farmers in Cambodia have

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traditionally managed their crop nutrient requirements by supplying nutrients

primarily in organic forms and have limited knowledge of inorganic fertilizers.
Nutrient sources include animal manure, household waste, ash from fires,
leguminous weed and leaves, rice straw and sea salt. Farmers generally make no
distinction between fertilizer types and don’t recognize the need to adapt their rates
and timing to different soils and to plant development. Given the impoverished
nature of soils in much of the rice growing areas, increased fertilizer use will be
necessary if food production is to keep pace with population growth. However, if
increased fertilizer use isn’t regulated, environmental damage, including water
pollution, harm to human and animal health, and crop loss, will result.

23.4.1.3 Pe sticides
Rice crop intensification has been proposed as an effective means of achieving food security
in Cambodia. Strategies to achieve this include the use of pesticides in rice fields which are
currently relatively pesticide free. Increased pesticide use should be monitored and regulated
as it can lead to environmental problems such as water pollution.

Detrimental effects to the environment, through improper pesticide use, have been well
documented in other countries which grow rice as a main crop. Villagers traditionally catch
and eat fish from paddy fields during the wet season; however these fish can be killed by the
pesticides. This would have a significant impact on the lives of people who rely on fish as the
main protein component of their diet. Local ponds and paddy are also water sources for
bathing, drinking, washing and cooking food. If this water becomes polluted with pesticides,
chronic poisoning may result. No cases of acute poisoning or death from pesticides have been
documented in Cambodia, but medical staff at provincial and commune level suspect
poisoning to be the cause of death in a number of cases. See Chapter 28 for more details on
pesticides.

23.4.1.4 Sedimentation
The Mekong, like all major rivers in Asia, transports large volumes of sediment,
particularly suspended sediment, in its lower reaches. Understanding the
characteristics of the complex sediment transport mechanisms in the Mekong -
Tonle Sap Great Lake system is of vital importance as it has a direct impact on the
biological environment, and particularly on fish.

The Mekong River Commission (1993), in its study for a development plan for the
Tonle Sap, states that at the present sedimentation rate, the Great lake would not dry
up for at least another 600 years but that the effects of sedimentation on the
biological environment of the lake need to be closely studied.

The increased sedimentation rates are attributed to a number of factors including:

• deforestation in the upper reaches of the Tonle Sap watershed;
• deforestation in other parts of the Mekong basin creating an increased silt load
in the Mekong;
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• gem mining in Battambang;

• ecological succession in its final stages, leading to the disappearance of this
open water body.

23.4.2 Current Water Quality Conditions

Although Cambodia has abundant surface water, it is often contaminated and current
safe water supplies are not sufficient for the population, especially in rural areas. In
the dry season, people often have to walk several kilometers to fetch water. An
extensive survey of 10,000 villages (Government and UNICEF, 1991) indicated that
during the dry season:

• 20% of the population use river water;

• 20% of the population use water from ponds;
• 60% of the population use drilled/traditional hand dug well water.

It is difficult to assess current water quality conditions as available data are scarce
and of uneven quality. However, a report on water and environmental sanitation
(Government and UNICEF, 1993) shows the percentage population with access to
safe drinking water is:
• Urban: 40%
• Rural: 15%
• Total: 19%

In Phnom Penh municipality, water pollution from improper disposal of sewage and
domestic waste water, low water pressure, broken pipes, disruptions in electric
power supply and poor water quality often contribute to the disrupted water supplies
and deterioration of drinking water quality. Rehabilitation of water distribution,
waterworks, sewerage and drainage systems is urgently required.

According to the 1994 “ First State of the Environment Report” poor water quality is
a problem in Cambodia because:
i) there is a shortage of managerial and technical staff and lack of national policy
on water and sanitation;
ii) there is little understanding of the need for clean water and sanitation by rural
people and poor water distribution and sewage disposal systems in Phnom Penh.
nearly all the
iii) traditional wells and formerly drilled wells were abandoned, destroyed or
contaminated during the war;
iv) multilateral and bilateral assistance to Cambodia in the last decade has until
recently been very limited;
v) there is no central authority to implement water and environmental sanitation
projects;

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The spread of water-borne diseases and the lack of proper sanitation in rural areas
indicate that water-borne pathogens are a major water pollutant in Cambodia. The
resulting health hazard depends upon the number and type of disease-causing
organisms contained in the water. See Chapter 25 for more information on water-
borne diseases.

23.5 Improving Water Quality

Water quality can be improved by reducing the number of contaminants that go into the water
supply and by cleaning up waste water. Cleaning up waste water is dealt with in Chapter 11,
Water Resources. Laws can be established to control water pollution, but it is normally more
effective in controlling point source pollution rather than non-point source pollution. One of
the most important ways of reducing water pollution is through education.

References

Allaby, M. 1996. Basics of Environmental Science

Arms, K. 1990. Environmental Science

Byrne, K. Environmental Science: University of Bath – Science 16-19

GAIA, 1994. The GAIA Atlas of Planet Management.

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

Raven, P., Berg, L. and Johnson, G., 1993. Environment

UNDP, 1994. Cambodia: First State of the Environment Report.

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Chapter 24

Solid Waste

Compiled by: Sean Cotter, APSO/RUPP

24.1. Introduction
Solid wastes are materials which no longer have any useful purpose in their present form or
condition. Solid waste management can be defined as the disposal of waste materials (also
known as rubbish, garbage, trash), generated from household and industrial sources, in a cost
effective way, without degrading the environment.

Population growth, rising standards of living, increasing urbanization and industrialization

have all contributed to greater amounts of solid waste in industrialized countries such as
Japan, Singapore or France and developing countries, such as Cambodia and India.

Solid wastes have serious impacts on public health and the environment if they are poorly
stored, collected and disposed of. The most serious effects of poor solid waste management
include air pollution, contamination of drinking water supplies and the spread of human
diseases. It causes cities to become ugly and dirty, affects the health and morale of people,
harms animals and plants, and hurts the economy and national pride.

Fig. 24.1 Solid waste awaiting collection in Phnom Penh

The management of waste is a major challenge facing governments around the world but in
Cambodia solid waste is the most visible form of pollution. The management, collection and
transportation of solid waste in Phnom Penh are problems of great concern to The Phnom
Penh Municipality, which is responsible for solid waste disposal and The Ministry of
Environment which is trying to develop legislation for more effective monitoring and control
of pollution.

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Table 24.1 shows the estimated quantity of solid waste generated per day in the provinces of
Cambodia (Office of Solid Waste and Toxic Substances).

Town / Province Quantity of Solid Waste / Day

Phnom Penh 464tons
Sihanouk Ville 15 tons
Siem Reap 17 tons
Banteay Meanchey 12 m3
Kampong Speu 30 tons
Pursat 21 m3
Kampong Chhnang 10 m3
Kampong Cham 15 m3
Kampot 16 m3
Preah Vihear 5 m3
Kep (Kampot) 6 m3
Svay Rieng 1 ton
Prey Veng 30-50 m3
Table 1: Solid Waste Generation in Cambodia 1

A number of factors contribute to weak solid waste management in Cambodia. These include
a very low budget, a shortage of all types of equipment needed for the transportation,
collection and storage of waste, weak laws and enforcement and no overall management plan.
Transportation and collection processes are complicated and the services are slow and
unpredictable.

24.2. Definition of Solid Waste

Solid waste materials are often discarded, abandoned or disposed of since they are no longer
wanted. However, increasingly around the world many wastes are being collected, processed,
and then re-used or used for a new purpose. This is known as “recycling”.

Solid wastes can be pollutant, hazardous or toxic, although some fall into more than one
category. Classification into these categories is necessary for a solid waste management plan
to be comprehensive and effective.

24.2.1 Pollutant Solid Wastes

A pollutant solid waste is a form of solid waste that can alter the character or composition of
the biological, chemical or physical properties of the environment into which it is accidentally
or purposefully released. Not all solid wastes are pollutants. For example, household
biological wastes, left to decompose in the presence of air into an organic end-product, which

1
Data from the MoE/SPEC 1996 survey.
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will be absorbed into the soil do not effect the environment in an adverse way. An example is
food and plant wastes which can decompose into compost.

Hazardous wastes and toxic wastes are, or have the potential to be, extremely dangerous to
human health, welfare, and/or the environment. The dangers posed by these wastes make it
critical that special care is taken during their disposal.

24.2.2 Hazardous Wastes

Hazardous wastes threaten human health, welfare and/or the environment due to their
quantity, concentration, physical, chemical or biological properties. For example, a waste
may be hazardous because it is combustible or inflammable (such as many solvents used in
the chemical industry), corrosive (such as battery acid), explosive or reactive (such as
phosphorus) or infectious (such as hospital wastes, used needles and bandages).

24.2.3 Toxic Wastes

Toxic wastes cause, or have the potential to cause, acute (quick developing, severe but
relatively short lived) or chronic (continuing or recurring over a long term) effects in living
organisms or their offspring such as rashes, nausea, temporary blindness, death, and various
diseases. These effects occur through direct contact or indirect exposure with the waste (e.g.
eating contaminated fish).

24.3 Sources and Analysis of Solid Wastes Generated in Cambodia

Analysis of solid waste is carried out to determine its component parts. This information is
required when preparing a solid waste management plan. There is little detailed data available
on the solid waste generated in Cambodia. At the end of 1996, the Office for Solid Waste and
Toxic Substances Management studied types and sources of solid waste generated in Phnom
Penh. Waste was divided into three categories, harmless solid waste, harmful waste and
radioactive waste. The following is a summary of their report.

24.3.1 Harmless Solid Waste

This type of waste is mostly generated by households, business establishments, markets, fresh
and dried food centers, hotels, restaurants, shops, public gardens/parks, street vendors, tourist
centers, transportation and other associated places. It is not seriously harmful to humans,
plants or animals if managed properly. It includes paper, clothing, food, cardboard boxes, etc.

24.3.2 Harmful Waste

This type of waste is mostly generated by industries, establishments such as battery
manufacturers, zinc processors, pesticide factories, hospitals and abattoirs. It was described
as “most worrying” as special care has to be taken in its disposal. It includes syringes,
pesticide containers and old batteries.

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24.4 Solid Waste Management Techniques

24.4.1 Landfill
In most countries, landfilling (rubbish dumps) is the main method used to dispose of urban
solid wastes. Unlike composting and burning, landfilling does not require a large financial
investment and does not require skilled labor. Landfills directly dispose of municipal solid
wastes and the residues that remain after recycling, composting and incineration.

Fig. 24.2 A modern sanitary landfill.

A modern sanitary landfill

This landfill is designed to protect the environment from pollution and uses methane
produced in the landfill to generate electricity. Water dissolves pollutants out of the garbage,
foming a solution known as leachate. To prevent leachate leaking into the groundwater
beneath, the landfill is lined by clay and synthetic materials. Leachate is pumped up from the
bottom of the landfill and stored in tanks. When the landfill is full, it is covered with clay,
sand, gravel, and topsoil. Vegetation is planted to absorb most of the rainfall that forms
leachate and to reduce erosion. Anaerobic bacteria in the landfill decompose waste to produce
methane. The methane is collected and fuels a turbine to generate electricity.

Landfilling is a very simple process: waste is dumped into a disposal area where, depending
upon the type of landfill, the material may be compressed by the weight of a bull-dozer and
covered with a layer of soil. Over time, organic wastes such as paper and food wastes
decompose to produce methane, carbon dioxide, organic acids and other chemicals. The rate
of decomposition depends upon factors such as moisture content, pH (acidity) and
temperature. When degradation occurs, strong odors are emitted and the volume of the waste
is reduced, providing additional landfill capacity. Some wastes such as metals and glass do
not decompose and remain essentially unchanged over time.
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Fig. 24.3 Solid Waste produced in Phnom Penh is taken to Stung Meanchey dump

Landfilling can pose significant public health hazards, including rats and cause environmental
degradation. The most effective way to prevent this degradation is controlling landfill
locations and limiting or preventing the disposal of toxic and hazardous wastes at the site. If
prevention techniques are ineffective and toxic and hazardous wastes are dumped, then
actions must be taken to limit the four environmental problems associated with landfills:
• groundwater contamination
• surface water contamination
• air pollution
• public health and safety.

24.4.1.1 Groundwater Contamination

Groundwater contamination is the most common cause of environmental degradation
associated with solid waste landfilling. It occurs when liquids, (from rainfall, moisture - in the
waste itself, or produced by decomposition) - percolate through the landfill and soil, carrying
chemicals to the groundwater. This liquid, known as “leachate”, is generally toxic and may
become even more toxic if it mixes with hazardous wastes.

The extent of groundwater contamination depends upon the amount of contaminants in the
leachate, the ability of the soil to absorb or filter water contaminants and the depth of the
groundwater table.

The most efficient way of eliminating groundwater contamination is not to dispose of

hazardous wastes at landfills and to ensure that landfills are sited away from places where
groundwater contamination can easily occur. Another method is to collect the leachate
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through simple ditches or a system of pipes. It may then be transported to a sewage treatment
plant to be properly treated before disposal.

24.4.1.2 Surface Water Contamination

Surface waters, such as streams and lakes, can also become polluted from landfill operations
as rainwater flows across the landfill site into surrounding surface waters. This rainwater
picks up and carries a portion of the landfill cover material, solid waste and leachate.

As with groundwater contamination, the most effective way to control surface water
contamination is proper siting of the landfill and ensuring that it is not used to dispose of
hazardous wastes. Building drainage canals around the perimeter of the landfill also prevents
rainwater runoff reaching surface waters. Contaminated rainwater, captured in these canals,
may be diverted to a lined holding pond for storage or later treatment.

24.4.1.3 Air Pollution

Municipal solid waste landfills generate several gases, including methane and carbon dioxide,
which pose risks to the environment and public health. The two causes of air pollution at solid
waste landfills are waste burning and waste decomposition.

Waste fires are common at open landfills in developing countries. Many fires are intentional,
used to reduce the volume of waste at the site. Other fires occur when organic wastes,
exposed to sunlight, suddenly begin to burn. Waste burning can be controlled by prohibiting
open burning and requiring that a layer of cover material or soil be placed over the fill each
day.

Waste decomposition pollutes the air when methane and other gases are released into the
atmosphere during the anaerobic decomposition of organic wastes in landfills. In well
designed landfills the methane gas can be collected and used to generate power at the site.

24.4.1.4 Public Health and Safety

A landfill site has many potential public health and safety problems if not properly designed
and operated. These include:
• waste disposal, especially in open areas, attracting rats, cockroaches, birds, etc. which can
spread diseases;
• pathogens (disease-causing organisms) being directly inhaled (breathed in) as wind
carries fine-grained waste contaminants;
• children playing at the dump and people collecting solid waste for recycling or direct sale
are exposed to disease and toxic chemicals and may injure themselves on sharp objects in
the landfill.

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Fig. 24.4 Workers at Stung Meanchey dump include many children

The most effective way to address these concerns is to compact the waste, apply a cover of
soil or other suitable material everyday and limit access to the site by erecting a fence.

24.4.2 Recycling
Recycling involves separating reusable materials such as metals, glass and paper from solid
waste. The recyclable materials are then processed and returned to the economy as parts of
other products.
Recycling offers many benefits including:
• reduced environmental impacts because of reduced need for waste disposal;
• less costly waste handling and disposal by providing income from recycled materials and
products;
• longer landfill life and improvement of landfill management;
• conservation of natural resources and energy savings in production of new materials (e.g.
using scrap aluminum is more energy efficient than using newly mined metal).
• generation of economic activity and job opportunities;
• reduction of dependence on imported goods and raw materials.

Recycling is common in developing countries and some developed. It is mostly performed by

people, especially children who pick through the waste stream at the point of collection or
disposal, to recover high value materials. In Cambodia as much as 10% of the solid waste
generated is recycled. Even though this is an effective means of waste reduction it can pose
health and safety problems for those involved. Segregation of materials using separate bags
for different materials, prior to disposal by households, is safer than sorting and picking at
landfills.

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Fig. 24.5 Recycling of aerosols spray cans and cans at Stung Meanchey

Recycling has become increasingly popular given the high costs and environmental concerns
associated with land filling. Some nations, such as Germany, promote recycling through
regulations and financial incentives, actively developing and supporting markets for used
goods, government purchases of materials made from recycled substances and setting
requirements that consumers must recycle certain materials. Supporting the development of
markets for “recycled” materials (e.g. scrap paper) has been particularly important in the
success of efforts to increase recycling. However, the amount of all materials being recycled
is still a very small proportion of the total being disposed.

Fig. 24.6 One of Phnom Penh’s many garbage recycling workers

24.4.3 Composting
Composting involves separating organic materials, such as paper, food and plant waste, from
non-organic waste and allowing the material to decompose into an organic end product which
can be used as a fertilizer or soil conditioner. Composting is widely used in developing
countries where the climate is dry and the soil needs more organic material. Typically, 40% of
solid waste collected in developing countries is vegetable in nature and therefore will decay.
If all this organic waste was composted, and the organic end product sold as fertilizer, the
lifetimes of landfills would be increased and employment created.

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24.4.4 Incineration
Incineration involves burning waste at very high temperatures. The by-products are released
into the atmosphere and concentrated into ash. The by-products contain dust, acidic gases,
vaporized metals and toxic chemicals (such as dioxin), all of which have been linked to the
degradation of public health and the environment. Even in the USA, the Environmental
Protection Agency reported in the early 1990s that 100% of incinerators exceeded cadmium
standards, and 80% lead standards.

The by products can be reduced by a number of methods used to wash out and remove air
pollutants before they are released into the atmosphere. “Scrubbers” are an example of
equipment used to remove pollutants before they are released.

The incinerated ash is highly toxic as it contains high concentrations of heavy metals,
therefore many countries limit ash disposal to landfill sites which have effective leachate
control systems.

Incineration is much more expensive than landfilling and as so is therefore rarely undertaken
in developing countries without assistance from international aid organizations. Waste from
low-income countries is also less suitable for incineration than waste from high-income
countries because it has a higher percentage of moisture and non-combustible, inert materials
such as ash and sand. Recently, new technologies have made it possible to incinerate wastes
while at the same time recovering steam, electricity, or industrial heat for factory use. Energy
recovery is widely used in many countries to reduce the cost of incineration, but it unlikely to
be used in Cambodia for some years.

24.4.5 Source Reduction and Re-use

Pollution control through technology has historically received much attention but pollution
prevention is, in many cases, a cheaper way to manage wastes. This can be particularly
helpful in countries with limited financial resources. One means of pollution prevention is
reducing it at the source. This is the most basic, and sometimes the least costly, method of
waste management.

Source reduction involves the management of materials before their disposal to reduce their
volume or toxicity. It extends the life of landfills as well as reducing the toxicity of the solid
waste disposed of in landfills.

The re-use of materials can reduce the amount of waste produced each year. Some countries
encourage the production of goods that can be easily reused, such as refillable glass bottles or
products with longer useful lives.

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Low Income Landfilling Low technology sites, usually open dumping

Country
Recycling Most recycling performed by people, often children
Composting Not always undertaken although high percentage of
compostable materials
Incineration Infrequent. Expensive technology, high moisture
content and high percentage of inert materials make
incineration ineffective.
Source No organized programmes but re-use and low waste
Reduction generation per capita are common.
Industrialized Landfilling Sanitary landfills. Landfills have leachate collection
country and sometimes energy recovery systems.
Recycling Dedicated collection services and high technology
sorting and processing facilities. Some countries now
require products ( cars, computers) to be designed for
easy recycling.
Composting gaining popularity. Fewer compostables generated
than in low income countries.
Incineration Prevalent in areas with high land costs. Most
incinerators have energy recovery.
Source Organized education programmes are beginning to
reduction emphasize source reduction. New products are often
designed to use less energy (e.g. refrigerators, lights,
computers).
Table 24.2: Comparison of Solid Waste Management techniques used in low income countries and
industrialized countries.

24.5. Solid Waste Management in Cambodia

Up until the present time, solid waste generation in Cambodia has not been very high because
of an underdeveloped industrial sector and the absence of a high level of consumption.
However, most urban areas have significant waste disposal problems because of a weak solid
waste management program. In recent times there have been attempts by foreign companies
to import huge quantities of solid waste ( e.g. tires) for incineration. So far the MoE has been
able to prevent such imports.

24.5.1 Collection and Transportation

For some years the collection and transportation of waste in Phnom Penh has been contracted
out to private organizations although problems such as irregular collection and transportation
to the landfill sit at Stung Meanchey still occur. This results in large quantities of garbage
building up on the streets and canals. Transportation is also poorly managed resulting in
missed collections and spillage from overloaded trucks which leave garbage along the streets
of the city.

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Fig. 24.7 Garbage collection truck arriving at Stung Meanchey

24.5.2 Landfilling
All solid waste collected in the municipality of Phnom Penh is landfilled at a site in Stung
Meanchey, located 5 kilometers south of the city. As is common in developing countries. It
has no environmental controls and is classified as a low technology, unsanitary landfill. The
site is hazardous to the environment and the public for the following reasons:
• Leachate and rainwater which has become contaminated with toxic chemicals are not
collected so they enter groundwater and surface water systems (Boeungs and rivers).
• Farmers cultivate land near the dump where the soil has become contaminated with toxic
chemical from the landfill. They sell their produce at local markets.
• Fires are common at the dump releasing carbon dioxide and other gases into the
atmosphere. Methane, generated from the decomposition of organic wastes, is not
collected and escapes into the atmosphere.
• There is no entry restrictions for the landfill site. People, mostly children sort through the
waste in search of recyclable materials and are exposed to toxic and hazardous chemicals
as well as various pathogens.
• Application of cover soil does not take place on a regular basis so most of the time there
is no cover to prevent wind transport of fine grained waste, to prevent fires and to limit
the attraction of rodents and dogs to the site.
• People live close to the site and are exposed to all the environmental problems associated
with a poorly managed landfill site.

24.5.3 Composting
Despite the bulk of Cambodia’s solid waste being vegetative in nature, composting is not
currently undertaken on a large scale and seldom done by households. Plans exist to develop a
composting plant at Stung Meanchey so that fertilizer can be produced from the organic solid
waste arriving at the dump.

24.5.4 Proposal for an Improved System

The Office of Solid Waste Management and Pollution Control have proposed measures to
improve sanitary conditions and cleanliness in the municipality of Phnom Penh and to reduce

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the volume of solid waste. The reduction approach includes the following recommended
measures:
• Increase education and training for the general population to develop an understanding of
solid waste management in the home and of ways to avoid dangers which occur due to
their own carelessness.
• Prohibit companies which import materials and equipment which cannot be recycled.
• Decrease the importation of second hand products.
• Offer incentives to attract investment companies to invest in the recycling plants in the
Kingdom of Cambodia.
• Organize and place public bins in suitable places which make collection easier.
• Introduce clear and enforceable policies and regulations with clear directives.

The mandate of the Pollution Control Department of the Ministry of Environment under the
Environmental Protection and Natural Resources Management Law, is to develop an
inventory of the sources, types and quantities of all pollutants and wastes being imported,
generated, transported, recycled, being treated, stored, disposed, or released into the airspace,
water, land, or on land. The data collected would be used to draw up a comprehensive solid
waste management plan for Cambodia. This plan is intended to attract donor funding for
waste management programs.

24.6. What Can the Individual Do?

Action at the individual level contributes to reducing the overall volume of solid waste
generated and should be encouraged. The best place for an individual to start is in the home as
this is the place where we spend much of our time and have most control over how things are
done. The following are a few ideas:
• Avoid disposable products - products like paper or plastic cups and utensils, cigarette
lighters and especially plastic bags contribute tremendously to landfill sites.
• Reduce the volume of solid waste generated in home - choose products which minimize
waste. One of the most visible forms of the waste produced is packaging. Avoid buying
items packaged in non-biodegradable plastic.
• Recycle - most household waste is potentially recyclable but contributing to recycling
involves basic changes in habits and attitudes. In Phnom Penh many people see waste as a
resource and separate the materials which can be recycled.
• Reuse - look for items that you can use for tasks other than those for which they were
originally intended. Reusing prevents the items from entering the waste stream.
• Compost Organic wastes - create and maintain a compost pile to produce organic
fertilizer from vegetable and fruit peels, coconuts, egg shells etc. Composting the organic
waste reduces the amount of solid waste that needs to be disposed of. The fertilizer may
be used for trees, plants or vegetable fertilizer.
• Place you waste at the collection point as short a time as possible before collection. This
limits escape of materials from the pile onto the streets. If solid waste is left for a long
while it attracts rodents and other vermin.
• Do not throw or burn solid waste on the street near you home.

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References

Allaby, M. 1996. Basics of Environmental Science

Arms, K. 1990. Environmental Science

Byrne, K. Environmental Science: University of Bath – Science 16-19

GAIA, 1994. The GAIA Atlas of Planet Management.

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

MoE and EC / SPEC, 1997. Questionnaire Survey and Provincial Waste Generation Report

Raven, P., Berg, L. and Johnson, G., 1993. Environment

UNDP, 1994. Cambodia: First State of the Environment Report.

WRI, 1996-97 World Resources: A Guide to the Global Environment – The Urban
Environment.

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Chapter 25

Environmental Health

25.1 Introduction
The most urgent environmental health problems in Cambodia are in the areas of water supply
and sanitation, solid waste management, and food safety. Only a small percentage of the
population has access to a safe and reliable supply of drinking water while sanitation facilities
are inadequate or non-existent. Diarrhea is one of the leading causes of morbidity and
mortality in children up to five years of age. This is mostly due to poor environmental
sanitation, lack of personal hygiene, an inadequate safe water supply and poor excreta
disposal. Other prevalent diseases caused by poor environmental sanitation include dengue
haemorrhagic fever, skin and eye infections and other parasitic infections. The ineffective
solid waste collection and disposal services leave piles of waste in the streets of towns and
cities, which cause public health problems.

25.2 The Link between Water, Sanitation and Health

Water kills at least 25 million people in developing countries each year, 60% of them being
children. Of the world’s leading disease, four out of five depend on water for their impact:
they either breed in or spread by water. According to World Resources 1996-1997 more than
1.23 billion people in developing countries do not have access to safe water, and 1.47 billion
do not have adequate sanitation facilities. The cost to human health is enormous. Water is
implicated in trachoma blindness, malaria, schistosomiasis, elephantiasis, typhoid, cholera,
hepatitis, leprosy, yellow fever, and diarrhea.

25.2.1 The Link Between Sanitation and Health in Cambodia

A shortage of safe drinking water is a major environmental health problem in Cambodia,
especially in rural areas. There is an abundance of surface water but it is often contaminated.
A 1991 survey showed that 20% of the population use river water, 20% use water from ponds
and 60% use drilled or traditional hand dug well water in the dry season. A 1993 survey
suggested that only 19% of the whole population had access to safe drinking water. The
SESC 1996 data shows that nearly one-third of the country’s population obtains water from
unprotected wells and another one-third from ponds, rivers or streams. Water from these
sources is often contaminated.

In most areas of the country, there are no proper sanitation facilities, and people defecate in
fields or by water bodies, resulting in contamination of drinking water resources. The 1991
survey indicated that only 13% of the population have access to sanitary facilities. The 1996
SESC data reports that almost seventy-five percent of the overall population have no toilet
facilities.

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Disease Infectious Agent Type of Symptoms

Organism
Cholera vibrio cholera Bacterium Severe diarrhea, vomiting, rapid
fluid loss causing cramps and
collapse
Dysentery Shigella dysenteriae Bacterium Infection of the colon causes painful
diarrhea with mucus and blood in the
faeces; abdominal pains
Enteritis Clostridium Bacterium Inflammation of the small intestine
perfringens, other causes general discomfort, loss of
bacteria appetite, abdominal cramps, and
diarrhea
Typhoid Salmonella typhi Early symptoms include headache,
loss of energy, fever, later, a pink
rash appears with hemorrhaging in
the intestines
Infectious Hepatitis virus A Virus Inflammation of liver causes
hepatitis jaundice, fever, headache, nausea,
vomiting, severe loss of appetite;
aching in the muscles occurs
Poliomyelitis Poliovirus Virus Early symptoms include sore throat,
fever, diarrhea, and aching in limbs
and back; when infection spreads to
spinal cord, paralysis and atrophy
occurs
Amoebic Entamoeba histolytica Amoeba Infection of the colon causes painful
dysentery diarrhea with mucus and blood in
the feces, abdominal pain
Schistosomiasis Schistosoma sp . Fluke Tropical disorder of the liver and
bladder causes blood in urine,
diarrhea, weakness, lack of energy,
repeated attacks of abdominal pain
Ancylostomiasis Ancylostoma sp. Hookworm Severe anemia, sometimes
symptoms of bronchitis
Table 25.1 Some Human Diseases Transmitted by Polluted Water

Fig 25.1 Percentage of children under five who are malnourished (UNDP 1997)

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The reasons given for the poor water supply and sanitation facilities include the
destruction caused by the war, insufficient financial aid to the country, the absence
of a central authority to implement water and environmental sanitation projects,
shortage of trained manpower and a lack of environmental health education.

25.2.2 The Water Related Diseases

The health hazards posed by water depend on the number of disease causing
organisms in it. The water-related infectious diseases that occur in Cambodia
include water-borne, water-based, water-washed and water related insect vectors.

The water-borne infections are spread by drinking or

washing in contaminated water. Such diseases are
controlled by providing water of good quality by
removing the pathogens from the water before it is
drunk. The most common water-borne infections in
Cambodia are parasites, cholera, amoebic dysentery and
Hepatitis A.

Water-based are carried by invertebrates. Scistosomiasis

is transmitted by snails; guinea worm is a parasite of a
crustacean water flea. Schistosomiasis has been linked to
the spread of irrigation canals and dams a suitable
habitat for snails.

Water-washed diseases such as trachoma, scabies,

leprosy, and conjunctivitis, attack the skin and eyes. All
are spread by a lack of water for personal hygiene.

Water-breeding insect vectors, such as mosquitoes,

carry malaria, dengue fever and yellow fever. Malaria
carried by mosquitoes, affects perhaps 160 million
people at any one time. (See Chapter 26, Vector-Borne
Diseases and Chapter 23, Water Pollution.)

Fig. 25.3 Water Related Diseases

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25.3 Solid Waste and Environmental Health

Most cities and towns in Cambodia have serious waste disposal problems which are
likely to worsen as the population increases and industry grows. The poor solid
waste management causes a number of environmental health problems which
include:
• breeding grounds for flies and mosquitoes;
• rats breed and live around piles of solid waste;
• rainwater run-off and seepage from solid waste can lead to pollution of water
supplies;
• disposal into drainage channels can blocks drains and open canals, which causes
flooding and provides more breeding grounds for flies and mosquitoes;
• piles of garbage have bad smells and are unpleasant to look at.
Solid Waste is dealt with in more detail in Chapter 24, Solid Waste.

25.4 Food Contamination

Food is described as 'contaminated' when any chemical or organism in it reaches a
level which is potentially harmful to human health. As the environment becomes
more polluted, so the risk of food contamination increases. Contaminants, or
poisonous substances , from human activities pass into the air, into soil and water,
and hence into crops, fish, and animals. Once contaminants enter the food chain
they can increase in concentration by up to 100-fold at each stage. Poor food
hygiene also causes many stomach and intestinal illnesses in Cambodia. Once
disease causing organisms are in the food they may multiply from a few to several
million in only a few hours.

25.4.1 Hygiene and Food Contamination

The poor state of food hygiene is attributed to:
• Food sold in shops and markets is contaminated by various pathogens;
• Water used in food preparation or for drinking is contaminated. Ice factories use
contaminated water sources;
• Contamination of food by flies and other insect vectors;
• Food sellers may be carriers of diseases which could be transmitted to customers
through food;
• Food storage facilities are not adequate;
• Human and animal wastes are used to fertilize fields without treatment, resulting
in the contamination of vegetables and fruits;
• Pesticide contamination of foods
• inadequate cleaning of cooking utensils

Also there is no national policy on food safety and there is a lack of trained staff for
food inspection and regulation.

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25.4.2 Chemical Contamination of Food

A major cause of food contamination in the developed countries is the pollution of
air, water and soil. Emissions from industry and vehicle exhausts are a common
cause of air pollution, and dangerous air-borne elements such as lead can be
deposited onto and absorbed into fruit, vegetables and cereal crops.

Industrial and domestic waste is often discharged into water. Some of the harmful
chemicals and organisms can be broken down by biological or chemical action but
some contaminants remain in the water, from which they are absorbed into the food
chain. Water can also become contaminated as rain water passes through
contaminated soil and drains into rivers and lakes.

Soil and plant contamination often occur as a result of industrial or mining activities
which produce poisonous wastes, particularly if the waste is disposed of near
agricultural land. Other common sources of agricultural contamination are
fertilizers and pesticides which are deposited on crops and may build up in the soil
as they are used over a number of years. Substances such as cadmium can be passed
into human and animal food in this way.

Contaminants are often found in animals, particularly as a result of modern farming

methods. Drugs given to animals to prevent disease and to promote growth have to
be carefully regulated to ensure that levels in meat are safe for human consumption.
Chemical contamination may also occur during food processing. Commercial and
domestic cooking utensils and food tins have been identified as sources of lead and
cadmium in food.

Not all food contaminants are human-made: some occur naturally in the
environment. Certain moulds that attack cereal crops produce biological poisons
known as aflatoxins. These contaminants become apparent after harvest.

Storage of fresh or processed food in warm or humid conditions, or in damaged

containers, can lead to biological contamination. Bacteria are widespread in the
environment and if they are allowed to develop in food can lead to diseases such as
food poisoning (salmonella poisoning). Heating of food ensures that some bacteria
are killed but, if this is not done at a high enough temperatures for a sufficient
period of time, toxic bacteria can remain in the food and cause food poisoning.

25.4.3 The Effect of Food Contaminants on Health

If food with high levels of certain chemicals or micro-organisms is eaten, it can
have serious effects on humans. Symptoms range from temporary nausea and
discomfort to permanent internal damage, or even death. Widespread outbreaks of
both types of poisoning have occurred in Cambodia as a result of food
contamination.

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Some substances have a cumulative effect: for example, metals such as cadmium
and lead build up in the body over time before they reach a level which causes
poisoning. Contaminants may be present in the body for a long time before
symptoms of ill-health appear.

Micro-organisms can be present in all types of food, but particularly meat, seafood,
eggs and dairy products. Bacteria can be taken in by animals through their foodstuff,
and infection passed from one animal to another. Such bacteria remain in meat after
the animal is killed and can even pass into unprotected food stored near it.

Any raw or cooked food stored in warm conditions can develop bacterial growth.
Subsequent treatment of the food such as freezing or cooking might kill the bacteria
but does not necessarily make the food safe to eat.

Food therefore has to be monitored for high levels of certain chemicals and even for
low levels of contaminants which act as cumulative poisons. Foods also need to be
monitored for bacteria which may be present initially, or which may develop in food
that is not carefully stored or processed. The Global Environmental Monitoring
System (GEMS) of the United Nations, has a special department to monitor food in
different countries.

25.5 Other Environmental Factors Affecting Human Health

25.5.1 Lead
Lead is a cumulative poison which means that it builds up in the body over time. It produces a
series of effects on blood-forming tissues, the digestive and nervous systems, and the kidneys.
People affected by lead poisoning suffer from illnesses ranging from loss of appetite to
anemia, to occasional paralysis of the hands and wrists. Lead poisoning in children has
serious effects on intelligence and behavior and can lead to brain damage or death in severe
cases.

People are exposed to lead every day. It is naturally present in the soil, and is released into
the atmosphere by industry and the burning of leaded petrol in cars and other vehicles. Lead is
added to petrol because it increases engine efficiency. Lead is easily taken into the body by
inhaling lead dust, absorbing lead-based chemicals through the skin, or ingesting lead present
in food and water. Lead may also be present in water pipes, paints used on toys and
furnishings as well as on walls, and cooking utensils and in cans containing food and drink.

The fact that lead is commonly encountered in daily life means that many people, and
particularly children, may already have lead present in their body. For this reason there is an
increased risk of lead building up to a hazardous level in the body and it is very important to
minimize the amount of lead consumed with food. Lead is one of the most frequently
monitored contaminants in the world, and data shows that fish, shellfish and offal have a
higher concentration of lead than meat, cereals, vegetables, fruit and milk. Data from

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industrial and mining areas show that concentrations of lead are high in vegetables grown
there, particularly in the leaves. Vegetables, grains and fruit exposed to heavy vehicle
exhaust or industrial emissions also contain higher than normal concentrations of lead.
The discharge of toxic metals and organic chemicals into the air, water and soil is a major
source of food contamination. Levels of some contaminants can be effectively controlled at
source through technology and government regulation. Lead emissions from vehicle exhausts
can be reduced through the use of unleaded petrol. Lead levels in rivers and lakes can often
be reduced by regulating emissions from battery plants, lead alkyl and pigment plants; and
atmospheric lead, which contaminates crops, can be reduced through the regulation of
emissions from vehicles, and mining, smelting and refining operations. Contamination of
drinking water by lead pipes can be remedied by replacing the pipes with non-lead plumbing.

25.5.2 Aflatoxins
Aflatoxins are toxic substances produced by certain molds, such as Aspergillus flavus, which
grow on plants and seeds. The amount of aflatoxin produced depends on the growing
conditions. Under stress conditions such as drought, insect infestation or cyclone it is likely to
be high. Storage conditions can also lead to aflatoxin contamination after crops have been
harvested. Hot, humid conditions lead to molds forming on the food and to high levels of
aflatoxins.

High aflatoxin levels are associated with maize (corn), barley, oats, rye and rice and most
commonly with nuts. Pulses, milk, dairy products, meat and eggs contained only low levels of
aflatoxins apart from instances of contamination of pulses in Nigeria, Thailand, and India, and
in a small number of imported cheeses reported by Japan and the United States.

25.5.3 The Unregulated Use of Pesticides

A pesticide is any poisonous substance that can be used to kill any animal or plant
that humans consider as pests. Pesticide and the health effects of uncontrolled
pesticide use is such an important subject for Cambodia that it is dealt with
separately in Chapter 28, Pesticides.

25.6 Prevention and Control

Contamination of food can be prevented by eliminating contamination during growth,
processing, transportation and storage; In order to prevent contamination, regulations must
apply to:
production and use of fertilizers used in crop production;
use of lead in petrol, and the discharge from industries that use lead
production, use and sale of pesticides
industrial operations to reduce levels of toxic effluents and emissions released into the
environment;
agricultural practices in order to control the chemicals applied to crops and reduce the spread
of disease amongst animals;
food processors to ensure that otherwise wholesome food is not contaminated by bacteria or
toxic substances during processing or packaging; and

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food vendors to ensure that food is not contaminated at the market or on the food stall.

Finally, health awareness campaigns should encourage proper hygiene practices in the home
and also encourage consumers to demand proper hygiene practices from markets and
restaurants.

Preventative measures are the responsibility of governments to introduce and enforce.

Controlling food contamination once it has occurred does not provide as effective protection
for consumers. If food contamination is not detected, it will be passed on for sale. Even if
monitoring reveals that the level of contaminant in a foodstuff exceeds the official limit, all
the affected food cannot be easily traced and withdrawn from sale.

References

GAIA, 1994. The GAIA Atlas of Planet Management

UNDP, 1997. Poverty and Human Development in Cambodia – A National Human

Development Report.

WRI 1996-97. World Resources A Guide to the Global Environment – The Urban
Environment

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Chapter 26

Vector-borne Diseases

26.1. Introduction
Vector-borne diseases are diseases caused by protozoan, bacteria, and viruses, which are
transmitted from one living organism to another by an insect or worm, which acts as the
carrier of the disease. Management of the human environment and the environment of the
disease-carriers can control such diseases. Examples of vector borne diseases in South-East
Asia are: Malaria, Dengue fever and Japanese encephalitis.

To understand some basic characteristics of vector-borne diseases, we need to

understand some basic terms:
• a vector is an organism which carries or transmits a pathogen: it can be an
insect, a worm, etc.;
• a pathogen is an organism or substance which causes disease;
• a parasite is an organism dependent upon another living organism to which it is
harmful;
• a reservoir host is an animal species which carries a pathogen without
detriment to itself and serves as a source of infection.

26.1.1. Malaria
Malaria is caused by a protozoan (an organism consisting of 1 cell) from the genus
Plasmodium (falciparum, vivax, ovale, malariae). The mosquito (genus Anopheles )
is the vector, which carries it. The Anopheles mosquitoes breed in clean water and
usually live in an area of about 1 to 2 km around their breeding sites. The mosquito
bites at night. The symptoms of malaria include fever and chills, anemia, severe
stomach pain and headaches, and weakness. Plasmodium falciparum infection can
lead to death if it is not treated.

26.1.2. Dengue fever

Dengue fever is caused by an Arbo-virus. There are two forms of the disease Dengue
Fever (DF), and the more severe form Dengue Haemorrhagic Fever (DHF). The
vector is a mosquito of the genus Aedes. A common species is Aedes aegypti. These
mosquitoes live in urban areas, houses and gardens and they bite humans and
monkeys during the day time. The symptoms of DF include fever, severe joint ache
and headaches. DHF is a serious complication requiring hospitalization and
frequently results in the death of young children.

26.1.3. Japanese encephalitis

Japanese Encephalitis is caused by another Arbo-virus and transmitted to humans by
the bite of a Culex-mosquito. These mosquitoes bite pigs and birds such as herons
and egrets, which serve as an animal reservoir. The mosquito lives in the ricefields,
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and bites at night. Japanese Encephalitis can cause serious mental problems leading
to brain damage and death. Humans can become ill from eating infected animals or
drinking infected water.

26.2 Distribution of vector-borne diseases

The distribution of vectors and reservoir hosts is strictly limited, as are the habitats
of most animals and plants. In general, the transmission of the disease is limited to
the normal range of the vector. The distribution of malaria is given in the Map 26.1

Fig. 26.1 Map shows the areas of the world where malaria is common, has a limited risk and
has been eradicated or never existed (Miller 1992).

Vectors and vector-borne diseases are not distributed uniformly through a geographical
region. They occur in relatively discrete patches where the habitat and the climate are
favorable. Table 26.1 indicates the principal habitats of the vectors or intermediate hosts
associated with malaria, DF, DHF and Japanese Encephalitis.

MAL DF DHF JE
Rain forests X X
Riverine vegetation X
Irrigation ditches and canals X
Lakes and ponds X
Wetland rice cultivation X X
Rivers and streams X
Human settlements X X X
Coastal plains X
Table 26.1 The principal habitats of the vectors for Malaria, DF, DHF, and JE

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Many development project change the surrounding environment and may create new habitats
such as ponds or lakes. If a disease occurs within the region and a habitat is created for the
vector which carries the disease then, sooner or later, the habitat will be invaded by the vector
and disease transmission may occur. Environmental health engineering seeks to eliminate
suitable vector habitats and thus prevent or reduce the transmission of vector-borne diseases.

In all cases, the parasite or pathogen leaves an avian or mammalian host and must then
undergo development in the insect before entering a new avian or mammalian host. The
method of transmission together with the life cycle of the parasite determines whether a low
or high frequency of contact between people and vector or infected water is usually necessary
in order for sufficient parasites to enter the human host to cause clinical illness. Direct
injection of a parasite is more efficient. For example, a single mosquito bite could transmit
malaria.

26.3. Mosquito biology

Mosquitoes are by far the most important family of insect vectors. There are about
3,000 species of mosquitoes. They are divided into two groups:
1. anophelines
2. culicines.
The anophelines contain a very important genus called Anopheles.

The culicines contain three important genera called

1. Culex (which carry Japanese encephalitis),
2. Aedes (which carry Dengue) and
3. Mansonia.

26.3.1 Life Cycle of the Mosquito

In common with other vectors, mosquitoes acquire the disease organism (the plasmodium
protozoan) when feeding on an infected host and pass it to another host during a subsequent
blood - meal. The time taken for the protozoa to develop in the mosquito is temperature
dependent, usually 10 - 17 days. Only the female sucks blood and she does so to mature a
batch of eggs. Each blood-meal is followed by egg laying and the blood sucking - egg laying
cycle takes 2 - 4 days. The cycle is repeated until the female dies. Malaria can be passes on to
each person by just one bite of a mosquito carrying the plasmodium protozoan.

Mosquito eggs are deposited in water. The type of water preferred varies between species.
Preferred sites contain small containers, edges of reservoirs, sunlit rain-pools, shaded water
and bad smelling or dirty water. The type of vegetation in the water is also important. Eggs
hatch within days and the aquatic larvae feed on microorganisms. They are capable of rapid
wriggling movements. They must come to the surface to breathe. A layer of oil on the water
prevents many species from breathing. The larval stage of all tropical mosquitoes lasts 5 - 10
days. The pupa stage wriggles and breathes but does not feed. This stage lasts for 1 - 2 days.
After emergence the female only mates once during her life.

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Fig. 26.2 The lifecycle of malaria (Miller 1992)

26.3.2 Feeding Habits of the Mosquito

Feeding habits vary considerably between species with respect to time, place and host
preference. The preference for blood of a particular group of animals such as birds, cows, or
pigs determines the degree of feeding on humans and the likelihood of humans acquiring a
disease organism from an animal reservoir. Malaria does not have animal reservoirs and
therefore, only mosquitoes with a high preference for human blood are important for disease
transmission. If mosquitoes do not have such a large preference for humans then domestic
animals may act as a diversion a the mosquito may feed on them. For this reason domestic
animals can be placed between breeding sites and human habitations in control strategies.
This strategy does not work for viruses that have animal reservoirs and are transmitted by
species which prefer animal blood but, which occasionally bite people.

Where and when a mosquito bites and where it rests after biting also has a great impact on
disease transmission. Many important species feed indoors and rest indoors after feeding,
making them vulnerable to insecticides used in doors. Malaria mosquitoes bite at night and
hence individuals sleeping without mosquito netting, or outside their houses, are at risk. Many
of the Arbo-virus, Dengue fever and Japanese Encephalitis infections are transmitted by
outdoor, daytime biting mosquitoes.

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26.4. Mosquito Control Methods

26.4.1. General Methods

Chemical, biological and environmental methods can be used to control mosquitoes.
Chemical and environmental control may be directed at either the adults or the
larvae and biological control is directed at the larvae. Chemical control methods are
apparently very powerful.

26.4.1.1 Chemical Controls

Chemicals are sprayed in and around peoples' homes. The techniques used are described as
space spraying and fogging. These are effective for only a few days. Residual spraying
involves applying insecticides with a lasting effect to all surfaces where mosquitoes are likely
to rest. The residual effect may last from a few weeks to over a year. Chemicals are also used
as repellents and may be vaporized, as in mosquito coils, or impregnated in clothing and
netting.

Chemical control of larvae involves spraying chemicals on the breeding sites in the
surrounding environment. The residual effect is usually more limited and lasts for less than a
week. Killing the larvae is effective at reducing adult numbers when there are relatively few
breeding sites and they are clearly defined and accessible.

However, chemical control methods are subject to the following limitations:

• all insects eventually develop resistance to all practical chemical insecticides.
The supply of new insecticides is limited;
• spraying chemicals in peoples homes can have adverse effects on health.

26.4.1.2 Biological Controls

Biological control consists of introducing or encouraging the predators and parasites of
mosquito larvae. For example, some fish species are voracious predators of mosquito larvae.
If the population of the control agent can be maintained at sufficiently high numbers then the
vector population may be substantially reduced. However, it is generally necessary to
reintroduce the control agent at intervals of a few weeks or years.

26.4.1.3 Environmental Controls

Environmental control consists of reducing the number and size of mosquito breeding sites
and the frequency of contact between people and mosquitoes. Mosquito breeding sites may be
destroyed by measures such as draining, filling low lying areas, removing shade vegetation
and fitting tight lids to water containers. Exposure to vector borne diseases may be reduced by
land-use zoning.

The World Health Organizations (WHO) have classified environmental measures

into 3 primary groups:

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1. Environmental modifications, which are large scale or permanent alterations to

the environment, aimed at preventing, eliminating or reducing vector habitats.
Although long-lasting, such works may still require proper operation and
maintenance. Examples: drainage and earth filling;

2. Environmental actions which are aimed at producing temporary conditions

unfavorable to vector breeding sites or habitats. Examples: clearing terrestrial
vegetation, water level fluctuation, salinity regulation, clearing aquatic
vegetation;

3. Modification or manipulation of human habitation or behavior, which is

intended to reduce contact with vectors or unsafe water. Examples: improved
housing, zoning, education.

26.4.2. More Specific Control Mechanisms

26.4.2.1. Anopheline Mosquitos

Anopheline mosquitoes transmit malaria but are less important than other
mosquitoes in the transmission of DF, DHF and JE. Within any one geographical
area, usually only 2-3 species of the Anopheline mosquitoes are of major medical
importance and there will usually be important differences in their breeding sites
and behavior. Generally, anophelines breed in all kinds of clean stagnant water.
Appropriate control methods vary according to the breeding site. The following are
examples of environmental control methods that could be implemented in
Cambodia:
• Anopheline mosquitoes may breed in isolated pools of water close to rivers and
lakes in which the water level fluctuates. Management of the shoreline to
minimize the number of such pools and removal of vegetation is important
close to houses;
• Anopheline mosquitoes may breed among emergent vegetation at the edges of
water bodies where the larvae are protected from currents or wave action. The
banks should be regularly cleared of vegetation in areas close to houses;
• Anopheline mosquitoes may breed in rice fields where mosquito productivity
changes markedly with the height of the rice plants. Control methods include
intermittent irrigation, stocking with fish that at mosquito larvae may help to
reduce the number of mosquitoes;
• Anopheline mosquitoes may breed in temporary rainpools, which are widely
scattered throughout the environment and impossible to remove. However, such
breeding sites are usually seasonal. Control can consist of seasonal use of
insecticides;
• in urban areas anophelines usually breed in artificial water containers such as
cisterns, metal drums, wells etc. Breeding is controlled by emptying containers
every few days, fitting tight lids or introducing fish that feed on the larvae;

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For most of the people of Cambodia, anopheline mosquitoes remain a major

problem. These control measures are unrealistic for the majority of the population,
particularly during the wet season. Therefore, sleeping under mosquito nets is the
best way to avoid being bitten by anopheline mosquitoes and getting malaria.

26.4.2.2. Culicine M osquitoes: genus Culex

Culex mosquitoes play an important role in the transmission of a number of virus, many of
which originate in birds. Throughout Asia, India and Japan, the Culex mosquito is the
principal vector of Japanese encephalitis virus. This serious viral disease can become
prevalent in areas where water resources are not properly managed, especially when large
numbers of pigs are reared nearby. The common urban Culex mosquito breeds in bad
smelling, dirty water such as latrines, blocked drains and septic pools. Rapid urbanization
without provision for waste disposal promotes large populations of this species.

Rice field breeding Culex are controlled in the same way as anophelines. The common urban
species may be easily controlled by proper urban sanitation including the provision of well-
designed drains, sealed septic tanks or latrines and solid waste disposal. Prohibiting the
rearing of pigs in urban areas can also assist in the control of Jculex mosquitoes and the
disease they spread.

26.4.2.3. Culicine Mosquitoes: genus Aedes

Primarily a group of mosquitoes that live in the forest, one species, Aedes aegypti, has
become well adapted to living in close association with people. It breeds in small water
collections, often artificial containers such as buckets, water jars, car tyres, etc. It is the most
important vector of urban yellow fever virus and dengue and dengue haemorrhagic fever. This
mosquito is present in large concentrations in Phnom Penh and other Cambodian towns
during the wet season because of the problems of solid waste and flooding problems which
occur.

Solid waste must be collected and removed. Water storage jars and cisterns should be fitted
with lids. Ornamental water containers and ant traps should be emptied often. Add some salt
to the water of ant traps. Villages may be sited several kilometers from forest edges.

References

Miller, G.T. 1992. Living in the Environment 1992

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Chapter 27

Forestry Issues of Cambodia

Written by: Philippe Le Billon

27.1 Introduction
Forests cover some thirty five to sixty percent of Cambodia. Forests make up a major part of
the natural resource base. The importance of sustainable management of these forests has
been the subject of much discussion recently. Attention has been drawn to the complex
relationships and the fragile balance between forests and the agricultural sector, the finances
of the country, the on-going armed conflict, and the political instability.

In short, forests are of "paramount importance to Cambodia ...[as]... keeping a harmonious

balance between the exploitation of forests, preservation of natural fish stocks and agriculture
is essential for the sustainability of the country’s rural production systems, and economic and
social welfare" (FAO 1994). Unfortunately the current change in the forest cover "shows a
dangerous tendency ...worsened by a decrease in quality of the forests due to over-
exploitation of the valuable commercial species. This phenomena results from illegal
exploitation of timber, particularly in the insecure zones, but also from the uncontrolled
cutting of firewood." (MAFF 1997).

The forests are a natural source of wealth in terms of a growing and dynamic forest asset. The
asset must be managed wisely to provide for the next and future generations of Cambodians.
Managed wisely it can continue to supply the needs of the people at a local level and the
needs of Government in terms of income for development. Managed badly, the asset will be
lost. The opportunities for future generations will be lost. In the worst case, poor management
could lead to a significant impact on other resource systems such as food production and fish
stocks.

The seriousness of the forest problem has driven international development institutions (FAO,
IMF, UNDP, WB) to work with the government to develop solutions. One report explains
that "current policies risk accelerating [deforestation and degradation] by repeating mistakes
made in other forest-rich developing countries" and advocate drastic reforms (FAO, UNDP
and World Bank 1996).

27.2 Forest Resources

Up until 1970 the forests of Cambodia were managed in a way that caused little impact to the
overall forest ecosystem. The country was divided into a system of forest reserves with
management designed to be conservatively sustainable. There was a fledgling timber industry
developed and strong institutional controls by way of a District Forester and District System.
The outbreak of fighting in 1970 shut down the possibility of industry development, closed
down the local industry and prevented access to the forests. During the next twenty years the

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forests only provided fuel and building timber for local community use. Shifting cultivation in
the north east forests had some impact on the forests but the impact was minimal.

Satellite imagery in 1991 showed that some 73 per cent of the forest cover was intact and a
substantial and valuable forest resource remained. More recent estimates of total forest cover
by forest type and land cover by use type have been made using 1996 satellite imagery and
interpretation. This gives broad area in hectares of the closed forest cover. The total forest
cover from this analysis is given as 10,535,763 ha. An FAO forest inventory project is
currently underway to provide data on actual wood volumes within these forest types.
Similarly, logging companies are doing ground based wood volume inventories as a part of
their management planning needs.

Fig. 27. 1 Beng - one of Cambodia’s top quality trees - carried from Kompong Thom to the banks of
the Mekong

Major logging operations, both legal and illegal, have increased since 1992. Access to the
forests and international markets have improved while regulations and laws to prevent
unsustainable exploitation of the forests have not been implemented. Logging and fuelwood
collection in areas close to road or river transport or along the borders, has led to increased
forest degradation.

Numerous attempts have been made by the government to stop illegal logging and the export
of logs over the last 5 years, but none have been successfully implemented. Now the forestry
sector is dominated by large international logging companies with high investment capacities.
Reports indicate that the impact of logging on the environment might be limited by the
selective logging methods being used by these companies but the cutting and collection of
fuelwood which follows a clear-cutting pattern will have a serious impact on the environment.

There is, however, no doubt that the forests of Cambodia still remain as one of its greatest
asset bases. The opportunity to retain this asset in forever is still available. The answer to the
question of “for how much longer” is becoming clear. There is not much time left before the
forests as commercial entities are liquidated. As ecological forests they will remain, with
many of the benefits of large scale ecological units, but only if management and protection
systems are put in place by government.

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27.2.1 Commercial Timber

Up until the twentieth century wildlife and non-timber forest products made-up the major part
of Cambodia's export trade. Products included elephants, ivory, rhinoceros horn, feathers,
wild spices like cardamom, lacquer, hides and aromatic wood. Timber is now considered to
be the most valuable product of the forest, especially for providing foreign currency to the
government. Large quantities of timber are also used for construction of wooden houses
within the country.

Land use cover established by aerial pictures taken in 1958 provided an estimation of the
standing volume of all tree species, with DBH >30cm (tree's Diameter at Breast Height) at
1,300,000,000 cubic meter (m3 ) and the total volume of commercial species, with DBH > 30
cm. at 564,148,000 m3 . The estimated annual potential for commercial logging was calculated
at 515,000 m3 . (Chan 1985). In the 1960s, Cambodia was annually exporting about 67,000
m3 . of round logs, 8,500 m3 . of sawn wood and 770 m3 . of plywood.

Fig. 27. 2 Cut logs waiting to be transported

Currently the industrial capacity of Cambodia’s forest industry is estimated at 2 million cubic
meters per annum and the cut for the 1997- year is estimated to be 1.5 million cubic meters.

Currently, most governmental and international agencies' representatives agree that

sustainable timber exploitation is a very important economic asset for the economic
development of Cambodia. The sharp decline of the commercial value of the Cambodian
forests due to uncontrolled logging is the main preoccupation of the current forest policy
reform. This issue has been counterbalanced by the assumption that commercial logging
companies might "leave alone" forests poor in commercial species, thus preserving for the
long term the environmental benefits of these forests. Unfortunately logging companies,
especially those that have already invested in Cambodia, will more likely try to recover their
costs and become profitable by increasing the volume cut. Such a position has already been
expressed by timber concessionaires.

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27.2.2 Fuelwood
Ninety-seven point seven percent (97.7%) of the population of Cambodia uses wood energy
in the form of wood or charcoal. The volume of fuelwood arriving in Phnom Penh annually
was estimated to be about 23,802,000 kg with a consumption per capita of 207kg by the 1997
Wood Energy Flow Study.

According to the Wood Energy Flow Study one of the most crucial problems regarding
fuelwood is the uneven distribution of forest resources in relation to the population. While
Cambodia appears to be a country with enough forest resources, wood scarcity is a daily
reality for many Cambodians. More than 70% of Cambodians live in areas with less than 1
ha. of forest per capita and 2.6 million Cambodians are located in areas without any forest.
The amount and proportion of wood used by rural populations for their energy consumption
compared to other sources is not precisely defined. Furthermore, it is not known if "village's
forests" provide a sustainable load of fuelwood for villagers. The production of fuelwood and
charcoal for urban populations is conducive to over logging in forested areas close to roads
and rivers which can be used to transport the fuel to the city; for example road 4, the upper
Mekong and the Battambang-Phnom Penh railway.

27.3 Current Forest Practices and Management

The changing political situation of Cambodia in 1989 did not bring a large number of
investors to the country, but the implementation of a logging ban in Thailand that same year
led to an increase in timber import demands. This benefited the factions fighting against the
Phnom Penh regime which held forested territories along the Thai border. The Paris Peace
Agreement, signed in 1991, sent a clearer signal to investors. The government’s lack of
capacity to control the concessions was and remains a cause for worry about the sustainability
of the exploitation (Tarr 1991). When foreign assistance to the Khmer Rouge stopped, the
KR set up major deals in logging and gem mining with Thai companies in order to become
financially independent.

During the United Nations peace process in 1992/93, a boom in timber exports accelerated the
rate of forest destruction. The Supreme National Council and the UN Security Council passed
two resolutions banning the export of logs and putting a ceiling on sawn logs (Sadoff 1993)
because these exports were benefiting some of the other parties and interfering financially
with the electoral process, as well as threatening the environment of the country. This
international reaction highlighted the links between political and military conflicts with
natural resource exploitation, and received much international media attention but the subject
has not been researched by experts in this field. Up until now, the government has been
unsuccessful in it’s attempt to stop illegal exploitation of timber resources.

27.3.1 Legislation
Since 1988, the forests of Cambodia have been submitted to a Forestry Code (No.35). On 24
October 1996 the Council of Ministers approved a new Forestry Code, which still needs to be
voted by the National Assembly and promulgated by the King. With regard to commercial
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logging activities and exportation of wood products, numerous regulations and statements
have been developed and coordinating bodies have been created. Problems with the law exist
as it was developed without the involvement of the stakeholders. Also the law does not
provide for community management of forest lands.

27.3.2 Forest Tenure

All forested land belongs to the State and falls into one of two categories:
• Permanent Forest Reserves The number of Permanent Forest Reserves totals 173 and
cover 3,875, 166 ha. In the past, all of them were inventoried and classified into
Production Forests, Conservation Forests, National Parks and Wildlife Reserves.

• Protection Forests These areas, while being covered by forest, can be converted to
agriculture.

Furthermore the 1993 Royal Decree established 23 protected areas covering nearly 20% of
the country.
Forested areas are now under threat from permanent change in land cover as land prices
increase and there is a higher demand for agricultural development, both small and large
scale. Nearly 1.1 million hectares of mostly forested areas have been already assigned for
development schemes, either under the Military Development Zone plan (850,000 ha.) or as
Land Concessions.

Fig. 27.3 Road construction in the forest

27.3.3 Concessions
A concession is the right given or sold to somebody, usually by the government, to use or
operate a natural resource. Information on existing forest concessions indicates that about 31
concessions have been allocated to international companies. Reports indicate that additional
concessions have been assigned to the military. The sizes of the concessions range from
55,000 ha. to 1.4 million ha. with a total cover of 6,581,641 ha., or 62.3% of 1993 forest
cover. The Forestry Department, considers that less than 2 million ha. of forest are viable for
commercial logging. As a result many concessionaires buy timber from local people and cut
outside concessions areas, such as protected areas (Chhay Samith 1997).

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Fig. 27.4Concession map of Cambodia (FAO- MRC/GTZ: DAI)

According to the 1996 report on "Forest Policy Assessment" of the WB/FAO/UNDP,

US$101 million could reach the Public Treasury annually with a "full rent recovery", i.e.
US$66.6 getting into the Public Treasury for every m3 . cut in the country. This would
represent an annual cutting of 1.5 million m3 . per year. This is the same annual volume which
has been assessed by the WB/FAO/UNDP for the period 1993-1995. This volume is about
three times the sustainable harvest estimated during the 1960s (Chan 1985).

27.3.4 Forest Industry

According to the report of the World Bank “Log Monitoring and Logging Control Project”
Cambodia authorization has been given to 24 foreign investment companies to construct and
operate sawmills, plywood mills and furniture factories. The total input capacity of these
processing plants is approximately 1.2 million m3 per annum. The total number of sawmills,
plywood mills and furniture factories operating in the country is 646, of these 390 have been
given permits by the MAFF and 256 are considered illegal. The total processing capacity of
these mills was estimated to be 1,693,624 m3 . This estimate is believed to be a very low
estimate as provincial foresters have estimated that 1,000 to 1,500 portable illegal sawmills
are currently operating.

27.3.5 Timber Exports

Due to its economic and environmental impact, logging but more precisely the exportation of
timber has been subjected to drastic legislation, but unfortunately implementation is poor.
Despite government regulations massive exportation of timber from Cambodia has been
observed since 1993. The WB/UNDP/FAO report estimated that 1.5 million m3 . of logs were
produced and exported annually between 1993 and 1995, but the 1998 estimate by the DAI

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“Log Monitoring and Logging Control Project” suggested that as much as 4.3 million m3 total
log equivalent may have been exported in the year 1997 - 1998.

Fig. 27.5 Transportation of logs (MoE)

27.3.6 Illegal Activities

The important difference between recorded legal timber production and exportation and the
assessments of most observers is due to illegal activities. Illegal activities are limited not only
to international trade but also to the domestic market which seems to be dominated by
elements of the armed forces or protected private business activities. The main issue is the
poor enforcement of the law in Protected Areas, often illegal concessions are controlled by
powerful individuals and armed groups.

27.4 Main Issues

The seriousness of the forestry problem has driven international development institutions
(FAO, UNDP, WB) to open a ‘forestry policy dialogue’ with the government. The main
reasons for the high level of concern are discussed below.

27.4.1 Impact on the Environment and Agricultural Sector

The life of Cambodians depends traditionally on rice production and fish harvesting for food
and on wood for energy. Nearly 50% of the GDP comes from the agricultural sector. While
very few Cambodians live in the forests it is extremely important to maintain the balance
between forest exploitation, fish stock preservation and agriculture (Delvert), to ensure the
sustainability of the country’s rural production systems and economic and social welfare"
(FAO 1994). According to international agencies and the government, the main threats to
these systems are deforestation and the subsequent siltation of the Tonle Sap Lake. However,
other effects of deforestation include a reduction in the amount of wild animals and animal
habitats, reduced fertility of soils due to exposure to the weather for at least some months
each year, damage to the soil because of burning to convert forest land to agricultural land,
increased demand on groundwater supplies as forest lands are converted to agricultural
plantations which require large amounts of water for irrigation.

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27.4.2 Impact on Public Finances

The case of forestry is especially important due to its significant impact on public finances.
War and isolation during 25 years have left the country with little infrastructure or significant
industry. Apart from international aid, the most readily available sources of foreign currency
for the country are forestry and tourism. The value of the wood exported between 1989 and
1996 is believed to range between 1 billion US dollars and 2.2 billion US dollars, but the
government acknowledges that only a very small fraction of this revenue actually reached the
legal economic system. This situation has alarmed donor countries, which have provided up
to half of the state budget and has led to the IMF’s suspension of funds. In an effort to reduce
illegal logging, nearly all the remaining forests have been allocated to international logging
companies as private concessions. This represents a major transfer of capital and a serious
loss of national sovereignty. The capture of these economic returns will be crucial if the
country is to benefit financially from the exploitation of its forests.
Despite the allocation of concessions and major increases in log production and forest
products trade there has not been a corresponding increase in tax revenues to the RGC. In
1997, US$12.4 million was paid to the RGC on legitimate log production of about 450,000 m3
(10% of the estimated production) according to the WB Forest Policy Reform Project
undertaken by ARD. If formal taxes had been collected on the 4.3 million m3 of production,
then RGC in excess of US$100 million would have been paid to the central Government.

27.4.3 Relation to the On-Going Ar med Conflict

Journalists and environmental NGOs have explored links between natural resources
exploitation and the on-going conflict. For example the economic survival of the Khmer
Rouge is linked to the control of resources, and particularly of timber (Abuza 1993, Guilbert
1993). These links also exist for government forces as logging was reported to be "mostly in
the hands of armed groups" ( FAO). In other words, "war creates financial and security
conditions conducive to over-logging" (Sam Rainsy 1995). In 1995 the Economist asked if
Cambodia’s war had become a "wood-fired war which is too profitable for many of those
involved?" (The Economist, 17 June 1995). This assumption may be supported by the lack of
civil government control in insecure areas, arms trade between opposing factions and armed
skirmishes targeting the control of timber-rich areas. To a large extent, war maintains pressure
on the civilian population, the governmental institutions and the international community to
ignore a full range of illegal economic activities.

27.4.4 Political Ramifications

Forest exploitation and its political, social and economic consequences are now at the
forefront of the political agenda and form the basis of some of the fiercest criticism from the
opposition as "[i]n many ways, forestry policy can be seen as a pointer to the Cambodian
government’s commitment towards sustainable development because it involves so many
crucial issues: transparency in public decision-making, respect for the law and public
finances, empowerment of the local community by involving them in decision concerning
their habitat, and accountability for the effects of one’s policies on the country’s future" (Sam
Rainsy 1995). This situation pushed the government to try to overcome the problem by
regulatory measures, such as timber export bans, and economic measures, by privatizing the

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management of forests (Ministry of Agriculture 1995). However, many observers (Johnston

1997) have noticed no political will or incentives to implement the policies.

27.5 How Can Sustainability for the Forests be Achieved?

By late 1996 the government had taken some strong decisions to halt illegal activities and to
ensure that the forestry sector would provide revenue to the Public Treasury. The options
needed for sustainable forest management are clear. They relate to proper forest management,
an effective monitoring system and support by government to implement change. The most
obvious drastic measure is a timber export ban, but this measure has failed in the past due to
the pull-effect of a high regional demand and push-effect of a very low state budget limiting
greatly the incentives for peripheral actors to implement governmental policies.

The second type of measure concerns forestry concessions, for which concessionaires will be
held responsible and accountable for all logging (legal or illegal) activities. But as was
mentioned previously, most of these concessions are established in commercial timber-poor
areas and require concessionaires to participate into illegal operations in order to protect their
rentability. Thus the way should be towards balancing these two measures with the reality of
the political and economic situation of Cambodia. One possible option would be to reduce
the number of concessions, giving priority to the most viable ones and get a strong regional
support against illegal exports.

For more detailed reports on the proposed changes to forest policy and management practices,
see the reports of the ARD “Forest Policy Reform Project” and the DAI “Log Monitoring and
Logging Control Project”.

Reference
This report is based on reports from FAO, UNDP, and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fishery.

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Chapter 28

Pesticides

28.1 Introduction
A pesticide is any poisonous substance that can be used to kill any animal or plant that
humans consider as pests. A pest can be an insect (e.g. brown plant hopper) because it feeds
on rice plants, it can be a caterpillar that eats the leaves of soya beans, cotton or vegetables or
it can be rats.

Pesticides can be divided into groups according to the target organism they kill:
Insecticides: kill insects
Herbicides: kill weeds
Fungicides: kill molds and fungus
Nematicides: kill nematodes
Rodenticides: kill rats and other rodents

Figure 28.1 Pesticides on sale at the O'Russey market in Phnom Penh

28.1.1 How Pesticides Work

Pesticides work in one of two ways:
1. contact pesticides, or
2. systemic pesticides
Contact pesticides only work if they are directly in contact with the pest. This means
that the insect has to eat leaves on which the insecticide has been sprayed, or the
insecticide must pass directly through the skin of an insect. Examples include
Methyl Parathion commonly known as Folidol and Mevinphos commonly known as
“Phosdrin or X-Phos.

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Systemic pesticides enter the plant as a whole through its roots, leaves and stem.
Systemic insecticides and fungicides stay there and destroy the pest without being
harmful to the plant. They are more selective than contact pesticides. For example
systemic pesticides only kill sucking insects and not the insects that do not harm the
crop. They have the disadvantage that they stay along time in the crop. It is not
possible to get rid of the pesticide by washing or peeling the fruit. Examples
include Carbofuran (Furadan 3H), Monocrotophos (Azodrin) and Dichloros also
known as “Endrin”.

Fig. 28.2 Farmer spraying vegetables with pesticides (FAO IPM Project)

28.2. WHO Classification of Pesticides

The World health Organization has developed a “Recommendation Classification of
Pesticides by Hazard System” which gives information on the toxicity of the
pesticide. This system only describes the immediate effects from one single
exposure to a pesticide and does not measure carcinogenic impact, the impact on
birth defects or other long term problems caused by pesticides.

Class Contact oral (mouth) Contact dermal (skin)

mg per kg body weight of rats: 50% of rats die
I a Extremely hazardous 20 or less 40 or less
I b Highly hazardous 20 - 200 40 - 400
II Moderately hazardous 200 - 2000 400 - 4000
III Slightly hazardous over 2000 over 4000
Table 28.1 WHO Recommendation Classification of Pesticides by Hazard System

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 Pesticides

28.3 Pesticide Problem in Cambodia

At least ten different substances, classified by the World Health Organization as Class Ia and
Ib are widely available in Cambodia. The active chemical ingredient, and common brand
name, of a number of these pesticides is shown below.

Class I a Class I b
Methyl Parathion (Folidol) Carbofuran ( Furadan)
Mevinphos (Phosdrin) Dichlorophos (DDVP)
Methamidophos (Monitor)
Methomyl (Methomyl)
Monocrotophos ( Azodrin)

The 1996 Lutheran World Service (LWS) report “Pesticides in Cambodia” described
the pesticide situation in Cambodia as alarming. The most urgent issues are:
• a complete lack of regulations;
• people are unaware of the dangers of pesticides;
• pesticides are widely available at low prices;
• pesticides on sale are labeled in Thai and Vietnamese so it is difficult for
farmers to follow instructions;
• the sale and use of many of the pesticides is completely banned, or severely
restricted in other countries or only specially trained people are allowed to use
them, and the users have to be protected by special equipment.

A 1994 study of pesticides used in Cambodia showed that extremely poisonous

pesticides were most commonly used. Class I a pesticides accounted for 70% of all
pesticides old and Class I b accounted for 16% of all pesticides sold. Therefore,
only 14% of all pesticides sold in Cambodia were not from Class 1.

28.4 Problems Related to Pesticide Use

28.4.1 Environmental Problems

Pesticides cannot distinguish between pests and other organisms that have beneficial
functions in the field. Other insects coming into contact with the pesticide are also killed.
Some of these non-target insects are useful insects, which feed on harmful insects.

Some pesticides are highly toxic to fish. When pesticides are used close to ponds or in rice
fields, the pesticides have a serious impact on the aquatic life such as crabs, snails and fish.
These animals are more sensitive to pesticides than humans. The pesticide “Folidol” is so
poisonous that 250 mg are sufficient to kill 8 tons of fish.

Pesticides can also pollute surface water streams and rivers when spraying equipment is
washed or through surface water run-off during the wet season. People can then take in

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pesticide through drinking water. In serious cases, pesticide residue can even be found in the
ground water.

Some pesticides need a long time to break down into harmless substances. DDT was used in
the 1940s to kill the mosquitoes that cause malaria and the lice that spread typhus. In the
1950s DDT was used in massive amounts in the US to control a beetle that carried Dutch elm
disease. The trouble is that DDT is persistent, meaning that it is hardly broken down by any
decomposers. As a result each use of this pesticide increases the amount in the biosphere.
DDT can now be detected almost everywhere in the world and it continues to be harmful to
humans and the environment.

Fig. 28.3 Effects of incorrect use of pesticides (CEMP)

28.4.2 Health Problems

Pesticides enter the body by:
• breathing through the nose and lungs;
• ingestion through the mouth and stomach;
• absorption through the skin.
Pesticides are inhaled when the farmer is spraying pesticides. Cloth or Krama’s
covering the mouth and nose are not enough to prevent the pesticide entering the
lungs.

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Pesticides enter the mouth and stomach when food polluted by pesticides is eaten,
when a farmer eats, drinks or smokes without washing their hands after using
pesticides, when people drink water contaminated by pesticides or when people
drink the pesticide.

Absorption through the skin when a farmer mixes pesticides with bare hands, or
when he or she spills pesticides on his or her body, when the clothes of a farmer
become soaked with pesticides, or when people walk barefoot through a field after
pesticides have been or are being sprayed, or by washing clothes of someone who
was exposed to pesticides.

Once in the body the pesticide can go to:

• the urine where it will be excreted
• to the fat part of the body where it will be stored. This effect is called “
accumulation” and as a woman’s body has more fat than a man’s body, women
can accumulate more pesticides in their body. The pesticides keep their
damaging power and may have harmful effects years later.
• a place in the body where it can have acute effects similar to an ordinary fever
after a very short time ( a few days), severe effects which occur in a few days
and may cause death and sometimes effects that take months or years before
they cause illnesses.

Acute effects Severe Acute effects Long term effects

Dizziness Very small pupils Brain damage
Red, teary, burning eyes Diarrhea Damageto the immune system
Insomnia Breathing difficulty Damage to the liver
Tiredness Paralysis Cancer
Excessive sweating Convulsions Infertility
Blurred vision Drooling from mouth & nose Genetic damage
Headache Coma or unconsciousness Damage to the nervous system
Muscle pain Death Damage to the kidneys
Vomiting Skin Diseases
stomach ramps Miscarriage
Skin rashes Damage to the unborn child
Table 28.2 Effects of Pesticides on Human Health

28.5 Integrated Pest Management in Cambodia

Integrated Pest Management or IPM is a combination of management strategies that farmers
use to minimize the impact of pests and disease on their crop. The emphasis of an IPM
farmer’s approach is on sustainable production through the conservation of the natural
biodiversity of their field.

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28.5.1 Training Programmes in IPM

The Cambodian National IPM farmer training programme is coordinated by the
Department of Agronomy of the MAFF. As part of this IPM Programme a group of
master trainers provide Training-of-Trainers (TOT) course for agricultural workers
from provincial government and non-governmental organisations. In these TOT
courses, participants:
• undertake intensive practical and theoretical training on the growth cycle of
crops;
• receive practical experience in the relationships between pests and their natural
enemies;
• grow an actual crop to investigate the impact of their pest management, nutrient
management, plant variety selection, land preparation, and weed management
decisions on crop yields;
• investigate farming systems, e.g. fish and rice production;
• receive training on special topics related to the key pests and other production
issues, e.g. health issues related to pesticide use;
• gain experience in the use of non-formal education and discovery based
learning;
• work with farmer groups as part of TOT curriculum.

28.5.2 Farmer Field Schools

One IPM provincial trainers graduate from a TOT they are prepared to facilitate
Farmer Field Schools (FFS). The FFS is a “school without walls”, usually attended
by 25 to 30 farmers from villages near the study field. In the FFS, the farmers -
• gain an increased understanding of how to grow a healthy crop;
• explore the natural rice field ecosystem and monitor the relationships between
plants, pests and natural enemies;
• measure the economic impact of pesticides, fertilizers, irrigation and other
cultivation practices;
• investigate how pesticides affect their health and learn to recognize the
symptoms of pesticide poisoning.
Farmers who have completed FFS are becoming involved in educating other farmers
about the benefits of using an IPM approach. The Cambodian IPM program has
taken steps to target women and students from rural high schools in order to
increase their involvement in sustainable agriculture.

28.6 Guidelines for the Safe Use of Pesticides

Throughout the world the use of pesticides is becoming an increasingly necessary operation in
the consistent and economic production of crops. However, the choice and the use of pesticides
must be given great care to insure that pesticides are not hazardous to man or crops, or ineffective
and uneconomic. The following advice on safe use of pesticides is taken from the “Guidelines for
the safe and effective use of pesticides” by the International Group of National Associations of
Manufacturers of Agrochemical Products (GIFAP).

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Correct pesticide use practices start with the observation of the problem in the field. The better
the farmer knows which problem is affecting the crop, the better the treatment choice should be.
This can be difficult in Cambodia because instructions on many of the pesticide containers are
only written in Thai, Vietnamese or English . When buying the pesticide, the farmer should
check that the packet has not been damaged and the bottle is not refilled. When carrying the
pesticide home it should be kept away from food. Once in the house, pesticides should be stored
away from food or animal feeds and out of reach of children.

Fig. 28. 4 Poster showing incorrect behavior (on the left) and correct behavior (on the right) CEMP 1997.
When mixing the chemical with water before spraying, the GIFAP instructions are as follows:

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• Avoid skin contamination, so wear protective clothing such as gloves, glasses, etc.
• Do not measure out or mix pesticides in or near houses, or where livestock are kept.
• Keep children and animals away.
• Take care not to contaminate water supplies, or puddles from which animals may drink.
• Pour liquids carefully to avoid spillage and splashes. Never suck up any liquid pesticide with
a tube.
• Wash all equipment after use but far away from houses, wells, waterways and crops.
• Ensure that equipment used for storing, measuring or mixing pesticides is not used for any
other purpose.

As pesticides can enter the body easily , it is important that protective clothing is worn. If a
knapsack sprayer is being used ( the common sprayer carried on the back) to spray ground crops,
then protective footwear and long pants should be worn . When spraying taller crops, protective
clothing that covers as much of the body as possible should be worn. The pesticide solution
should never be touched; gloves should be worn on the hands and goggles on the eyes.

The sprayer should be in good working condition. Spraying should not be carried out during wet
or windy conditions. Freshly sprayed plants should not be harvested. Children should not be
allowed to spray pesticides or to be near by during spraying or mixing. Once spraying is finished
all empty bottles and containers should be appropriately cleaned or disposed of. After working
with pesticides, the farmer should wash carefully with soap and water , and clothes used while
spraying should be washed separately.

28.7 Conclusion
Some solutions to the pesticide problem in Cambodia were put forward in the LWS report. In the
short term, it is very important that farmers are provided with more information about the
impacts of pesticide use on health and the environment and the ways to use pesticides correctly.
Ideas for medium term solutions put forward in the LWS report included:
• a ban of (at least) extremely hazardous pesticides, WHO Class 1
• regulation of trade with pesticides
• possibility to survey the pesticide market
• education of extension workers and health workers on pesticide hazards.

References and Recommended Further Reading

FAO, 1998 Integrated Pest Management in Cambodia.

GIFAP, Guidelines for the Safe and Effective Use of Pesticides

Specht, J. 1996. Pesticides in Cambodia: A Compilation for Agriculturists, Local and

Expatriate Staff Working in Agriculture in Cambodia.

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Chapter 29

Public Participation

29.1 Introduction
“Participation” in its simplest of meanings is people taking part, sharing, or acting
together. For most of the time that humans have lived on Earth people have been
participating in the development of their own cultures through the sharing of tasks
and responsibilities in their own small communities of 50 to 60 people. In recent
years, large-scale planning, government services and regulations, and development
schemes have dominated the development of small communities. In these situations,
“people’s participation” is often encouraged by the large institutions involved. The
participation of local communities can range from local people providing labor for
the project, to the involvement of local people in major decisions about the project.
There are various ways in which public participation may be achieved. In all
methods of participation, the success lies in the relationship between the public and
the government or the developers.

The World Bank defines the concept of participation as “a process through which
stakeholders influence and share control over development initiatives, decisions,
and resources that affect them”. The 1993 “People and Parks” paper by WWF uses
the 1985 definition by Cernea to describe local participation “empowering people to
mobilize their own capacities, be social actors rather than passive subjects, manage
the resources, make decisions, and control the activities that affect their lives”.
Participation can range from minimal levels of participation such as information
sharing and consultation - to more intensive participatory mechanisms, such as
collaboration in implementation and decision making.

29.1.1 The Stakeholders in Natural Resource Management

Stakeholders is a term used to describe the various people and communities that
have an interest in a particular resources or business. One list of stakeholders for
natural resources is given:

Users Numerous sub-groups based on differing interests, power and

location

Policy makers and politicians

Senior government officials
Governments Field personnel
Other governments

International donors
Development Agents Consultants
International donor projects

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Non-Profit Private Organizations

Other Private Private enterprises
Other individuals

29.2 Various Levels of Participation by Stakeholders

Passive Participation
Passive participation describes the situation when the powerful stakeholders make
all the decisions and the other stakeholders ‘participate’ by being told what is going
to happen or has already happened.

Participation by Information Giving

Stakeholders ‘participate’ by answering questions posed by powerful decision-
makers or project; they do not have an opportunity to influence decision making as
the findings are not shared with the communities and users.

Participation by Consultation
Stakeholders ‘participate’ by being consulted, and decision makers consider their
knowledge and interests; outsiders define both problems and solutions but may
modify the problems or the solutions based on the people’s responses; this process
does not concede any share in decision-making and outsiders are under no obligation
to take on board people’s views.

Functional Participation
Stakeholders participate by forming groups to meet pre-determined objectives of a
programme; such involvement is not normally at the planning stage but after major
decisions have been made.

Interactive Participation
Stakeholders participate in joint analysis, leading to action, formation of new local
groups or strengthening of existing ones; stakeholders take control over local
decisions, giving them an incentive in maintaining structures or practices

Self Mobilization
Stakeholders participate by taking initiatives independent of external institutions to
change systems; external agents may play a facilitating or catalytic role.

29.3 Why Involve Local People

There are a number of reasons why environmental managers want public
participation in projects that have environmental impacts and they include local
knowledge, gaining local support for the project, and empowerment.

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29.3.1 Local Knowledge

All projects need to consider local communities if they are to be successful.
Therefore, it is important to obtain accurate information regarding the people and
their environment. Participation may only involve discussions with local people who
can provide information to the project, or it may involve local people in
participatory research about various aspects of the local physical or socio-economic
environment.

29.3.2 Gaining Local Support

Public participation in environmental management decisions is also necessary to
ensure that the project has the support of the local community. Once a community
becomes involved in a project, they develop a sense of ownership or at least feel
that they have a “stake” in the project. Often this local involvement is extremely
beneficial to the sustainability of the project.

29.3.3 Empowerment
Public participation is used to empower the community or a group of people in the
area where the project is taking place. Empowerment involves the public or a group
taking greater control over the circumstances in which they live. This may involve
the community taking over the management of local resources that they use, rather
than relying on the state which may not have the capacity to enforce regulations.
This form of participation is the fullest level because communities identify and
solve problems themselves and work out their own management practices (e.g.
community fisheries in Laos - Chapter 15).

Empowerment may be achieved in various ways. At a national level it requires a

fully democratic process which allows minority interest groups to be heard and to
have a say in policy making. It may involve the development of special interest
groups and lobbies. Empowerment may also involve returning power and rights over
the environment to local communities and groups. This from of public participation
raises questions over power and who has control over resources.

29.4 Why involve local people in conservation of protected areas?

Traditionally, conservationists considered conservation without the local
communities. However, it has become evident that involvement of local
communities is vital if conservation projects are to succeed. Arguments in favor of
involving local communities in protected area management include ethics,
anthropology, holistic reasons, efficiency, and human rights.

29.4.1 Ethics
Ethical arguments focus on the injustices of a protected area system which displaces
local people from land they have traditionally occupied and depend on for
livelihoods. “Excluding people who live adjacent to protected areas from the use of
resources, without providing them with alternatives, is increasingly viewed as

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politically infeasible and ethically unjustifiable”, as quoted in “People and Parks”

by Brandon and Wells (1992).

Many advocating ‘people-oriented conservation’ do so on ‘efficiency’ grounds.

These arguments seek to make protected areas more effective by mitigating the
social and economic effects of protected areas on local people. “The success of a
protected area management depends very much on the degree of support and respect
awarded to the protected area by neighboring communities. Where protected areas
are seen as a burden, local people can make protection impossible. When the
protected area is seen as a positive benefit, the local people will themselves become
allied with the manager in protecting the area from threatening developments”,
Mackinnon et al (1986).

29.4.2 Anthropological and Botanical

Anthropologists and botanists studying rural communities in the tropics have
revealed that many rural communities have extensive knowledge of and utilize a
wide range of wood and non-wood products supplied by forests, which can enhance
and promote conservation of biodiversity in many forest regions. Communities’
knowledge of species and products is considered an important resource in itself, and
there are many arguments in favor of conserving traditional knowledge, both for its
cultural and environmental significance. Traditional management systems and other
common property regimes are emphasized as effective institutions for sustainable
resource use.

29.4.3 Human Rights

Another set of arguments supporting people-oriented conservation is derived from
indigenous peoples and the human rights movement. These put human rights and
justice rather than ‘nature’ at the top of agendas. Many of these arguments involve
the confiscation of land from communities who have lived in particular areas for
hundreds of years by government agencies. Motivations for community forest
conservation usually stem from alarm at the devastating effects of environmental
degradation, and the expansion of capitalist businesses on the lives of poor and
politically weak rural communities.

It is widely argued that supporting local people rights, such as security of tenure, is
the only way to ensure effective conservation. This is a similar argument to that
which emphasizes local participatory planning, management and evaluation in
conservation as a community ‘right’.

29.5 Critical Factors Limiting Successful Participation

Factors, which limit public participation in a project, are as follows:
• Lack of government commitment to adopting a participatory approach.
• Unwillingness of project officials to give up control over project activities and
decisions.

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• Lack of incentives and skills among project staff to encourage them to adopt a
participatory approach.
• Limited capacity of local-level organizations and insufficient investment in
community capacity building.
• Participation started too late. If participation is not built in to the original
project design, with input from key stakeholders, it will be more difficult to try
to inject a participatory approach later in the project cycle.
• Mistrust between government and local-level stakeholders. In may projects, the
relationship between beneficiaries, NGOs and government ( and in some cases
the donor) is based on mistrust and suspicion. If adequate time and effort is not
invested in resolving these differences of opinion, the participation of all
stakeholders will be severely limited.

29.5.1 Enhancing Public Participation

Factors which enhance public participation in projects are:
• A relatively independent neutral implementation agency not hindered by the
need to coordinate with a large number of agencies
• A implementation agency whose priority is client oriented
• Commitment for the project on the part of the people who will benefit from
participating.
Well-functioning beneficiary organizations with internal structures and procedures
favoring participation by all members - a need for participatory approach within
organized stakeholders.

29.6 The Major Human Groups

Many governments recognize that communities and community based organizations
have to be involved in solving environmental problems if sustainable development is
to be achieved. The governments of the world discussed this concern at the Earth
Summit in Rio in 1992. Agenda 21, the report that resulted from the Summit,
identified nine primary sectors or “major groups” of human society which are made
up of the following: women, children and youth, indigenous people, NGOs, local
administrators, workers and trade unions, business and industry, scientists and
academics, farmers, fisherfolk and rural agriculturalists.

Most members of a community belong to at least one of these groups and the idea
of the Rio Summit was that each group, in its own unique way, can make an
important contribution to the process of achieving sustainability and preserving the
environment for the benefit of future generations.

29.6.1 Women
Although women make up the majority in many communities, their ability to
participate in the decision making process is often not equal to male members of
their community. Women often perform most of the work in the homes and villages
but discrimination and lack of access to basic needs such as education, land and

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credit often limits their role in decision-making. Agenda 21 recognized that the
effective implementation of all programs aimed at sustainable development and
environmental preservation will depend on the active involvement of women in
economic and political decision-making processes.

29.6.2 Youth and Children

Since young people make up approximately 30% of the world’s population, the
Earth Summit at Rio recognized that their participation in environment and
development decision-making and the implementation of development programs is
extremely important in all parts of the world. It was recommended that, in each
country, governments should consult with their young people, establish a process to
promote discussions between the youth and all levels of government, ensure that
youth have access to information and give them opportunities to present their
viewpoints on all government decisions, particularly decisions relating to
environmental programs.

Children are often the victims of unsustainable development rather than participants
and the cause behind those developments. Agenda 21 states that “children not only
will inherit the responsibility of looking after the Earth, but in many countries they
compromise nearly half the population”. To ensure that the interests of children are
prioritized, different sectors of the community who work closely with children
should work with their government to:
• promote environmental care activities that address basic needs of communities;
• improve the environment for children at the household and community level; and
• encourage the participation and empowerment of local populations, including
women, youth, children and indigenous people, especially in developing countries.

29.6.3 Indigenous People

Agenda 21 recognizes that indigenous people are an important sector of the
community that can contribute greatly to the cause of global environmental
sustainability. As part of their culture, they have developed holistic, traditional and
scientific knowledge of their lands, natural resources and environment and there is a
lot to be learned from their experience. However, many indigenous communities are
unable to participate fully in sustainable development practices on their lands
because their ability is limited by economic, social and historical factors.

Agenda 21 promoted “full partnership” between indigenous people and their

communities, governments and where appropriate intergovernmental organizations
and it encouraged all environmental programs to involve indigenous communities
and to strengthen their capacity to participate.

29.6.4 Non-governmental Organizations

Non-governmental organizations (NGOs) play a very important role in activities to
improve the conditions of communities and their environment. NGOs may include

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organizations that are specifically created to address particular environmental

issues, such as energy conservation, or they may include well-established
community organizations that incorporate environmental principles into their
existing charters.

29.6.5 Local Authorities

Because so many environmental problems and solutions are happening at grassroots
level, the participation and cooperation of local communities are an important
component of all efforts to introduce sustainable practices.

29.6.6 Workers and Trade Unions

Since much of the activity to promote sustainable development will require
changing current methods of industrial production and construction, the workers of
the world will be affected by the changes. As the representatives of workers, trade
unions can use their experience of addressing industrial change, safety in the
working environment, and promotion of socially responsible economic development,
to introduce the changes needed for sustainable development.

Agenda 21 recommends that all governments and leaders from the business and
industry sectors encourage the active and informed participation of workers and
trade unions in the design and implementation of all environment and development
strategies. It also recommends that unions and employers should design joint
environmental policies, and set priorities to improve the working environment and
the overall environmental performance of business.

29.6.7 Business and Industry

Business and industry, including multinational corporations, play a crucial role in
the social and economic development of a country. By improving the efficiency of
their production technologies and procedures to minimize or avoid creating waste,
the policies and operations of business and industry can play a major role in
reducing impacts on resource use and the environment. Agenda 21 called on
business and industry to be full participants in the implementation and evaluation of
activities related to the environment and sustainable development. It also challenged
business and industry to incorporate environmental considerations into their
management and operations.

29.6.8 The Scientific and Technological Communities

The scientific and technological community includes engineers, architects, industrial
designers, urban planners and other professional and policy makers. Agenda 21
recommended that the scientific and technological community and policy makers
should increase their interaction in order to implement strategies for sustainable
development on the basis of the best available knowledge.

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29.6.9 Farmers and Fisherfolk

Since agriculture uses one third of the land surface of the Earth, and is the central
activity for much of the world’s population, the active participation by this sector of
society in environmental issues is important. Rural activities, such as farming,
fishing and timber harvesting, take place in close contact with nature, adding value
to it by producing renewable resources. At the same time, however, these activities
are vulnerable to the over exploitation and improper management. Agenda 21
recognized that people who live in rural areas, indigenous people and their
communities and the family farmer are the caretakers of much of the Earth’s
resources and therefore their participation in decision making is vital for sustainable
development and environmental preservation.

29.7 Conclusion
Numerous techniques have been developed to organize public participation in
projects. Techniques used in Cambodia in recent years include agricultural
extension programs, village development committees, community groups,
participatory rural appraisal (PRA), rapid rural appraisal (RRA), focus group
discussions, local non-governmental organizations and environmental education
programs. The extent to which each of the techniques involves and empowers
communities is greater than the scope of this chapter. Specific examples of the
involvement of communities in the management of natural resources are given in the
next chapter, Chapter 30, Community-Based Natural Resource Management.

References and Recommended Further Reading

Holloway, R. 1996. OOPPP and Beyond: An Objectives-Oriented Participatory
Project Planning Course. PACT

Schoonmaker Freudenberger, K. 1996. Rapid Rural Appraisal – Participatory Ruarl

Appraisal

Pretty, J.N., Guijt, I., Thompson, J. and Scoones, I. 1995. Participatory Learning
and Action – A Trainers Giude

RECOF, 1997. Participatory Management of protected Areas – Training Course

UNEP, 1995. Taking Action–An Environmental Guide For You and Your
Community

Uphoff, N. Local Institutions and Participation for Sustainable Development

Vettivel, S.K. 1992. Community Participation – Empowering the Poorest – Roles of

NGOs.

Wells, M. and Brandon, K., 1993. People and Parks: Linking Protected Area
Management with Local Communities.

Anon. 1994. Report on Sustainable Management of Natural Resource through

Community Participation – Indochina Regional Workshop

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Chapter 30

Community-Based Natural Resource Management

(CBNRM)

Written by: Toby Carson, IDRC/MoE

30.1 Introduction
This chapter defines some of the relevant terms, and outlines some of the potential
benefits of community-based natural resource management (CBNRM). It discusses
some of the implications of CBNRM for Cambodia, suggests possible strategies for
success, gives an example of a case study, and reviews the issues and approaches for
CBNRM in the Cambodian context.

Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) is associated with a

variety of related terms such as community resource management, community-based
coastal resource management, community forestry, co-management, and even
natural resource management. The variety of definitions of the terms depends upon
the context and country involved.

What is Community?
Communities can be defined according to spacial or social factors, internal make-up
or external relationships, cultural, political or natural boundaries. In Cambodia,
community is often defined by ethnic, spacial, or resource-based characteristics.
Communities are often mistakenly thought to be homogeneous (uniform) but they
are almost always heterogeneous (mixed). Community members have different
interests, problems and needs which vary according to gender, class, age, and
ethnicity. They thus have varying access to resources, entitlements, and political and
economic power. In Cambodia, some communities have been heavily fractured
because of war and civil strife while others have been recently formed as a result of
migration. These differences must be taken into account and addressed in the
context of community-based resource management.

What is Co-management?
Co-management requires that communities and government work together to manage
the resources. This means that there must be power sharing between the government
agencies and citizens with a stake in the common pool of resources. Co-management
emphasizes a bottom-up rather than top-down process, is participatory and user
groups play an active role in decision making.

What is Community-Based Resource Management?

Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) is characterized by local
communities playing the central role in identifying resources, defining development

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priorities, choosing and adapting technologies and implementing management

practices.

The CBNRM approach is often compared to the government centered or top-down

approach. In the latter system, government agencies and officials take the lead role
in formulating policy related resource management. Senior officials usually make
decisions regarding resource use and the distribution of resources. The degradation
of the environment and declining resource stocks is often blamed in part on the
failure of the highly centralized management system, which involves planning and
decision making only at the government bureaucratic level and does not allow for
the ideas and wishes of local resource users ( Mam Kosal, 1996).

Community-based natural resource management (CBNRM) is a potential

development option in order for Cambodia to address problems of rural poverty and
environmental degradation. A variety of CBNRM approaches have been tried in
several developing countries during the last decades and there are working models
which exist in India, Nepal, Indonesia, Philippines, Thailand, and other countries.

30.2 Potential Benefits of CBNRM

The promotion of a community-based management system is an opportunity to
address at the local level some of the problems of resource over-exploitation. Berkes
(1987) advocates four social, economic and environmental principles in the
management of common resources:
• The solution of the common problems starts with the control of the access to the
resource.
• Increasing production from a common property resource depends on the
conservation of the resource base.
• The sustainable utilization of a resource is closely connected to the use of
appropriate technology for the harvest of that resource.
• Local level management improves prospects for the sustainable use of a common
resource.
Development theorists and practitioners are increasingly promoting the multiple
benefits of community-based resource management systems (Berkes, 1989; Ferrer,
1992; Charsnoh, 1993; McManus, 1995; Mam Kosal, 1996). There are many
potential benefits to promoting community-based resource management systems in
Cambodia.

30.2.1 Ensuring Livelihood Security

Firstly, CBNRM can be a principle means for ensuring livelihood security for local
people. If the people of the communities are given access rights to vital resources,
they are then assured a better opportunity of meeting their basic needs and
improving their livelihood options.

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30.2.2 Mechanisms for Conflict Resolution

Common property systems can provide mechanisms for access equity and conflict
resolution. Provided that all members of the user group can mutually agree upon the
rules, there can be equitable use of resources with a minimum of internal conflict.
The mode of production forms the basis of the community-based resource
management system. Although within the community, the work teams may be fluid
and flexible, the community members share common interests and knowledge. The
knowledge of resource-use rules is facilitated by the simple rule that, 'you must live
in this community to use the resource' (Ostrom, 1985).

30.2.3 Promotion of Resource Conservation

Community-based systems aim at self-sufficiency and are basically conservative in
the way resources are utilized. The emphasis is on taking what is needed and not on
accumulation of surplus or excessive individual gain. There are social sanctions,
which promote resource conservation. The social controls in community-based
systems serve to reinforce the maintenance of a productive resource from generation
to generation, promoting ecological sustainability.

Community-based natural resource management has the potential to address

problems of rural poverty and environmental degradation in Cambodia, if it can be
characterized by local communities playing central roles in identifying resources,
defining developmental priorities, choosing and adapting technologies, and
implementing management practices, but CBNRM approaches also have some
implications.

30.3 Some Implications of CBNRM for Cambodia

Community-based natural resource management has some basic principles: local
participation, communal property rights, and some amount of local control over the
resources (Cernia, 1985; Gibbs, 1989; Ferrer, 1992; Rivera, 1992; Chatterjee, 1994).
These principles have certain implications in the context of the Cambodian social,
economic and political situation.

30.3.1 People Centered Local Participation

The issue of local public participation is complex. There are various forms and
degrees of participation. Some forms of participation may be included in
consultation, decision making or in program implementation (Mam Kosal, 1996).
Development programs in Cambodia often advocate community participation in
principle but seldom implement such practices in reality.

Community-based natural resource management means that the user communities

should be, at the very least, involved in defining the priorities and developing rules
regarding the sharing of the resource, as well as penalties for violations. Cernea
(1985) defines local participation as "empowering people to mobilize their own
capacities, be social actors rather than passive subjects, manage the resources, make
decisions, and control the activities that affect their lives".
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30.3.2 'Ownership' of the Resources

One of the most crucial tasks is to promote ownership of the resource. Participation
alone is not sufficient. 'Ownership' should be interpreted as responsibility,
accountability and readiness to take risk. Communal property rights is defined as
"where individuals have access to resources over which they have collective claims
as members of recognized groups" (Gibbs, 1989). It will need to be examined how
communities and government agencies can work together to determine what types of
agreements need to be reached in order to promote community-based management
approaches.

30.3.3 Community Oriented Control of Resources

Finally, community-based resource management implies that "control over local
resource management decisions should rest with the people who bear the direct
impact of these decisions" (Rivera, 1992). There are several important social, legal
and political conditions necessary to foster and strengthen CBNRM. Addressing a
workshop in Cambodia on "Sustainable Management of Natural Resources through
Community Participation", Chatterjee (1994) identified some key elements that
facilitate the carrying out of community-based activities. According to Chatterjee
"firstly, legislation should be established to empower the community by defining
their rights over the community property rights; next, support needs to be given to
the grassroots level initiatives; finally, trust needs to built in the community, and
between the community and the government".

In order to bring about the necessary conditions to foster CBNRM in Cambodia,

relevant government agencies such as the Forestry and Fisheries Departments, the
Ministry of Environment and other agencies must support appropriate policies. This
implies that authorities must clearly and explicitly delegate to communities and
community groups some degree of management authority over the resources
(Sorensen, 1997). Resource dependent communities need to be given legal access
and user rights that are recognized by the government.

30.4 Strategies and Recommendations for Successful CBNRM

There is no widely agreed upon strategy for successful CBNRM approaches. In the
Philippines, Ferrer (1992) advocates a three-pronged approach, which includes
community organizing, technical-economic work and networking/support group
building. Some important components for successful CBNRM may include
community organizing, environmental education, institutionalization, resource
management options, sustainable livelihoods for local people, advocacy and
networking (McManus, 1995; Ferrer, 1992; and Mam Kosal, 1996).

30.4.1 Community Organizing

Community organizing has different meanings depending on different contexts, but
it is generally recognized to relate to the principle of empowering people to
determine their own development and shape their own future. Community
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organizing is the process of building awareness, promoting new values, developing

leadership capabilities, and enabling communities to take action. Good community
organization is at least as important to success as good technologies. It is more than
just setting up organizations. It facilitates the process of change, which promotes
more equitable and life sustaining conditions.

Fig. 30.1 Community involvement in the management of caostal resources

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30.4.2 Environmental Education

The concepts and tools of environmental education can help empower communities
to determine their economic and social problems and needs within an environmental
management framework. Environmental education should draw upon indigenous and
local knowledge as well as scientific aspects of resources. Local environmental
knowledge is usually not documented but is passed on over generations through
daily life experiences.

30.4.3 Institutional Analysis

Institutional analysis is the process of identifying and assessing stakeholders,
community groups and institutions important for CBNRM approaches. Throughout
the process of organizing and enhancing community organization and environmental
awareness, communities can build their capacity to form necessary institutions that
promote CBNRM principles (McManus, 1995). Institutional analysis should
examine how communities and government agencies can work together and
determine what types of agreements need to be reached in order to achieve
sustainable and community-based management of resources.

30.4.4 Resource Management Options

The identification and assessment of resource use patterns and management options
should be identified through participatory research. In order to identify the real
problems, it is necessary to assess the perceived problems carefully from the
perspective of the local people and the various aspects of the resource management.
This component is closely linked to the sustainable livelihoods and
networking/advocacy components in evaluation and implementation of management.
Successful resource management options must be economically viable,
environmentally sustainable and socially equitable.

30.4.5 Sustainable Livelihoods

People must have capacities to generate and maintain livelihoods, while enhancing
their well-being and that of future generations. These capacities should be based on
equity, ownership of resources and participatory decision making. They are
dependent on the availability and accessibility of sustainable options, which take
into account economic viability and efficiency, ecological integrity, and social
equity. Economic efficiency refers to the production of a given level of goods and
services with a minimal level of inputs. Ecological integrity means that the effects
of livelihood development must not exceed the ability of the natural ecosystems to
recover from shocks and stresses. Social equity means that the way one household
makes a living must not adversely affect the way another makes a living (Naresh
Singh, 1997). Successful CBNRM will relate the development of the local resources
(including forestry, fisheries, agriculture, tourism, etc.) with overall community
development and environmental conservation.

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30.4.6 Networking and Advocacy

Networking establishes linkages with other groups and agencies working for a
common goal. Advocacy is a mechanism through which organized groups and
communities institutionalize their goals in policies and laws of other groups and
government agencies (McManus, 1995). In both networking and advocacy, the
strategy is to share information with other groups and communities so as to bring
about greater understanding as well as social and policy changes. Maintaining
dialogue and flexibility will facilitate better learning and sharing of information as
the process progresses. It is important to include all stakeholders in the CBNRM
process, especially the villagers, local government, line agencies, and NGOs in the
process.

Successful CBNRM strategies can lead towards communities that are organized and
environmentally aware, effectively manage their resources with sustainable
livelihoods, and have networks with other communities and government levels. The
approach for CBNRM should be kept people-centered because it is the local people
that depend on the resource for their livelihoods; therefore, they should be the ones
that manage it. It should be noted, however, that all of the component strategies
mentioned above take time to be successful.

30.5 Case Study Example of CBNRM in Action

Widespread depletion of natural resources has already occurred over the past two
decades in the neighboring country of Thailand. The are now several examples
where community-based natural resource management has been promoted as a
solution to development problems. One example is of a local non-governmental
organization, the Yad Fon Association, which was established in 1985 to help
improve the quality of life of coastal villagers adversely affected by mangrove
destruction in Southern Thailand. The destruction of Thailand's mangrove forests
have been accelerated by indiscriminate cutting for commercial charcoal production,
the rapid proliferation of intensive shrimp farms, as well as uncertainty and conflicts
over land-tenure status (Rittibhonbhun et al: 1993). Obvious parallels can be drawn
to the situation in Cambodia.

The case study of the Yad Fon programme provides an example of a project
promoting community-based mangrove rehabilitation and management. During the
first stages of Yad Fon's community development work in 1985, it was found that
villagers were well aware of the adverse affects of mangrove destruction on their
livelihoods. This awareness, however, did not translate into any positive actions to
alleviate their problems because of a general feeling of powerlessness. According to
Rittibhonbhun et al (1993), the villagers were constrained by two main forces that
were beyond their control. The first force was that of the intensifying influence of
the market economy. The villagers were being gradually trapped into a vicious
circle of poverty whereby they were compelled to increasingly destroy mangroves in
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order to satisfy daily survival needs. Furthermore, as increased cash was needed,
they found less and less time to work towards common goals, such as mangrove
rehabilitation and management. The second force was the apparent inconsistency
between the national forest policy and community needs. These constraining forces
are also present in Cambodia.

{An example of community based management of fisheries resources in Laos was

described in Chapter 15, Fisheries and community forestry was described in Chapter
17, Forest Resources}.

30.6 Issues and Approaches for Cambodia

The conflicts and constraints to sustainable resource management in Cambodia can
also be found in neighboring countries of the ASEAN region. Cambodia can
potentially learn from experiences in Thailand, Philippines and other countries. In
order for villagers to take positive action to overcome the problem of resource
depletion and forest destruction, they will have to be given power to take control of
seemingly uncontrollable forces. They will have to be allowed to escape the vicious
cycle of poverty while national policies will have to be made consistent with local
community needs.

The strategy of promoting community-based resource management for Cambodia

must take into account many economic, political and ecological issues. These issues
are both complex and interrelated.

Cambodia has suffered from decades of war and widespread poverty. It is now under
threat from development and over-exploitation. Experience from neighboring
countries demonstrates that development can occur rapidly, and that local
communities can play a major role helping to shape the development process toward
sustainable and equitable distribution of benefits.

Some organizations and government agencies are attempting to address resource

depletion and poverty issues through the promotion of community-based principles
and approaches. Some of the NGO's and international organizations working at
varying degrees in this area include the Mennonite Central Committee (MCC),
Japanese Volunteer Centre (JVC), CIDSE, Concern Worldwide, Wetlands
International, the International Development Research Centre (IDRC),
UNDP/CARERE, and OXFAM.

Relevant projects that are using CBNRM principles to varying degrees include the:
• Community Forestry and Plant Propagation projects in Takeo Province (MCC
and IDRC);
• Community Forestry Projects in Kompong Chhnang and Banteay Meanchay
provinces (Concern Worldwide);

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• Non-Timber Forest Products (OXFAM/NOVIB NTFP Prject) project and the

Highland Resource Management Project (CARERE and IDRC) in Ratanakiri
Province; and
• Participatory Management of Mangrove Resources Project in Koh Kong
Province (MoE and IDRC).

Some government agencies that have shown at least some support for these
initiatives include the Ministry of Environment, the Department of Forestry and
Fisheries as well as many government departments at provincial levels. The
formation of Community Forestry Units within the Ministries of Environment and
Agriculture is particularly supportive of CBNRM related approaches.

30.7 Conclusion
Community-based natural resource management approaches in Cambodia should
consider at least six related components in order to be successful. Firstly, the local
institutional capacity of communities needs to be enhanced to assist with community
organizing. Secondly, environmental and ecological awareness is essential to the
long-term sustainability of the natural resources. Legal and institutional frameworks
are needed that support the community's rights to use and protect their resources.
People will only be motivated to support resource conservation if there are
livelihood alternatives. Finally and perhaps most importantly, participation must be
fulfilled in practice not just in theory.

List of Resource Documents

Berkes, F. and M.T. Farvar, (eds) (1989). Common Property Resources: Ecology
and Community-Based Sustainable Development. Belhaven Press, London.

Burkley, Stan (1993). People First: A Guide to Self-Reliant Participatory Rural

Development. Zed Books Ltd. London and New Jersey.

Chambers, Robert (1997). Beyond "Whose Reality Counts? - New Methods We Now
Need"

Chansnoh, Pisit (1993). Community Management of Coastal Resources, Southern

Thailand. Naga , the ICLARM Quarterly, October 1993.

Coastal Communities Network (1996). Community-based Co-management Resource

Guide

Dela Cruz, Quirinol (1994). Community-based Coastal Resource Management: A

Response to an Open-Access Coastal Fishery Resource. In Lun Da Yan Journal, Vol.
5, No. 4. Tambuyog Development Center.

Ferrer, Elmer M. (1992). Learning and Working Together: Towards a Community-

Based Coastal Resources Management. Research and Extension for Development
Office University of the Philippines Diliman, Quezon City.

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Environment: ETAP Reference Guide Book

Ferrer, Elmer M., Lenore Poltan dela Cruz, and Marife Agoncillo Domingo (eds)
(1996). Seeds of Hope: A Collection of Case Studies on Community-Based
Resources Management in the Philippines. College of Social Work and Community
Development, University of the Philippines, Quezon City.

Japanese Volunteer Center (JVC), OXFAM, and CIDSE (1994). Report on

Sustainable Management of Natural Resources through Community Participation.
Indochina Regional Workshop: 12 to 15 December 1994. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Johannes, R.E. (1981). Working with Fisherman to Improve Coastal Tropical

Fisheries and Resource Management. In Bulletin of Marine Science, 31(3): 673-680.

Kurien, John (1994). Towards an Integrated Community Management of Coastal

Fisheries. In R.S. Pomeroy (ed.) Community management and common property of
coastal fisheries in Asia and the Pacific: concepts, methods and experiences.
ICLARM.
Madras, India (1985). Helping Fisherfolk to Help Themselves: A Study of People's
Participation in Fisheries Development.

Mam, Kosal (1996). Community-Based Resource Management: General Concept

and Implication for Cambodia. Prepared for the workshop on coastal fishery
management organized by NEAP and MoE.

McManus, Linda T. (1995). Community-Based Coastal Resources Management,

Bolinao, Philippines: An Evolving Partnership Among Academe, NGOs, and Local
Communities. Coastal Management in Tropical Asia. No 5.

Patterson, Gordon (1994). Community-Based Management of Forests in Cambodia:

First Steps and Strategies for the Future. Phnom Penh, Cambodia.

Patterson, Gordon (1994). Local Peoples Participation in Reforestation: The Case

for Forest Land Tenure. Phnom Penh, Cambodia

Prak, Marina, Katlijn Demuynck et al (June 1995). Participatory Natural Resources

Management in Tonle Sap Region. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United
Nations.

Quarto, Alfredo (1992). Fishers Among the Mangroves. Cultural Survival Quarterly,
Winter 1992.

Rittibhonbhun, Niti and Pisit Chansanoh (1993). Community-Based Mangrove

Rehabilitation and Management: A Case Study in Sikao District, Trang Province,
Southern Thailand. Regional Development Dialogue, Vol. 14 No. 1, Spring 1993.

Singh, Naresh (1996). Community Adaptation and Sustainable Livelihoods: Working

Paper. International Institute for Sustainable Development.

Sorensen, Kim Worm (1997). Community-Based Resource Management

(NRM).European Commission Support Programme to the Environment Sector in
Cambodia (SPEC).

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Chapter 31

Culture and The Environment

Written by: Ruth Bottomley, ETAP

31.1 Introduction - Towards a Sustainable Development

During the past decade development aims in Cambodia have mainly focused on
economic growth with little or no consideration of the social, cultural or
environmental aspects. The idea that rapid economic growth would lead to a
gradual filtering down of benefits to the mass population has, in reality, resulted in
imbalance, widening the gap between rich and poor in many countries, causing
environmental degradation and the disintegration of social structures, cultures and
religious beliefs. As a result, people and cultures that have existed for thousands of
years in balance with the natural environment are disappearing along with the local
environments that supported them.

“For economists see development in terms of increasing currency and things, thus
fostering greed (lôba). Politicians see development in terms of increased power,
thus fostering ill-will (dôsha). Both then work together, hand in glove, and measure
the results in terms of quantity, thus fostering ignorance (môha) and completing the
Buddhist triad of evils.” 1

There is now a growing realization that development cannot be based on economic

aims alone. If the aim of development is to bring a better quality of life to each and
every person, it must take into consideration the diversity of humankind and attempt
to meet people’s needs on their own cultural terms. For development to be
sustainable, it must address cultural, social and environmental aspects in addition to
the economic concerns.

The image of a traditional Khmer house can be used to suggest that sustainable
development can only be achieved when the different aspects - the economic, the
environmental, the cultural and the social - are of equal importance and strength.
Each of the supporting house-poles has to be of equal length and strength for the
house to be stable and secure. If one pole is shorter or weaker than the others, the
house will tilt and the occupants will feel unstable and insecure. The same is true of
development. If economic development is the only consideration, the environmental,
social and cultural considerations will be weakened or damaged, resulting in a
development that is neither sustainable, nor meets the needs of the whole
population. For sustainable development to be successful, there needs to be more
interaction between science and the arts ,between nature and culture, between
technology and traditional knowledge.

1Cited in: Buddhism and Development, Sulak Sivaraksa 1980

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Fig. 31.1Two views of a traditional Khmer House - one ideal and one economically unstable house.

In Cambodia today, the economic pole is rapidly expanding at the expense of the
environment, culture and Cambodian society. This is a situation which needs to be re-
addressed to prevent the scenario of an unstable house, ill at ease with the surrounding
environment and unsuitable for habitation by the majority of the population.

In many societies, the role of custom, culture and religion is still meaningful. Life is seen not
only as the concern of people as related to other people or society, but as the concern of all
humankind as related to nature. This linkage is increasingly being recognized as a valuable
way of protecting the environment and natural resources and it is important that this is
acknowledged by the decision makers and governments when formulating their development
policies.

31.2 Definition of Culture

“Culture” is often a difficult concept to define.
♦ In its broadest sense it can be defined as the “human-made part of the
environment”. However, this definition is so wide-encompassing that it
becomes difficult to give it any real meaning.
♦ It can be defined as the primitive and ritualistic practices and superstitions of a
certain group or community of people which are unrelated to everyday modern
life. Viewed in this way, culture is believed to be a barrier to change, something
to be overcome or eliminated if people are to achieve progress.
♦ It can be defined as an understanding and appreciation of the arts such as
painting, music and literature. This view ignores the fact that these art forms
have always been, and will continue to be, influential in shaping the ideas, the
values and beliefs of a society.

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In reality, culture is a combination of these three definitions. It encompasses a

broader anthropological2 sense of a whole way of life of a particular group or
people, including their material, intellectual and spiritual beliefs and needs. It
comprises all the expressions of creativity, including language, science and
technology, architecture and arts. It includes whole systems of beliefs, values,
attitudes, customs, institutions and social relations. It shapes the way people think
and learn about the world (including themselves) and how they interact with it.
Culture defines how people relate to nature and their physical environment, and how
they express their attitudes to and beliefs in other forms of life, both animal and
plant. In other words, it is everything that forms the specific characteristics and
originality of a people or a community and which gives each of us our cultural
identity.

Culture is:
“The whole complex of distinctive spiritual, material, intellectual and emotional
features that characterize a society or social group. It includes not only the arts
and letters, but also modes of life, the fundamental rights of the human being, value
systems, traditions and beliefs.”
UNESCO World Conference on Cultural Policies, Mexico City, 1982 3

31.2.1 Intangible and Tangible Aspects of Culture

Culture consists of both visible (tangible) and invisible (intangible) elements.
♦ Tangible cultural resources are the visible, or material, surface of a culture.
These elements are often the most obvious aspect of a culture because we can
see, hear or touch them. Tangible cultural resources include man-made
structures, landscapes, objects and historic documents associated with or
representative of a society or group of people either in the past or the present. It
includes plants, animals and other natural resources culturally defined as food,
handicrafts, clothing and ceremonial items. It includes natural features such as
caves, mountain peaks, forests, village sites and trails which have cultural
significance as homes of deities, spirits, ancestors, and/or as places of worship
and ceremony.
♦ Intangible cultural resources are the deeper cultural meanings from which the
material culture originates. It includes values, traditional knowledge, customary
law systems and spiritual beliefs, things which are often considered “invisible”
to outsiders until expressed as tangible, or material culture. It includes the
family life, myth, folklore, ritual systems and social structures that are the
framework for everyday life.

2 Anthropological (adj.): Anthropology: study of mankind, especially of its origins, development,

customs and beliefs.
3 Cited in: Involving Culture - A Fieldworkers’ Guide to Culturally Sensitive Development, UNESCO
& Canadian International Development Agency, 1995
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Societies which have a rich wealth of tangible cultural resources, for example,
palaces, temples and sculptures, often consider societies which have few outward
signs of cultural wealth as having little or no culture. However, because intangible
cultural resources are usually deeply rooted in history and kept within the minds and
souls of people, such societies often have a particularly strong and adaptable
culture. It is the intangible cultural resources that make up the diversity of mankind
and influence the production of the material cultural resources, the visible symbols
of a particular group of people. Without the intangible cultural resources, there
would be no tangible cultural resources.

31.3 Culture and Environment - The Relationship

Cultures shape the environment. They decide the individual and community use of
natural resources. They determine who will manage those resources and how.
Pressures on the environment are the result of the individual choices that millions of
people make every day about the way they lead their lives, the demands they make
on resources, and the waste they generate.

Cultures are, in turn, shaped by the environment. Climate, natural setting and
available resources affect the ways of life of a population, influence the type and
extent of its interactions with other human groups, and influences its beliefs,
language and creativity. In a large part, historic events and cultural values are
shaped by humankind’s response to the environment.

The majority of the Cambodian population has long been involved with wet-rice
cultivation and, as a result, Khmer culture often reflects this reliance on and
closeness to the rice crop. For the Khmer people, the word to eat (nyham bai) is
synonymous 4 with eating rice. Many Khmer proverbs draw on images of rice to
convey traditional wisdom, for example, the following proverb which conveys the
message that respect should be shown to elders. In Khmer, the word aon is used to
describe this show of respect as well as to describe the bending over of a mature rice
stalk:

Ngoey skat aon dak kroap.

The immature rice stalk stands erect, while the mature stalk,
heavy with grain, bends over.

The environment has also given the indigenous 5 groups of Ratanakiri and
Mondulkiri, in the north-east of Cambodia, their cultural identity. Many villages are
named after the forest sites and streams close to their base, as well as after ancient

4 Synonymous: Having the same meaning

5 Indigenous: Belonging naturally. Indigenous people are generally considered to be the original
inhabitants of the land on which they have lived for centuries. There are seven main indigenous
groups in north-east Cambodia - Tampuan, Kreung, Jarai, Kavet, Kachok, Brao and Phnong.
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elders who were the first inhabitants of the settlement, and there is a wealth of local
mythology concerning certain areas surrounding villages. The Kreung from Choui
village in Ta Veng district of Ratanakiri province refer to themselves as “Water
Kreung” due to their proximity to the Sesan river, and to differentiate themselves
from the “Mountain Kreung” who live in the highland forests. The Phnong people
of Mondulkiri have strong links with the mountains surrounding their villages and
some communities make annual offerings to the spirits there. These practices are
related to their belief that originally people inhabited these mountains and the spirits
of their ancestors are still there.

Fig. 31.2Traditional basket (Khapa) weaving - use of local materials to make cultural artifact, Banlung,
Ratanakiri.

The interplay of cultures and environments has often been translated into the
creation of cultural landscapes, where intangible cultural beliefs are represented in a
tangible form, such as the temples of Angkor in Siem Reap province.

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31.3.1 Angkor and its Environment

The cultural monuments of Angkor are a clear example of how the Khmer people
have interacted with their environment over thousands of years. The locations of
the cities were based on religious ideology 6 and the availability of natural
resources. The Angkor temples were built of local sandstone from the Kulen
mountains, and the palaces and the homes of the common people were built of forest
materials. The temples were constructed to resemble mountains, or situated on
hills, symbolizing Mount Meru, the spiritual mountain at the center of the Hindu
universe. Reservoirs were built symbolizing the ocean surrounding the central
mountain. The bas-reliefs and carvings on the temples show the diversity of the
surrounding environment and the way in which the livelihoods of the local people
were drawn from the natural resources of the area.

The ancient Angkor kingdoms attempted to control the environmental resources for
their own benefit by changing the natural water cycle in the Siem Reap area to
develop an extensive irrigation system. Recent remote sensing 7 has suggested that
the ability of the Khmers to control their water supply became increasingly difficult.
It appears that the Angkor site rose gradually over the centuries, changing the
water regime and the availability of water for the cities. In addition, insufficient
maintenance of the canals, perhaps due to lack of available labor and increasing
encroachment by the Thai, resulted in the build up of sedimentation in the canals
themselves, slowing the course of water for irrigation. During the dry season the
water supplies became too low to fill the reservoirs. Scholars believe that this
eventual lack of water and the inability to maintain the intricate water works may
have been a major factor in the desertion of Angkor to a more secure and hospitable
location further south.

Even today, these historical activities have significant implications for the present
pattern of land use. Current agricultural practices on the Siem Reap flood-plain
still rely on the former hydrological system, and local people collect fuelwood,
vines, rattan and resins from the forested areas around the temple sites.

Cultures cannot survive if the environment on which they depend is seriously

degraded or destroyed. Over the centuries societies have developed complicated
systems to protect and manage their resources in order to survive. If the control
local people have over their natural resources is undermined or ignored, the cultural
values of their society will also be undermined and become meaningless.

6 Ideology: Ideas that form the basis of a belief system

7 See chapter on Remote Sensing
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 Culture and The Environment

Jarai man, Ratanakiri province

“The forest, the land around us is our life. We are nothing without our land, our
forest, our streams.” 8

31.3.2 Urban Environment

Over the last few decades, the Cambodian population has become an increasingly
urban one, with the population of urban centers rising at an annual rate of about
16% since 19949 . The move to cities and urban centers has opened up opportunities
for many people and is often considered a sign of development and modernization.
But, at the same time, the growth of the urban environment has brought new and
vastly increased damage to the natural environment and to the traditional patterns of
relationships between the Cambodian society and their physical environment. The
further people become removed from their heritage and cultural values, the less
awareness people have of the effect of the environment on their well-being, and of
the impact of their lifestyles on the environment.

Urbanism surrounds people with a human-made environment, cutting them off from
their natural environment. Consequently, urban societies tend to forget or neglect
environmental problems. The increasing affluence of people in urban centers
further removes them from their traditional cultural roots, and cars, motorbikes ,
“modern” housing and other consumer goods become the new, tangible cultural
values of society.

Natural resources are put under increasing pressure to provide for the industrial and
urban needs of the consumer society. Most “progressive” 10 nations are those which
maintain high growth rates of energy and natural resource consumption. It becomes
easy to believe that resources are virtually limitless and can be used at the flick of a
switch or turn of a tap. As a result, resources are often judged solely by their
economic worth rather than their life-support capacity. Trees, fish, minerals,
landscapes and even traditional societies become commodities that can be exploited
for exchange within the market economy. As a result, local systems of knowledge
developed over centuries are lost, cultural identities disintegrate and the natural
resource base is eroded for monetary gain, often of a temporary nature.

8 Cited in seminar proceedings Sustainable Develop

ment in Northeast Cambodia, 26t h Feb - March 2 nd 1996, Banlung, Ratanakiri Province, Cambodia
9 Information from the National Institute of Statistics 1996 survey
10 The terms “progressive” and “traditional” are used here to differentiate between societies which
appear to be embracing modern technology and science, and societies which continue to rely on
traditional practices and beliefs. “Traditional” in this context does not imply that such societies don’t
change and adapt over time.
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As resources become scarce, the market economy often stands in opposition to the
natural economy. The economically powerful do not mind paying a higher price for
a resource. In this way the rich continue to have access to resources which
previously nobody “owned”, and the poor bear the costs of the scarcity of a
declining resource and of related scarcities and pollution caused by over-
exploitation. Natural resources can be converted into money, but money cannot be
converted into nature’s ecological processes.

Monk, Rorkakong Commune, Moukampoul District, Kandal Province

“I emphasize that people living along the river depend on rice, fish, water and their
agricultural fields. They cannot live on electrical power without everything
mentioned above. Thus hydro-power can provide electricity to develop industries in
the rural areas, but if people cannot live in the same area, then electricity has no
meaning for us.” 11

31.3.3 The Concept of Value

It is often said that the roots of environmental destruction lie in treating natural
resources as “free” and not giving them “value”. “Value” in this sense refers to
monetary, commercial and market value. In economic terms, the “values” of a
forest, for example, include wood products such as timber, non-timber forest
products and tourism, all of which can have a price attached.

However, value doesn’t necessarily mean price. The environmental functions of the
forest, such as watershed protection and biological diversity, cannot be given a
direct monetary value, but they are essential in contributing to the well-being of the
earth and human welfare.

The indigenous people of north-eastern Cambodia who depend on the forests, land
and water for food security, recognize their worth in more than monetary terms.
Their relationship with the natural world is understood in both spiritual terms and
with respect to their subsistence livelihood. Nature does not just consist of objects
for consumption or economic profit, but is growing and directed by life-forces, often
referred to as “spirits”. Their beliefs involve practicing certain rituals to ensure that
any actions they take which impose on the environment are favorably received by
nature’s powerful forces. The complex social and religious systems which make up

11 Cited in: Mekong People - The Role of Local Communities in Hydro-Planning, NGO Forum,
November 1997

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 Culture and The Environment

hill tribe society have developed as a result of this inter-relationship between the
people and the natural resources on which they depend.

The reduction of all value to commercial value, and the removal of all spiritual,
ecological, cultural and social limits to exploitation is a major component of the
environmental crisis many countries are facing today.

Jarai Man, Ratanakiri Province

“This is the value of trees : preventing strong winds, bringing the rain and
providing a sanctuary for animals. If we cut them we have to replant them, or at
least replace them with trees which can bear fruit for us to eat.” 12

31.3.4 Modern Views of Traditional Societies

Growing urbanization and interaction with the larger world is increasing the
vulnerability of “traditional” societies or indigenous people. They are often left out
of the mainstream of economic development due to differences in language and
customs, remoteness from economic and political centers, and lack of formal
education, all of which result in their having marginal influence in decision making
processes. Their culture is seen as something that is unchanging and backwards.
This is a view often perpetuated by “progressive” societies who see these
“traditional” societies as an obstacle to development and national growth. If the
“progressive” society is the dominant force, which is often the case, the prevalent
belief tends to be that the only way to civilize these people and realize progress is
by absorbing them into the dominant society. The outcome of such policies is
usually a loss of cultural identity, as the use of their languages, traditions, art forms
and values are restricted, and an erosion of the natural resource base on which the
people depend.

During the 1960’s, a major goal of Cambodian state policy was to integrate the
indigenous people, renamed the “Khmer Loeu” (highland Khmer), of the north-
eastern provinces into the national society. Pressure was also put on Cambodian
Chams 13 to abandon their religious and cultural differences and become “khmer”.
Cultural diversity was regarded with suspicion by the government, and cultural
similarity was considered an essential ingredient to modern growth.

12 Cited in: Seminar Proceedings Sustainable Development in Northeast Cambodia, 26 th Feb - March
2 nd , Banlung, Ratanakiri Province, Cambodia
13 Cham: Cambodian Muslims descended from the ancient Kingdom of Champa or from Malaysia.
Cham communities usually speak Khmer, but use Malay in Arabic script or the ancient Cham script
for religious purposes
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“The Khmer Loeu know nothing of Buddhism, and worship the spirits of the earth,
the forests, mountains, and rivers. Their beliefs are being carefully respected, but
at the same time the teachers in the schools are trying to persuade the young people
to give up certain superstitious customs, which are proving very harmful to social
evolution.” 14
The resulting conflicts between industrializing societies and traditional societies
with respect to their different value systems often gives rise to misunderstanding,
false accusations and mistrust which hinders the development process further.

31.4 The Way Forward

♦ Re-assessment
The study of the interrelationships between culture and environment is important for
two major reasons:
1. The destruction of natural habitats is often accompanied by the degradation of
the ways of life, language, traditional knowledge, heritage and identity of the
communities who live in these habitats. This is often most noticeable today in
the case of indigenous peoples. In addition, the decline of certain ways of life,
such as agrarian cultures, is commonly accompanied by the destruction of the
habitat which supported them, and a loss of knowledge about this habitat.
2. There is now recognition that there exists a mutually dependent relationship
between biological diversity and cultural diversity, between habitats and
cultures, between ecosystems and cultural identity, and that this relationship is
a determining factor in ensuring sustainable human development.

There is an urgent need for progressive and developing societies to re-asses their
lifestyles and attitudes in relation to the environment and their utilization of
resources. The environmental crisis has demonstrated that development cannot be
based on economic values and technology alone. Values have to be re-thought.
People need to be more aware of the effect of the environment on their well being
and of the impact of their lifestyles on the environment. Sustainable, long-term and
equitable economic growth depends on more careful management of resources rather
than on intensive use.

The solution to this problem requires new means and approaches which emphasize
the importance and need for respecting different cultural systems of value and
knowledge. One result of the current environmental crisis is that over the last few
decades “progressive” nations have begun to reassess their cultural beliefs and look
for answers in traditional beliefs, religious teachings or the ideologies and practices
of indigenous people.

14 Extract from article: Mondulkiri and it’s Khmer Loeu, Cambodia Today, February/March 1962

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International assistance projects and government decision making bodies need to

better understand and incorporate all aspects of Cambodian culture into their
development efforts in order to provide greater benefits to the whole population and
to gain the support and co-operation of the local people. The challenge to people in
cities is to reconstruct the vital and dynamic relationship between the local
community, its environment and its cultural identity. This can partly be done
through acknowledging and learning from rural cultures or indigenous groups who
still have strong links with the natural world in which they work and live.

♦ The Need for Diversity

Ecology refers to the relation of plants and living creatures (including humans) to
each other and their surroundings. Just as nature has produced a variety of species
adapted to their environment, so humankind has developed varied cultures in
response to local conditions.

The term “ecology” was developed in the western world in the late 19 th century from
the Greek word Oikos meaning “home”. It implies a community of living things who
are bound together in their “home” place, or habitat. Living things adapt to suit
their habitat, and in the same way, human cultures have developed as a response to
their surrounding local environment.

Different cultures view differently the relationship between human beings, other
living creatures and nature. Just as the environment differs from country to country
and region to region, the cultures of the world differ due to their differing responses
to the varied environments in which they live. Neither culture nor environment can
be imagined in an identical, all-encompassing, global manner. A diverse and
dynamic cultural identity is a key to conserving the earth’s biodiversity and natural
resources. Human needs, interests and activities need to harmonize with those of
each particular environment in order to realize environmental and cultural survival.

Cambodia is a multi-cultural nation with a population consisting of urban and rural

Khmer, Vietnamese, Chinese, Cham, indigenous highlanders and other ethnic 15
groups. Lack of recognition or loss of this cultural diversity and the environment in
which it thrives, will limit the ways in which Cambodians as a whole can adapt to
modernization in a sustainable and fulfilling manner, and can create a divided and
unstable society.

♦ The Benefits of Traditional Resource Management

Cambodia has long been a rural society where people have managed natural
resources based on traditional methods. This is true of both the indigenous people in
the north-eastern provinces of Cambodia and the rural societies, consisting of

Ethnic: of a national, racial or tribal group that has common cultural traditions.
15

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farmers and fishermen, in the lowland plains of Cambodia. These groups have
acquired knowledge and skill through hands-on experience of living in close contact
with their environment, and their systems of resource management have developed
as a response to this.

When options for development are considered, it is essential to consider the

traditional land management systems and why they have proved successful over the
years. The system of swidden agriculture16 practiced by the highlanders in north-
eastern Cambodia is a system which has developed over centuries in response to the
local environment. It is a system which has to be sustainable in order to provide
food security to the people. Over-exploitation of resources will result in food
shortages at a later date. Similarly, the fishermen whose livelihood revolves around
the Tonle Sap or Mekong river have detailed knowledge of the species to be
harvested, the area they occupy, and the appropriate time for harvesting. Survival
of these groups has ensured that the resources they use are managed in a sustainable
way.

“Cambodia has survived thousands of years with the wetlands and with the natural
ebb and flow of the rivers. It is our history: people concentrate around the wetlands
and rivers for the fish, then grow rice and work the land. These systems are linked
together….if that link is cut, the ecosystem will be destroyed.” 17

It is people such as these who are often the first to realize the damage caused to the
environment by large-scale exploitation of resources and development projects,
because it is their livelihood that suffers the most quickly and to the greatest extent.
Cambodia’s plans for large scale agricultural development will cause enormous
changes for the rural people living off the land. Small farming communities will be
disrupted, and the livelihoods and associated cultural values will vanish. Similarly,
the destruction of Cambodian forests for economic gain is not only destroying
Cambodia’s ecological balance, but damaging the way of life of the rural
populations who receive little or no benefits from the “sale” of their common
natural resources. The relocation of communities from traditional homelands as a
result of large-scale economic development projects can also have a negative impact
on traditional resource management systems and environmental conservation.
Relocation schemes often require communities to be moved to unfamiliar areas and
to re-establish their livelihood practices with little or no knowledge of the local
environment. Once moved from traditional homelands, communities tend to lose
their sense of affinity with their surrounding environment and their customary
observances become disrupted, all of which can result in unsustainable resource
management practices. In Sambor district, Kratie province, villagers have expressed

16 See chapter on Cambodia’s Environment and the Highland People

17 Touch Seang Tana, Mekong River Commission Project, cited in: Watershed, Vol. 2, No. 2, Nov
1996 - Feb 1997
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concern about the flooding of their traditional homelands if the construction of a

proposed hydro-electric dam goes ahead. Wat Sor Sor Moui Roy, the Temple of
One Hundred Columns, and an ancient ancestral burial ground both lie within the
potential reservoir area. In addition, the villagers are worried about social problems
which may arise from the need to find new land or jobs, or rebuilding their
businesses, if they are moved from their homeland.

Sambor Resident
“If they build the dam and the district floods, we will have lost everything. This is
our original homeland. The villagers don’t want to move, even if they are given
money.” 18

For the preservation of the natural environment it is essential that the traditional
resource systems and cultural values of these societies are recognized. These
communities need to retain their rights to make informed choices about how they
will develop and adapt their way of life to changing circumstances.

♦ Learning from Traditional Environmental Knowledge

For thousands of years, rural and indigenous people around the world have acquired,
refined and used knowledge of their local environment to sustain themselves and to
maintain their cultural identity. This includes a knowledge of biodiversity to
provide for food, medicines, handicrafts and technology; soil and water source
knowledge; agriculture knowledge and skills; conservation and sustainability
knowledge including quite strict laws for maintaining the stability of the system.
Forests play an important role for the rural Khmer, and have been, and remain,
important as a retreat in times of need or unrest. Forests are often referred to as
being like their “markets” and destroying them would mean destroying their
livelihood and stability. The biodiversity of the land on which they live is an active
ingredient in the diversity of their cultures. In turn, their cultural beliefs have
helped to protect the environment and led to wise resource management.

The indigenous groups in the north-eastern provinces of Ratanakiri and Mondulkiri

spend much of their time in or around the forest environment, and as a result have
accumulated a wealth of knowledge about their local resources; they know where
these resources are, the different uses of each plant or tree, and when they can
collect these resources. They also know how much they can use of each resource
and what the limits are. They are renowned for their knowledge of forest terrain and
are known to have a detailed classification system of the trees, plants and other
elements of their environment which does not exist in any language other than their
own. Much of this knowledge has been passed down through the generations, which
also helps to explain why many groups continue to revere their ancestors.

Cited in: People of the River: Sambor and Beyond, Phnom Penh Post, March 8 t h - 21s t, 1996
18

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Ancestors, with their wisdom and knowledge based on past success or failure,
continue to be a directing force in modern life.

Environmentalists now realize that indigenous ecological knowledge and traditional

natural resource management practices offer solutions founded on generations of
experimentation and observation that are also embedded in local systems of value
and meaning. The industrial world is increasingly discovering that traditional
medicines, fertilizers and insecticides are often more beneficial to the environment,
human health and well-being, and sustainability than chemical products. Research
has been undertaken to catalogue indigenous information so that it can be compared
from one region and one culture to other regions and other cultures, and, in addition,
so that it can be used to support policies for sustainable development in areas with
valuable ecosystems.

The knowledge system of any culture is constantly changing through the absorption
of “outside” knowledge and the combining of it with existing knowledge. Both the
modern technological approach and the indigenous approach have their strengths
and limitations in solving environmental problems and both can become inseparably
inter-linked. Future development would be more beneficial to a greater proportion of
society and the environment, if both modern and existing knowledge systems were
accepted and integrated. A valuable exchange can occur where new technologies
and knowledge are combined with and modified by traditional knowledge and
practices.

♦ Recognizing Rural and Indigenous Spiritual Ideology

An intangible aspect of the ecological knowledge of many rural and indigenous
groups in Cambodia is the spiritual ideology that governs the interaction between
the human, natural and spiritual worlds. The need to live in harmony with their
natural environment is not only a need but a sacred duty. This spiritual ideology is
often referred to as “animism” and can include ancestor worship. The whole of the
natural world including trees, mountains, forests, animals and even land and water,
are not just objects for consumption or economic profit, but are growing and
directed by invisible life-forces, often referred to as “spirits”, or Neak Ta (“ancient
ones”), in the Khmer language. These spirits have to be respected and revered as
they are believed by the local people to have the power to influence the health, well-
being and prosperity of villages. The fundamental principle behind these beliefs is
that the land and its resources should be tended for the benefit of future generations.
Environmental events are often perceived to be caused or influenced by spiritual
forces. Often these events are the result of some human action, especially a
spiritual offense, that alienates a part of the environment.

Buddhism also promotes the existence of folk deities through the popular Buddhist
legends and folk tales which, over the centuries, have been employed to illustrate
the meaning of a particular word or passage. Such deities still play a large part in

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the social and material existence of rural and, to a certain extent, urban Cambodians.
A forestry campaign during the 1950s and 1960s used the image of a tree spirit, or
Thevada, to encourage people to respect the forest and to abandon destructive
activities.

Fig. 31.3 Poster from Cambodia Today, January 1951 No. 1

These ideas recognize that man is not the dominant living being in the universe.
The whole environment has a reason for being and together maintains an intricate
balance to ensure the continued survival of life. By destroying the basic harmony
between human beings and ecology, of which they are a part, leads to disasters.
Ritual practices are essential components for establishing favorable relations
between human beings and their environment.

Such spiritual explanations often conceal functional ecological concerns and

conservation strategies. The headman of a village in Kandal province believes that
the high level of deaths and illness in his community has been a result of the spirits
becoming angry because a large number of trees were cut down during the Pol Pot
era. The area is now being reforested and it has been forbidden to clear the land for
the purpose of building. Similarly, the primary forest areas surrounding villages in
Ratanakiri province are believed to be inhabited by forest spirits and it is forbidden
for these areas to be cut. To do so would anger the spirits, resulting in sickness or
even the death of individuals responsible. Ancestral burial sites are also often
considered sacred areas which villagers will leave untouched for fear of displeasing
the spirits of their ancestors.

Because these community-based sacred sites and “spirit forests” are taboo to human
interference, they provide an important contribution to the conservation of
biological diversity. Traditional beliefs and cultural values are often more powerful
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agents for environmental conservation than legally designated areas such as national
parks or nature reserves. The designation of national parks for the conservation of
the environment is primarily a western concept, which may not always be
appropriate to non-European settings. If environmental conservation is based on
traditional cultural beliefs and easily understood by the village communities, there
is a higher chance of preserving the environment for future generations, in addition
to giving a more visible and concrete aspect to these cultural resources.

Fig. 31.4 Tampuan burial site, Ka Chom, Vuensai District, Ratanakiri province.

However, such beliefs can easily be destroyed by the intrusion of outsiders who
have little understanding of the local customs. Villagers in Ratanakiri province
have admitted to cutting trees in areas where it was previously forbidden due to the
spirits having become weakened when outsiders entered these areas to exploit the
natural resources. There needs to be greater respect and recognition for the beliefs
of the highlanders to both preserve the natural environment and maintain the
traditional cultural beliefs and sustainable resource management practices of the
local communities.

♦ Restoring Environmental Meaning to Cambodia’s Tangible Cultural

Resources
The Tonle Sap lake, together with the flooded forest surrounding it, is the heart of
Cambodia’s fisheries resources and accounts for 60% of inland fish production. It is
the largest freshwater lake in South-east Asia and is an eco-system of outstanding
significance. But more than this, the lake is at the heart of Cambodian culture and
civilization. For centuries the Cambodian people have lived in close proximity to
the lake from which they have derived their daily sustenance. Rural farmers have
lived their lives around the dry and rainy seasons of the agricultural cycle. Much of

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the Cambodian tangible cultural resources can be seen to reflect this close
relationship with the environment which has sustained the lives of the population for
centuries. The Naga (Niek), a popular Buddhist image in Khmer art and
architecture, can be seen to express this close relationship the Khmer people have
with the natural world. Mythical snake-like beings, Naga are said to dwell both in
the earth and in water, serving as protective guardians. Naga also appear in many
Cambodian folk tales, demonstrating the inter-woveness of Cambodian Buddhism
with the local traditional beliefs of rural communities.

The major festivals of the Cambodian calendar celebrate different stages of the
agrarian cycle, reinforcing the importance of the land and water resources to the
people. The Bon Om Tuk (the Water Festival) ushers in the fishing season as well as
marking the reversal of the current in the Tonle Sap river. Bonn Chroat Preah
Nongkoal (the Royal Ploughing Ceremony) is the first of the traditional agrarian
festivals and marks the start of the ploughing season. The many traditional folk
dances also reflect the Khmer people’s relations with nature. Dances relate to
traditional work such as fishing and farming and they often take place at Khmer
New Year, a time of rest between the two agrarian cycles. This resting period
corresponds to a time of social renewal when fundamental values are revitalized and
reinforced. The Leng Trot dance originates from the north-western provinces of
Siem Reap, Battambang and Pursat. Dancers carry a wooden kancha , or pole,
covered in bells, representing a tree with fruits. Two dancers ride astride wooden
stags, a symbol of life, chased by luckless hunters armed with bows and arrows.
The dance is again performed at Khmer New Year and symbolizes the idea that
human beings, animals and plants have another chance to reconcile and come back
together to live in peace. Traditional games often make use of available natural
resources such as the angkunh, a fruit that grows on trees found in the provinces of
Stung Treng and Kratie. When ripe, the fruit has a hard skin and turns the color of
mahogany, allowing it to be thrown like a pebble. The game is played by teenagers
during the Khmer New Year.

By re-emphasizing the environmental values surrounding these traditional festivals,

games and folk arts through school texts and mass media, it is possible to raise
public awareness of the importance of these environmental resources, in addition to
reviving interest and research into these cultural practices.

The promotion in Thailand of the country’s former name of Siam (meaning dark
green) has urged communities and decision makers to acknowledge the vast
devastation of Thailand’s forests and natural environment in recent years.
Similarly, the names of several Cambodian provinces recall the environmental
features of that particular province, and can serve as a reminder as to the importance
of these natural resources.

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Sambor, from the Pali word Sampheakboreak, means plentiful or bountiful. The
name refers to the bountiful natural resources of the area - the flooded forests, the
fish spawning grounds, the bird life and the Irrawaddy dolphins - NOT to the
possible 3,300 megawatts of electricity which could be generated by the damming of
the Mekong at Sambor.

♦ The Role of Religion in Raising Environmental Awareness

Buddhist traditions established principles of ecological harmony centuries ago by
acknowledging the interdependence of nature and rejecting the notion of humankind
as the exclusive center of life and existence. Their traditions built a spiritual,
intellectual and cultural foundation for an environmentally friendly value system
and a balanced life style. Buddhism teaches people that they have a moral
responsibility to protect the environment as the concept of rebirth and life after birth
assumes that each being is related to us. The destruction of the environment and life
depending upon it are seen as results of ignorance, greed and disregard for the
richness of all living things. As a belief system and a way of life, Buddhism can
help to promote traditional community values and a greater identification with the
natural world.

Theravada Buddhism, the official religion of Cambodia, arrived in Cambodia in the

11 t h century and became the dominant belief system by the 14 th century. Unlike the
court-based religions of Brahmanism and Mahayana Buddhism which dominated the
Angkor period, Theravada Buddhism was a monastic religion which was to have a
greater impact on Khmer society, reaching even to the lowest levels.

The Buddhist Sangha (Buddhist community), in addition to their religious and

spiritual role, have long served as an educational and social service within Khmer
society. The Wats, many of which housed libraries, became the centers for
preserving and transmitting the Khmer language and culture. They served to
integrate the young into their own society and culture, and assisted people to
improve the quality of their daily lives through principles of mutual aid and self-
reliance. Consequently each village has traditionally been centered physically,
socially, culturally and spiritually around the Wat.

In recent years NGOs19 and international development organizations have

increasingly recognized the potential role of the Sangha in the promotion of
initiatives for the broader needs of the community. Buddhist monks and nuns have
begun to play an active role in society and its problems. “Socially engaged
Buddhism” seeks to help people realize both their spiritual and practical needs.
Much of this work has been developed in Thailand, but there are many arguments
for it’s appropriateness and compatibility for assisting community development in

19 NGO: Non-governmental organisation

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Cambodia. Monks and nuns can play an important part in becoming positive role
models in Khmer society in fields such as environmental awareness.

In Thailand, “Ecology monks” have developed initiatives to raise awareness of the

role of Buddhism in environmental protection. Activities such as tree ordination
whereby saffron robes are tied around trees have stressed the importance of logging
restrictions in a culturally appropriate fashion. Secured forest areas surrounding
many Wats may also serve as models of protection to local communities. In
Cambodia, the annual Dhammayietra walks for peace and reconciliation are a clear
statement that the Buddhist Sangha has an important role to play in the development
process and in environmental protection. There have been six Dhammayietra walks
since 1992, and tree planting along the route has been a common feature of each.
The Dhammayietras, with simple acts of walking, listening, water blessings and
messages of peace and reconciliation, have brought hope and inspiration to the
communities they have passed through.

Today in Cambodia, various Buddhist groups are forming with the intention of
raising environmental awareness. Buddhism for Development, based in Battambang
and Banteay Meanchey provinces, has been particularly significant in the
development of foundations for socially engaged Buddhism, including
environmental awareness. The Buddhist Development Association and Supporting
the Environment, based in Pursat, has the main objective of educating and training
local people to understand Buddhist morals, while being involved in the practical
work of conserving the environment. The Venerable Nhem Kim Teng formed the
Shante Sena (Peace Army) in Svay Rieng province to undertake environmental
preservation activities, such as the establishment of community forests. There are
indications that the Sangha will play an increasingly significant role in
environmental initiatives in Cambodia, as a two-year programme of environmental
education and training for Buddhist monks and nuns has recently been developed by
the UNDP Environmental Technical Advisory Programme (ETAP).

♦ The Role of Culture in Environmental Education

Environmental education through the means of arts and culture uses traditional
methods of passing on information and knowledge. In traditional societies
information was stored and disseminated through songs, stories, ceremonies and
theater. Using such methods in the present day is equally valid for reaching
communities with little or no formal education, or in areas where there is no access
to modern means of communication such as TV and radio. Disseminating
information through the familiar cultural modes of drama, song or shadow plays,
often proves successful because the technique is one that is familiar to local
communities, even if the message is a new one. There is also the added advantage
of such educational techniques helping to revitalize traditional arts. Equally, the
presentation of environmental issues through visual media such as painting,

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photography or video can create a greater and longer-lasting impact on the intended
audience than the written word.

Performing arts have already been used successfully in Cambodia to promote health-
related issues such as AIDS awareness, and it seems that there are many
opportunities for environmental education to be developed through cultural forms,
for example shadow theater or folk dances. This type of non-formal education helps
to build the capacity of communities to address and solve problems related to their
local environment, changing the learning process to focus directly on the people in
order to build a generation of community members aware of environmental issues.

Fig. 31.5 Dhammayietra - illustration by Am Satiya, 1997

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31.5 Conclusion
Culture can therefore be seen to play an increasing role in raising environmental
awareness and in helping to conserve the world’s natural resources. Particularly in
Cambodia, where the recent history of violence and conflict has resulted in a general
feeling of insecurity and an attitude of looking after ones-self, a renewed respect for
the positive aspects of Cambodian culture, knowledge and experience should
contribute towards a restoration of identity, dignity and self-esteem which, in turn,
will lead to a greater sense of national pride and a respect for Cambodia’s
environment.

Future development decisions need to be based on all the people having access to
information, skills and resources which enable them to make free and reasoned
choices. The focus of economic policies ought not to be purely on monetary values,
but also on the improvement of quality of life indicators, which are reflected in the
different cultures and the eco-systems in which these cultures thrive. If
development is based on those cultural elements that made people strong in the past,
and adapted them to modern times and needs, it would create a self-developing
group of motivated people.

A nostalgic image of Cambodian life prior to the war torn 1970s is neither helpful or
constructive in tackling the environmental issues in Cambodia today, but a sense of
cultural identity helps to place people in relation to their environment and realize
the impact the destruction of the environment will have on their lives in the short
and long term. Cultural features have persisted in Cambodia despite severe civil
turmoil, while others have been altered or re-created over the passage of time. There
is a need to utilize these traditional forms in new ways in order to re-establish and
reinforce their validity, and promote a truly Cambodian framework for development.

Recommended Further Reading

Alting, Dr. Leo von Geusau, The Promotion and Safeguarding of Cultural Heritage
of Minority Groups in the Mekong Quadrangle Area (SEAMP - CD RDI, Chiang
Mai, Thailand. no date)

Baird, Ian and Monsiri, Tubtim, Kaneungnit , The Kavet and the Kreung -
Observations of Livelihoods and Natural Resources in two Highlander Villages,
Ratanakiri Province, Cambodia (Novib/Oxfam UKI, August 1996)

Barton, Michael, Land and Culture: Heritage of the Highlanders (Report for IDRC
RMPR Project, July 1997)

Cambodia Today, January 1959 and Feb/March 1962

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Environment: ETAP Reference Guide Book

Carmen, Raff, Autonomous Development - Humanising the Landscape (Zed Books

Ltd, London 1996)

Centre for Advanced Study, Cambodia Report: Ethnic Groups in Cambodia (July
1996) and Cambodia Report: Buddhism in Cambodia (Mar - Apr 1996)

Colm, Sara and Ker, Munthit, Sustainable Development in North-east Cambodia -

Seminar Proceedings, 26 February - 2 March 1996 (IMC, MRD, IDRC,
UNDP/CARERE, Oxfam UKI/Novib, CIDSE, Health Unlimited, UNESCO, 1996)

Ebihara, May. M; Mortland, Carol A.; Ledgerwood, Judy (Eds), Cambodian Culture
Since 1975 - Homeland and Exile , (Cornell University Press, 1994)

Emerson, Bridget, Mekong People - The Role of Local Communities in Hydro-

Planning (NGO Forum on Cambodia, Nov 1997)

International Centre for Ethnic Studies, Minorities in Cambodia (Minority Rights

Group 1995)

Johnson, Martha (ed), Lore: Capturing Traditional Environmental Knowledge

(Dene Cultural Institute and the International Development Research Centre, 1992)

Ovesen, Jan; Trankell, Ing-Britt; Öjendal, Joakim, When Every Hosehold is an

Island - Social Organisation and Power Structures in Rural Cambodia (Uppsala
Research Reports in Cultural Anthropology, Sweden, 1996)

Thung, Heng L., Geohydrology and the Decline of Angkor (Cambodia Integrated
Resources Information Center, No date)

UNEP Our Planet - Culture Values and the Environment (United Nations
Environment Programme Magazine for Sustainable Development, Vol. 8, No. 2,
1996)

UNESCO, Nature Resources (No. 3, Vol. 31, 1995 and No. 1, Vol. 32, 1996)

UNESCO, Involving Culture - A Fieldworkers Guide to Culturally Sensitive

Development (UNESCO and the Canadian International Development Agency,
1995)

World Commission on Culture and Development, Our Creative Diversity

(UNESCO, 1995)

World Decade for Cultural Development 1988-1997, Culture Education and Work
(UNESCO, 1993), and Culture and Agriculture (UNESCO, 1996)

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Chapter 32

Cambodia’s Environment and The Highland People

Written by: Ruth Bottomley, ETAP

32.1 Introduction
This chapter looks at the traditional land management practices of the highland people in the
north-eastern provinces of Cambodia and the development pressures which are threatening
both the livelihoods of the local people and the natural environment in which they live. A
low population density, undulating hills and mountains, rivers and waterfalls, rich volcanic
soils and areas of dense forest characterize the provinces of Mondulkiri and Ratanakiri. The
forests, land and water play a crucial role in meeting the needs of the local people, but these
resources are rapidly coming under threat from economic development plans. Ratanakiri is
the province at the forefront of these changes, and it is here that most of the current research
has been carried out into the traditional livelihoods of the people, the pressures which are
imposing on their way of life, and the possible solutions to the crisis they are now facing.

32.1.2 The Physical Environment of Ratanakiri

Ratanakiri is a unique province quite distinct from the lowland provinces of the Mekong
Delta. Natural forest cover is estimated to be about 70-80%. This varies from the dense
forest in the northern reaches, which are still rich in wildlife, to the drier and more sparse
forest found in the South-West.

An Agriculture Sector Study was carried out by CARERE in December 1995 in which
Ratanakiri province was classified according to four Agro-ecological zones:

Agro- Central Plateau Lowland Hilly region Mountainous

Ecological Plains and
Zone: Rivers
Environmental Rolling hills Flat Hills with steep High mountains
Features: and rich lowlands slopes. Red and Dense
volcanic soil. grey forest soil. evergreen
Regenerated Degraded Some rocky With
forest and some forest areas substantial
denser forest Dense forest Wildlife
already logged with some
of commercial wildlife
wood

32.2 The Indigenous People

The term “minorities” is often used to describe the hill tribes who inhabit the provinces of
Mondulkiri and Ratanakiri, but these “minority” groups actually form the majority of the
population in these provinces. Approximately 85% of the total population of Ratanakiri
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belongs to ethnic minorities1 . For this reason, it is more appropriate to use the term
“indigenous” people, i.e., the people who can be regarded as the original inhabitants of the
area. It is thought there are still at least twelve highland minorities throughout Cambodia
whose settlement predates the Angkor period by centuries and who may be thought of as the
“original” inhabitants.

Fig. 32.1 Map of Ethnic Groups in North-eastern Cambodia [Diffloth 1992 ]

The majority of the indigenous population in Ratanakiri remain based in their traditional
forest environment, living according to their distinctive belief systems, and cultivating land
much as they have done for centuries. Each indigenous ethnic group has a different language
and belief system, and although most communities clearly belong to one indigenous ethnic

1
The indigenous population of Ratanakiri consists of a total of seven different ethnic groups: Tampuan, Jarai,
Kreung, Kachok, Brao, Kavet and Phnong.

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group, their social organization, agricultural activities, belief about local spirits, and
relationship with and use of the natural environment varies from community to community.
The Tampuan for example, have quite different forms of family and village organization
depending on which geographic location they inhabit. However, it is true to say that most of
the highlanders subsist on a rotational agriculture system, supplemented by hunting, fishing
and gathering forest products.

Environment and Religion

For centuries the highlanders have depended on their natural environment for survival. The
complex social and religious systems, which make up hill tribe society, have developed as a
result of this inter-relationship between the people and the natural environment. Spiritually
they demonstrate their respect for the natural environment through their traditional belief
system. Spirits are thought to inhabit the surrounding environment. They are believed to
have the power to influence many aspects of people’s lives, from the quality of the rice
harvest to the health and well being of the villagers. Villagers will perform ceremonies before
entering or using resources in certain areas to ensure that any actions they take that impose
upon the natural environment will be favorably acknowledged by nature’s powerful forces.
Disrespect for these forces can result in personal or collective punishment such as illness or a
poor harvest.

32.2.1 A Static Society?

It is easy to think that the indigenous communities live in a forgotten time, undisturbed by
outside influences, and with customs and traditions, which are irrelevant to the modern world.
Nothing could be further from the truth. In common with the lowland Khmer, the indigenous
communities have experienced the impact of many changes in their surrounding environment,
often involving war, conflict and cultural repression. During the 1950s and 1960s there was a
drive to relocate many of the hill tribes and to integrate them into mainstream Khmer society.
In the early 1970s, they suffered from the American bombing campaigns, and during the Pol
Pot regime were forced to farm lowland paddy rice and speak lowland Khmer. By re-
establishing themselves on their traditional lands they have shown remarkable strength. The
fact that they have retained much of their traditional values and way of life does not
necessarily imply that there is a lack of responsiveness to change, but can be seen to reflect
their long standing independence and self-sufficiency.

32.2.2 The Subsistence Economy

The indigenous people in North-East Cambodia live largely within the limits of their
own local eco-system, with two systems of major importance to their subsistence2
economy:
1. The swidden agriculture system
2. The forest ecosystem

2
Subsistence: the provision by a family or community of enough food and materials on which to survive
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Swidden Agriculture
Swidden agriculture (also known as shifting cultivation or slash and burn farming) is the
foundation of the indigenous peoples’ livelihood, and is the main cultivation practice in the
region. Due to resettlement schemes over the last fifty years, some groups in the lowland
areas of the province now cultivate some paddy rice. However, the majority of villagers who
do cultivate lowland rice continue to maintain swidden fields where they farm upland rice and
other crops as a form of food security. The swidden system is rain-fed in nature in contrast to
the irrigated paddy systems of lowland Cambodia.

The central feature of swidden agriculture is the chamkar, a field or garden cut from the
forest. In the dry season (March - April), villagers clear swidden plots by drying and burning
the timber and underbush. Villagers use hand tools in clearing and preparing the land. Areas
cleared are usually secondary forest or forest fallows. Old-growth forest is usually not cut for
swidden plots except when secondary forest is lacking.

Chamkars typically surround a village, and plots may be up to four or five kilometers away.
Chamkars are cultivated for between one and five years, depending on soil quality, after
which they are abandoned in order to regain their fertility before being used again. Villagers
then shift their farming sites to other fields that have regained their fertility or have never
been cut. Old sites can be re-cultivated after a fallow 3 period of at least seven to ten years.
The interval is determined by the extent of tree re-growth, soil fertility and the absence of
weeds. Fallow periods, when the forest can regenerate, are essential for maintaining the soil
fertility and sustainability of this system.

A farmer may have eight or ten different sites in his lifetime, with one plot being between one
and four hectares in size. If too much land is cut it becomes difficult to clear and farm, and if
too little is cultivated food shortages could arise. The life of the chamkar and fallow periods
depends on soil type, with the richer volcanic soils being cultivated for a longer period than
the poorer quality white soils.

Very few crops are grown inside the village as it is difficult to protect them from the pigs,
chickens and cattle which are usually allowed to roam free. Most villagers move to the
chamkars during the rainy season which is the busiest work period of the year. A field hut is
constructed to serve as a granary and a resting and working place for family members.

Swidden plots are planted at the beginning of the rainy season using sharp sticks to sow the
seeds. Rice is the central or staple crop of the swidden system, and in each chamkar between
three to seven different varieties of rice, usually upland rice, are grown. A wide variety of
other crops are grown for food security, including vegetables (sesame and legumes 4 ), root
crops, gourds, fruit (bananas) and non-food crops like tobacco and cotton. The rice seeds are
mixed with the other seeds in order to cultivate crops of different heights. This method helps

3
Fallow: land left unplanted to restore its fertility
4
Legume: type of plant that has its seeds in pods, e.g. the bean
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to maintain a complete cover of vegetation on the land, which prevents soil erosion, retains
moisture during dry periods and discourages the growth of grasses. Herbs are generally
planted near the field house as they are often needed for cooking. Planting takes a lot of
thought and experience, and is based on sound reasoning and good understanding of the
natural conditions. The fields are harvested by hand from October to December. Household
members eat most of the crops but some are also occasionally sold outside the village.

Fig. 32.2 Chamkar Farm, O’Chum District, Ratanakiri

♦ The Forest Ecosystem

The forest ecosystem is only second in importance to the swidden system. The
chamkar cannot provide for all the needs of the communities, and forest resources
are essential to those practicing swidden agriculture. Village collection forests are
usually old-growth forests, often outside the village communal boundaries and often
up to one or two days walk from the village.

Communities rely on non-timber forest products (NTFPs) to meet their housing and
equipment needs and to supplement their daily diet. Forest foods, such as herbs,
honey, leaves, tubers and fruits, are collected, introducing important sources of
proteins and minerals into the local diet. Wild animals, for example squirrels, birds
and rodents, are another important source of protein, and are hunted by traditional
methods such as bow and arrow, or by wooden traps triggered by trip-lines.

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Fig. 32.3 Bamboo waterpipe, gourd water bottles, khapa (rattan basket) and natural loufa;
chamkar, Ta Pean Forest, O’Chum District, Ratanakiri

Forest materials, in particular bamboo and rattan, are important for the construction of houses,
water pipes, animal and fish traps, baskets, cooking equipment, mats and fencing. In this way
the forests have provided for generations of people, particularly in times of food scarcity, and
have sometimes been referred to as the “markets” of the village.

32.2.3 Land Ownership

The indigenous people of Cambodia’s north-east maintain agricultural land and other natural
resources required for food security under the community management system of
“commons”5 . This system is radically different from conventional privatized land-ownership.
Under the system of commons, the agricultural land is “owned” by a village community
rather than by individuals. Most highlanders have a clear sense of the physical extent of
village land as boundaries, often identified through natural landmarks such as local forests,
mountains or streams, which have been developed over generations. Only members of the
village have the right to cultivate within the communal boundaries, and there are often strict
taboos or spiritual beliefs against clearing swidden plots within another village’s cultivation
boundaries. Specific boundaries between villages are not required unless the cultivation areas
from one village meet another. Such boundaries are negotiated by elders from neighboring
villages and are validated by sacrifices. Village sites may move, sometimes due to sickness

5
Commons: Common areas for resource use, owned and managed by the community for the benefit of
the community. The farming land of the indigenous people can be further categorised as a “common
property resource”. This describes resources which are co-owned by a group which has mutual rights
and obligations over the resource, including the right to exclude non-members from rights to the land
or resource. The collection forests tend to be an “open access resource” which has no designated
owners and is used by several communities.
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or bad omens, but only within the communal village boundaries. If a village splits due to
population increase or conflict among elders, the breakaway group will look for new land.
The collection forests are considered to be a common resource, accessible to all, and several
villages may use the same forest area. The rules and taboos regarding the use of the forest
often differ between villages using the same area.

32.3.4 An Unsustainable Livelihood?

Swidden agriculture is often considered by governments, lowland farmers and some
environmentalists to be highly destructive of the environment. It is frequently referred to by
the negative term “slash and burn”, and is blamed for soil erosion, loss of plant nutrients,
flooding and droughts, loss of wildlife habitat and decreased agricultural productivity. Some
provincial officials have promoted the view that highlanders could obtain a better standard of
living if they switched from swidden agriculture to paddy rice cultivation, or found
employment within industrial plantations. This negative image of swidden agriculture began
in the colonial period and continues today. Government pressure exists at central, provincial
and district levels for highlanders to be relocated in order to practice paddy in the lowlands.

Fig. 32.4 Area of land cleared for swidden chamkar, Ta Pean Forest, O’Chum District

“This practice (of felling trees, burning the ground and then planting) rapidly leads to the
deterioration and then to the sterilization of the soil. Especially in the upper region of the
province, vast spaces are unsuitable for any form of cultivation, and every year the area of
arable land is further reduced. The Royal Government is at present considering an overall
economic programme, which will put an end to this disastrous use of land”; extract from an
article Mondulkiri and its Khmer Loeu Cambodia Today, No. 43, Feb/March 1962

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However, current research clearly indicates that the swidden agriculture system is perfectly
sustainable and is often based upon a sophisticated knowledge of the environment. Where
population density remains low and there is sufficient land for forest re-generation, swidden
agriculture can actually contribute to the protection of watersheds, forest cover and biological
diversity. The traditional agricultural system and cultivation of diverse crop species actually
resemble the varied forest ecosystem. In addition, the indigenous people have been able to
achieve a high level of food security with only minor shortages reported in the period before
the new rice is harvested.

The communal land ownership system is common to all the indigenous groups in Ratanakiri,
in addition to many of the ethnic groups in neighboring countries. Recognizing the boundaries
between communal agricultural lands has been practiced for generations and is important for
regulating the swidden cycle and ensuring sustainability.

The highlanders use of forests is mainly for subsistence needs. Their traditional collection and
hunting methods are often far more sustainable and less damaging to the environment than
more modern techniques. Crossbows and fishing nets have less environmental impact than
explosives and guns. The local communities have demonstrated they have the capability and
knowledge to sustainably manage their customary forests, while protecting the environmental
stability of these areas.

In terms of the economic development of Ratanakiri province, various environmental

organizations working in Cambodia favor the preservation of the collection forests of the
indigenous people. The non-timber forest products (NTFPs) collected by the villagers, are
often considered to be of low economic value. However a recent economic study has
demonstrated that the reverse is true. If managed wisely, forest land has the capacity to
provide a continuous stream of income and subsistence products, while supporting other
economic activities (such as fisheries and agriculture) through the ecological services it
provides. The NTFPs are not only a vital source of subsistence, but provide an important
natural mechanism for alleviating poverty without government investment in the form of
subsidies.

32.2.5 The Value of Non-Timber Forest Products

Ta Pean Forest, Poey Commune, O’Chum District, Ratanakiri Province

A recent study in Ratanakiri by the Ministry of Environment and the Economy and
Environment Program for Southeast Asia (EEPSEA) compared the economic
benefits of the traditional collection of non-timber forest products by the indigenous
people, with the benefits of commercial timber harvesting. The study site, Ta Pean
forest, is currently under concession to Macro Panin, an Indonesian logging
company. However, it is used extensively for traditional purposes by at least five

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villages; acts as an important watershed; is a prime location for malva nuts6 ; has
ecotourism potential; and contains trees of commercial value.

Forest inventories and household surveys focusing on the value of NTFPs were
conducted over an eighteen month period. The results show that, rather than being
of low economic value, the forest products in Ta Pean have an annual economic
value that may be as high as US$3,922 per hectare of forest. If this forest were
harvested for timber it would have a value of no more than US$1,697 per hectare
(present value over 90 years).

Thus the economic value of the sustainable harvesting of Non-Timber Forest

Products in Ta Pean forest is higher than the economic value of commercial logging.

In conclusion:
∗ in certain cases the economic value of NTFPs is more important than expected
commercial logging benefits
∗ the forest is an essential part of the environment and rich cultural heritage of the
area
∗ the NTFPs are vitally important to the livelihood of the indigenous people
∗ current land use allocation decisions are being made to the detriment of the
indigenous people and the local environment

Information cited in:

An Economic Analysis of Tropical Forest Land Use Options, Ratanakiri Province,
Cambodia
Camille Bann, EEPSEA and MoE, June 1997

The livelihood systems of the indigenous people can be seen as sustainable for the
following reasons:
♦ Forest fallows are used as a method to maintain soil fertility without the
use of chemical fertilizers7
♦ Diversity of crops in the chamkars prevents soil erosion, helps maintain
moisture, discourages the growth of grasses, provides protection against
pestilence and disease, and provides food security for the people
♦ The swidden system protects watersheds and helps conserve biodiversity
by creating a patchwork of forests at different stages of re-growth

6
Malva nuts are often eaten as a desert. They have a cyclical harvest with a bumper harvest every seven years.
They are not only used for household consumption by the highlanders, but are often sold to traders who in turn sell
them to Phnom Penh and Vietnam.
7
The introduction of chemical fertilizers and herbicides in highland areas of Thailand have resulted in severe
problems of village debt, illness, unworkable soil and an increase in weed varieties. (SeeWatershed, Vol. 3, No 1,
July - October 1997)
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♦ Spirit forests8 and collection forests provide for conservation of forest

and wildlife
♦ Collection forests provide non-timber forest products (NTFPs) that are
essential to the livelihoods of the highland communities
♦ Traditional collection methods are more sustainable and less damaging to
the environment than modern methods
♦ The traditional harvesting of NTFPs has been proved to be more
sustainable and economically viable than commercial logging
concessions in certain cases
♦ The commons system of land ownership, based on long traditions of co-
operation within and between communities, represents an effective
natural resource management system

32.3 Threats to the Land Management Systems of the Indigenous People

Until recently, Ratanakiri’s indigenous groups have lived fairly independently because of the
province’s physical isolation from Phnom Penh. In the past, communal tenure of village
agricultural lands and common access to forest products resulted in little competition for
resources among the highland communities. However, since the over-throw of the Khmer
Rouge regime in 1979, Cambodia has increasingly been moving towards economic
development and exploitation of natural resources, particularly in the north-eastern provinces.
The rich fertile soil of the province, the potential for trade and investment, and the lack of
security problems have attracted international investors, commercial entrepreneurs and small-
scale farmers. The government is also hoping to establish a significant tourist industry in the
province. All of this is placing increasing pressure on the indigenous population whose
highland farms and “collection forests” are threatened by commercial interests. Natural
resources are at risk of unsustainable exploitation and irreversible damage. Decreasing access
to land and natural resources is affecting the ability of the indigenous people to maintain
secure and sustainable livelihoods. Such pressures risk the creation of a new class of rural
poor with no access to land.

The effects of land pressures are already apparent. In communities where traditional land and
forest management has broken down due to lack of land, the traditional swidden system
becomes destructive. Less land results in shorter fallow periods between farming cycles, with
consequent loss of soil fertility and yields. Farmers have pushed deeper into the forest to
open new land for cultivation or have sought out new, less secure livelihoods as wage
laborers.

8
Spirit forests are usually old growth forests which are taboo to human interference due to the strength of the
resident spirits (see chapter on Cambodian Cultural Values and the Environment)

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Annexation and speculation of land for other purposes has also lead to the relocation of
communities from their ancestral lands. In almost all cases this has lead to environmental
degradation. It is very difficult to rebuild a sustainable system after moving people from their
traditional lands where their land management practices have been developed over centuries
in harmony with the local environment.

The main pressures on the land of the indigenous people in Ratanakiri province are as
follows:

32.3.1 Population Growth

Population growth in the province is the result of two factors. The first is the natural increase
of the indigenous population, partly due to improved health conditions. The second is the
increased arrival of immigrants from other provinces in Cambodia to Ratanakiri in search of
land. The province expects that the population of Ratanakiri will continue to increase
dramatically, possibly rising from the present estimate of 70,000 to more than 100,000 by the
year 2000. In-migration is not a new problem. When the province of Ratanakiri was created
in 1959, the Cambodian government promoted the “new” territory as a place for Khmer
immigrants to start a new life, but with little regard for, or recognition of, the original
indigenous inhabitants. Demobilized soldiers were given free occupancy of good pieces of
land and the material means to exploit them. Young farmers from other provinces who
wished to set up in the region were guaranteed government assistance.

“Ratanakiri can be considered the Kingdom’s most important region for settlement.
Immense territories entirely without inhabitants await pioneers who will come and
exploit them. The first step has been taken by introducing groups of soldiers in the
Bokheo region”.

Ratanakiri, 16 th Cambodian Province

Cambodia Today, No. 5, May 1959

It appears that in-migration may be the main cause for population growth today,
although figures on this are not available. However, population growth has serious
implications for the demand, which is being, and will continue to be, put on the
natural resources in the province.

32.3.2 Small-scale Land Speculation

Land speculation and encroachment on fallow swidden lands by both private individuals and
local companies is on the increase, particularly near provincial commercial centers such as
Banlung. The communal land tenure9 system of the indigenous people is not recognized by
central government. As a result, immigrants and commercial traders from other provinces can
legally apply for titles to plots which intrude onto customary lands. Many outsiders assume
that all land without certificate of official tenure is government property. Khmers have been

9Tenure: holding/ownership of land or other property

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known to take village land claiming that it was “public land”. In some cases, local companies
in collaboration with local officials have obtained village land by deception or force, and then
proceeded to secure it by applying for land title. This is sometimes done under the pretense of
“borrowing” the land. In the majority of cases little or no consideration is given to
compensating the local communities for the loss of their traditional lands and natural
resources. Some villagers have reported being initially reluctant to sell their land, but have
eventually given in to continual pressure from potential buyers who claimed that if the
villagers didn’t sell, their land would be confiscated by the government anyway.

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Fig. 32.5 Ratanakiri projected land use map by J. Himmel 1997

32.3.3 Logging Concessions

Large-scale logging concessions 10 , both legal and illegal, are a major threat to the land and
traditional livelihoods of the indigenous people. The largest concession to date was granted
by the Cambodian government in October 1995 to an Indonesian Company, Macro Panin.
This thirty year concession for 1.4 million hectares, % of the entire land area of Ratanakiri11 ,
stretches from the borders of Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary in the south to the boundary of
Virachey National Park in the north, and into the provinces of Stung Treng and Mondulkiri.
It effectively covers all of the central plateau of Ratanakiri where most of the indigenous
people live. The company propose to invest US$ 200 million in the construction of factories
to process the timber and logging infrastructure. No management plan or EIA12 have been
prepared to date for this massive concession, although the impact on the area will be
immense.

32.3.4 Industrial Plantations

Large-scale commercial agriculture concessions are increasing because of the seemingly
limitless availability of land with fertile soil. The Ratanakiri land titles office has records of
more than a dozen pending concession projects in the province ranging from 100 - 20,000
hectares. In addition to creating pressures on land availability, commercial cash crop
plantations are believed by environmentalists to increase environmental problems by limiting
the diversity of vegetation, diminishing land cover and therefore damaging the natural eco-
system of an area.

O’Yadao Palm Oil Plantation, Ratanakiri

The largest concession, a 20,000 hectare palm oil plantation for O’Yadao District, is
a joint venture between Cambodian and Malaysian companies, Rama Khmer
International, Mittapheap-Men Sarun and Globaltech Sdn. Bhd. The companies
hope to sign a contract with the government by the end of 1997 and large scale
clearing and planting of palm oil will begin the following year, despite questions
which have been raised about the suitability of the soil, landscape and climate for
this crop. The project signifies a US$ 20.36 million investment and was approved
by the Cambodian government in 1995.

If implemented, the palm oil plantation will severely affect the livelihood of more
than 4,500 people, mostly Jarai, living in the six communes in the concession area.
Local people whose land fell within the concession were reportedly paid US$36 per
hectare to clear their own land and were then allocated half a hectare of land along

10 Concession: the right given or sold to somebody, usually by the government, to use or operate something (land,
minerals etc.)
11 Ratanakiri has a land area of 1.16 million hectares
EIA: Environmental Impact Assessment
12

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highway 19. Half a hectare is insufficient land for the people to practice swidden
agriculture. The Economic survey by the Ministry of Environment and the Economy
and Environment Program for South-east Asia (EEPSEA), demonstrates that the
value of NTFPs approaches US$4,000 per hectare. The cash compensation levels
are therefore less than 1% the value of NTFP, regardless of the environmental
degradation caused by the clearing of land and the uprooting of people from their
ancestral lands.

An estimated 400 people will apparently be employed by the companies to work on

the plantation. Even if those 400 people can support their entire families, the
remaining majority of people affected by the plantation who currently support
themselves by farming within the proposed concession area, will very likely face
severe economic difficulties or be forced to move out of the area in the future or
encroach on unoccupied forest in order to continue their swidden food production 13 .

32.3.5 National Parks, Wildlife Sanctuaries and Provincial Protected Areas

The creation of both national and provincial protected areas are also forms of land
appropriation by the government. Half of Ratanakiri’s land area has been set aside for royally
decreed protected areas and provincial protected areas and tourist sites. Virachey National
Park is located mainly in Ta Veng and Veun Sai districts of Ratanakiri, but also in Siempang
district of Stung Treng, and covers 332,500 hectares, while Lomphat Wildlife Sanctuary
straddles Ratanakiri, Mondulkiri and Kratie provinces, covering an area of 250, 000 hectares.

13
Information cited in:Options for Land Security Among Indigenous Communities,
Ratanakiri, Cambodia,Sara Colm, NTFP Project, May 1997

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Fig.32.6 Aerial view of Yeak Laom Lake, Provincial Protected Area showing remaining
forested area around the crater
The provincial government of Ratanakiri has also designated twelve provincial protected
areas. These areas may protect wildlife, forests and tourist sites but could ultimately restrict
the land management of the indigenous populations. Problems are already becoming
apparent. Yeak Laom Protected Area is situated only a few kilometers from Banlung
provincial town, and contains one of the provinces main tourist attractions, Yeak Laom lake.
Five villages of Tampuan people surround the area, forming the commune of Yeak Laom.
The International Development Research Center (IDRC), which has been preparing a
management plan for Yeak Laom Protected Area, has expressed concerns that land pressures
around Banlung are hemming in the local communities who may be forced to move onto
remaining forest areas that make up a vital part of the protected area.

32.3.6 Hydro-electric Projects

Proposed hydropower projects on the Sesan and Srepok rivers and their tributaries, if
developed, will displace highlanders who have already been relocated by the government
from their ancestral lands near the Lao border to new villages along the riverbanks. At least
six potential dam sites have been identified in Ratanakiri alone. The largest, the Lower Sesan
No.3 could flood an area extending from Veunsai town all the way to the Vietnamese border.

32.4 Changing Attitudes

The increasing pressure on land and communities is beginning to have visible negative effects
on the traditional societies of the highland people, which in turn, is often proving to be
detrimental to the environment.

In areas close to provincial towns, particularly Banlung, highlanders are becoming more
familiar with a cash economy and are showing open willingness to sell village land. In
communities such as Yeak Laom, there is an increasing sense of individualism created by the

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growing familiarity with cash and the market. Some villagers are tempted to secretly sell
their own (and sometimes other people’s) fallow swiddens. This is undermining the
traditional system of communal ownership and frequently leads to village conflicts, further
weakening the ability of communities to manage their lands and natural resources.

The interaction of the hill tribe communities with the lowland market system has inevitably
influenced local aspirations and created a demand for products like drugs, monosodium
glutamate, Lao tobacco, cigarettes, imported noodles, watches, clothes, bicycles, radios and
motorbikes. However, the concept of market economy is a relatively new one and has yet to
be fully embraced or understood by the highlanders. The lack of awareness about marketing
mechanisms often leads to the temptation to sell land and other resources such as wildlife, to
people outside the community at below market prices in order to obtain the consumer
products. As has been demonstrated in Thailand, the immediate appeal of access to cash and
market goods is incredibly powerful and tends to overlook the not-so apparent downside of
working within a cash economy, by which time control over resources will have been lost,
together with much indigenous knowledge.

Traditional beliefs, which in the past protected certain forest areas, also appear to be in
decline where land encroachment is rife. Some villagers now say they hunt animals and cut
trees, or collect fruit and vegetables in areas that were previously forbidden by tradition. The
once powerful spirits who protected these resources appear to have become weak after
outsiders have exploited the resources and cut down the trees. This undermining of
traditional beliefs represents a serious problem if the customary practices that are beneficial to
forest and natural resource management and protection cannot be maintained in some way.

The current rate of land speculation and allocation of concessions could prove fatal to the
traditional practices of the indigenous communities of Cambodia’s north-east. The risk of
highland people losing and/or becoming marginalized on their own land makes it urgent that
measures are taken to protect their rights to land and resources.

32.4.1 Possible Solutions

32.4.1.1 The Option of Converting to Paddy - A Sustainable Alternative?

Lowland rice cultivation is suggested as a sustainable option for community development by
those who are under the impression that swidden cultivation is destructive and unsustainable.
The total available paddy land in the province is estimated at 11,000 hectares. In the lowland
plains three-quarters of the land is farmed by lowlanders, with only a small number of
highlanders practicing paddy rice cultivation even though they live in paddy-growing areas.
In the upland areas where the highland population is concentrated, there is not enough
suitable paddy land available to allow all of the current residents to practice mixed
lowland/upland farming. Even if all the highlanders switched to paddy farming and the land
was distributed evenly throughout the province, there would still be a considerable shortage of
land. Ongoing land speculation further complicates the problem as groups of businessmen

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form associations to buy hundreds of hectares of paddy land for large-scale agricultural
business.

32.4.1.2 The Need for Dialogue

Consultation with the local people over the development of their traditional lands has been
minimal and conflicts have arisen due to lack of information and misunderstandings. This is
likely to increase dramatically when the larger concessions get under way. There is a need for
good communication and mutual understanding between the natural resource management of
the highlanders and the policies of the government and investors. The local population has to
be aware of the real, wider implications of the new changes. Access to information about
investors and government development plans is crucial for the highlanders to enable them to
integrate their needs and aspirations with the objectives of the government, and vice versa.

The villagers within the O’Yadao palm oil concession area have demonstrated their
willingness to communicate and collaborate with the company, and have stressed
that if companies want to negotiate land concessions they need to make contact and
agreement with the local people first.

Jarai man, O’Yadao

We can’t forbid them from coming because they are rich and we are poor, but
companies must consider how we are going to live. There are 800 people in my
village. So far only 3 have got jobs with the company. Meanwhile all of our land is
within the plantation concession area.14

The O’Yadao villagers have requested assurances that when the company extends
into areas people are currently using as Chamkar, or paddy or collection forests, that
the company addresses the impacts on the people’s livelihoods as well as the
surrounding environment. However, although the palm oil company has committed
to doing an environmental and social impact assessment, the vision of providing
alternative employment for the local people is not based on any reality or clear
planning. It has already been admitted that the company would prefer to employ
workers from Kompong Cham or Svay Rieng, who are used to working as wage
laborers. Further dialogue is needed between the two parties to create a greater
awareness of the issues involved, particularly with reference to the impact on the
Jarai communities.

14
Cited in the minutes of the seminar on Security of Land Tenure for Ethnic
Minorities in Ratanakiri Province, March 6 th -7t h 1997NTFP Project, CARERE,
IDRC

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32.4.1.3 Land Tenure

There is a growing consensus among NGOs working in Cambodia that one solution
is for highlanders to obtain legal title to their land, to which - through occupancy
and use - they have already established occupancy rights. Highlanders are
disadvantaged because their customary tenure is not recognized legally. The
application procedures for title in Cambodia are unclear, and as yet, there is no
established system for legally recognizing communal village title to lands. The issue
is further complicated by the fact that most of the indigenous people lack knowledge
of land laws, and cannot afford the fees for obtaining land title. Language can be
problematic as they are often only semi-fluent in Khmer and usually cannot read or
write. The remoteness of the ethnic minority communities from administrative
centers is another drawback. However, precedents for land, water and forest tenure
which are appropriate to the existing agricultural systems are needed to give the
indigenous people security over their customary lands.

The NTFP Project in Ratanakiri conducted a feasibility study from January -

February 1997 to explore different options for land tenure on a trial basis. The aim
of the study was not to create new laws for the uplands, nor to recommend that the
highlanders abandon their traditions, but to examine whether existing laws could be
implemented in a way that respects the needs and cultures of the highlanders.

One possibility proposed by this study, would be for individual farmers to apply for
private title to their agricultural land (up to 5 hectares maximum). A second option
would be for entire villages to register as an association with the government and
apply as a group for title to communal agricultural land, continuing to practice
shifting agriculture within their traditional village boundaries. The second option
would be more compatible with the highlanders’ approach to customary resource
allocation. Investment concessions for cash crops could still take place on
communal village lands, but must be approved at local level (i.e. the villagers) and
national level. A contractual agreement would be necessary between a company and
the village community.

Prince Sisowath Pean Rath, Ministerial representative of the Ministry of Rural

Development
"As members of the government we say that this is Cambodian land and belongs to
the Cambodian government. But the problem is, the indigenous people have lived
on this land before the government was even born, so whose land is it?"15

15
Ratanakiri at the Cross-roads of Land Rights,Charles Graeber, Phnom Penh Post,
May 30 th - June 12t h , 1997

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32.4.1.4 Forest Conservation Strategies

The land-titling process still leaves the problem of the surrounding forests used by the
villages to be open to concessions. The Ministries of Agriculture and Environment are
currently preparing a draft Community Forestry sub-decree which would authorize
individuals or associations to access and use forest lands by entering into contractual
agreements with the government. Community forestry has already been introduced in several
pilot programs in Cambodia, with the goal of insuring long-term stability of the livelihood of
rural and forest dwellers while protecting, conserving and rehabilitating the environment by
increasing the area of forest cover. While the main objective of community forestry in the
lowlands is restoration of degraded forest, in the highlands the emphasis is on conservation,
protection and subsistence use. Because old growth forests are an essential part of the village
economy, forest protection can be seen as part of the economic development in Ratanakiri.
Community leases could be granted to areas of forest adjacent to national parks and/or
wildlife reserves, and traditional spirit forests could be given some degree of protection under
the provincial protected area system. The belt of community managed forest around the
reserve can serve as a buffer-zone, effectively increasing plant and wildlife habitat and
preserving water-shed quality.

Forest Conservation Association, Poey Commune, O’Chum District, Ratanakiri

The NTFP Project is working together on a pilot community forestry project with
six villages in Poey Commune, O’Chum district, who all use the same area of Ta
Pean forest and three other connected forest areas (a total area of 4,500 hectares).
In January 1997, faced with the current threats to their land, these villages took the
initiative to form a Forest Conservation Association in order to gain concession to
their customary forest. The Association is responsible for managing and protecting
the forest and for establishing policies regarding land sales. The process of defining
boundaries of the forest commons and agreeing on standard rules for protection and
the use of the forest have begun, with a Committee set up to oversee finances, fines
for offenders, and to establish contact with higher level officials as well as villagers
with regard to the Association’s conservation goals.

The Forest Conservation Association is a community agreement which at present has

no official recognition. Legal recognition would mean that customary forests would
represent an exclusion zone from the current Macro Panin concession, and from any
future concessions. Such recognition would also legitimize the process, such that
other villages throughout Ratanakiri could form similar associations to gain the right
to manage their community’s forest.

32.4.1.5 Education
Educational requirements are two-fold. Firstly the indigenous population needs access to
education which can give them a greater understanding of the development pressures they
face without compromising their culture and society. The conflicts are largely a result of
competition for natural resources, and are not a matter of ethnicity. Education should be
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based around the indigenous knowledge systems and beliefs, rather than attempting to educate
people with the aim of integrating them into the dominant society of the lowland Khmer.
Educational strategies are required which will allow the highlanders to build on those
elements which made them strong in the past so that they can meet and embrace
modernization and development on their own terms. If the local population have a greater
understanding and more choice concerning the changes being made, then indigenous
knowledge has more chance of surviving, while also adapting to the new changes.

Secondly, there needs to be a concerted effort to document local indigenous expertise and
work towards its preservation. Information and knowledge about indigenous classification
systems and traditional environmental knowledge is necessary for mutual understanding
between villagers, fieldworkers, the government and other decision makers. If awareness is
raised concerning the extent of indigenous knowledge, and this knowledge becomes more
valued both locally and regionally, more moves can be made to conserve the environment in
which this indigenous knowledge is founded.

32.4.2 In conclusion:
♦ Rights to land should be assured and officially recognized;
♦ Customary forests should be legally recognized as being under the
management and control of local communities;
♦ Dialogue between all stakeholders should be increased and local people
should be involved throughout the planning process;
♦ Local community organizations should be strengthened through
educational channels;
♦ Local conditions and knowledge systems should be understood fully
before imposing land-use plans on a community;
♦ Highland cultures and local resource management strategies should not
be undermined.

32.5 Conclusion
Throughout Cambodia today there exists a link between the alienation of rural communities
and the excessive land speculation and exploitation of natural resources. In Cambodia’s
north-east, the situation is made more poignant due to the fact the majority of the population
is made up of local indigenous communities. These communities are highly dependent on the
land and the forest for their livelihood as well as their cultural values. Unless development of
these provinces is carefully planned and managed, irreversible damage to the natural
environment could occur which would have a damaging impact on the subsistence and self-
reliance of the population, as well as on the wider goal of economic development for the
province. For the development process to be successful, the rights and freedoms of the
indigenous people need to be respected. Highland community development can be
sustainable if it rests upon the highlanders participation in environmental conservation, in
development planning and implementation, and in the preservation of their culture.

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References and Recommended Further Reading

Baird, Ian G. & Monsiri, Tubtim Kaneungnit, The Kavet and the Kreung -
Observations of Livelihoods and Natural Resources in two Highland Villages in the
Districts of Veun Sai and Ta Veng, Ratanakiri Province (Novib/ Oxfam UKI,
August 1996)

Bann, Camille , An Economic Analysis of Tropical Forest Land Use Options,

Ratanakiri Province, Cambodia (Economy and Environment Program for Southeast
Asia, June 1997)

Barton, Michael, Land and Culture : Heritage of the Highlanders (IDRC, July 1997)

Cambodia Today (No. 5, May 1959 & Feb/March 1962)

Colm, Sara, Options for Land Security Among Indigenous Communities, Ratanakiri,
Cambodia (NTFP Project, May 1997)

Colm, Sara, Land Rights: The Challenge for Ratanakiri’s Indigenous Communities
(Article in Watershed , Vol. 3, No. 1, July - October 1997)

Colm, Sara and Ker, Munthit Sustainable Development in North-east Cambodia -

Seminar Proceedings, 26 February - 2 March 1996 (IMC, MRD, IDRC,
UNDP/CARERE, Oxfam UKI/Novib, CIDSE, Health Unlimited, UNESCO, 1996)

Emerson, Bridget, The Natural Resources and Livelihood Study, Ratanakiri

Province, NE Cambodia (NTFP Project, July 1997

Graeber, Charles Ratanakiri at the Cross-roads of Land Rights (Phnom Penh Post,
May 30 - June 12 1997)

Matras-Troubetzkoy, Jacqueline, A Village in the Forest: Swidden Agriculture

Among the Brou of Cambodia (Paris 1983, Unofficial translation by C. Mortland,
Dec 1995)

White, Joanna, Information and Research for the Planning Proces in Ratanakiri Province -
Current Situation and Future Needs - A Working Document (IDRC/UNDP/CARERE,
August 1996)

Yem, Sokhan, By, Sengleang, and Taylor-Hunt, Dom Yeak Laom - Challenge for the Future:
Opportunities for Protected Area Management (MoE/IDRC, Feb 1996)

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Chapter 33

Environmental Education

Written by: Peter Gyallay-Pap, ETAP

33.1 Background and Rationale

Although the environment has been a source of education from the earliest days of human
life, the term “environmental education” is of recent origin. Environmental education
emerged as a concept and movement in the 1970s as one way of addressing problem of global
environmental degradation caused largely by economic development policies of unlimited
growth. Unlimited growth meant the unlimited exploitation of the world’s resources -- forests,
minerals, fossil fuels, soils, water, wildlife – for modern economic development. This
industrial type of development, which fostered lifestyles of high consumption, also led to
problems of waste and pollution that has threatened the earth’s atmosphere, land areas, bodies
of water, and wildlife habitats. Moreover, this development has adversely affected indigenous
and traditional ways of social and cultural life which, as a rule, co-existed in harmony with
the environment. In short, development experts discovered that the policy of unlimited
economic or industrial growth had led by the 1970s to a development pattern that could no
longer assure a sustainable future for humankind.

One of the tools for bringing about “sustainable development” has been environmental
education. The roots of education for sustainable development are planted in environmental
education. Environmental education is fundamentally about encouraging people to live their
lives and design their societies according to the natural laws of the planet and according to
their own inner wisdom. Environmental education provides the knowledge, attitudes, and
skills necessary for school children, the general public, and decision-makers to better
understand the complexities, including fragility, of the environment and to act to improve
their environment.

33. 2 A Brief History

The world’s first intergovernmental conference on environmental education was convened in
Tbilisi, Georgia (USSR) in 1977. It was organized by UNESCO (United Nations Education,
Scientific, and Cultural Organization) and the United Nations’ Environment Programme
(UNEP) with 66 member states of the United Nations participating. The conference outlined
the role, objectives, and characteristics of environmental education. It unanimously agreed on
“the important role of environmental education in the preservation and improvement of the
world’s environment, as well as in the sound and balanced development of the world’s
communities.” The Tblisi conference was in part organized in response to the 1972
Declaration of the United Nations Conference on Human Environment in Stockholm,
Sweden, which stated that “to defend and improve the environment for present and future
generations has become an imperative goal for mankind.” This conference recommended
that all countries begin to promote program development in environmental education.

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The environmental education process in the Asia-Pacific region began in 1976 with a
Regional Meeting of Experts in Bangkok, Thailand, the first of several such meetings
convened under the auspices of the International Environmental Education Programme
(IEEP) coordinated by UNESCO-UNEP. A 1985 meeting formulated a list of
recommendations for formal (governmental) and non-formal (non-governmental, usually
community-based) education and training and prepared an Action Plan for Environmental
Education and Training for the Asia-Pacific Region.

33.3 Key Concepts of Environmental Education

There have been many attempts to compile key concepts of environmental education by, for
example, the UNESCO-UNEP International Environmental Education Programme (IEEP).
They once approached educators and asked “what are the most important ideas you think
environmental education must communicate?” Below are four concepts contained in more
recent publications, including a 1996 UNESCO publication on environmental education for
teachers in the Asia-Pacific :1

33.3.1 Wholeness-Interdependence
Human beings are an inseparable part of the environment. We co-exist in a system, or whole,
that links us (people), our cultures, and the bio-physical world of nature. All three are linked
as inter-dependent and inter-related parts of the environment, as depicted in the diagram
below:

nature

ENVIRONMENT

culture

human beings

The environment is not seen as something which is “out there,” separate from human beings;
rather, the environment is in us and we are in it. For example, when we breathe in, the
environment becomes part of us; when we breathe out, we become part of the environment.
Such an integrative understanding of the environment is sometimes referred to as “holistic”
(or wholistic). Culture refers to the human-made things which includes not only buildings,
roads, and bridges, but also language, the arts, religious and social life, and a society’s
economic and political processes and structures. The natural environment includes both the

1
UNESCO Principal Office for Asia and the Pacific. Learning for a Sustainable Environment: An
Agenda for Teacher Education in Asia and the Pacific. By John Fien and Daniella Tilbury. Bangkok
1996. (Asia-Pacific Programme of Educational Innovation for Development)
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animal and plant kingdom and such natural resources as minerals, air, and water. The human
environment consists of YOU and the others people and societies who inhabit planet Earth.
The human component may be considered the most important element in the environment as
it directly affects the natural and cultural components of the environment -- for better or
worse. Also, population dynamics in an ecosystem, such as the Mekong basin, directly affects
the environment. A fundamental issue is that it is human beings who influence the
relationships, resulting in harmony or disharmony, between the three elements of the
environment.

33.3.2 Sustainable Resource Management

The earth contains a wide range of renewable and finite (non-renewable) resources. The
survival and well-being of any society depend on the supply of these resources to maintain
life (air, water, etc.) and to satisfy basic needs (food, shelter, etc.). The trend over last several
generations has been to consume resources at a growing rate that cannot be sustainable over
time. Environmental education helps students develop an understanding of natural resources
in order for their society to be able to manage its resources in a sustainable way.

33.3.3 Ecologically Sustainable Development

The concept of “sustainable development” emerged as a response to the unprecedented
environmental degradation caused in particular over the last 50 years by industrially-based
economic development. There is general agreement among development experts that this type
of development is unsustainable. The new, sustainable development vision increasingly
recognizes the reality that all parts of the environment (natural, cultural, human) do not exist
in isolation but are inter-related and inter-connected. Ecology is the study of relationships of
living organisms with each other and with their environment (eco-system). The ecological
balance of natural ecosystems is always affected by the degree of human impact in the
exploitation of resources. To ensure ecologically sustainable development, changes is
management practices and human lifestyles are necessary. Environmental education plays a
crucial role in effecting these necessary changes.

33.3.4 Socially Sustainable Development

Modern, western-type industrial development has over time frequently displaced people from
their traditional social environments. People were drawn from the countryside to work in
factories in cities and, more recently, agribusinesses have bought out local farms to plant
single cash crops for export. Large infrastructure projects like dams, which are needed to fuel
industrial economies, also displace thousands of people and the cultural artefacts and other
social supports which are important to them. These problems have led to new concepts of
development which are more socially sustainable. Among the new concepts is “people-
centred development,” which bases development on the local culture and needs of the people.
A similar socially sustainable development concept is development understood in terms of
“human development.” Environmental education can play a key role in promoting a more
socially sustainable development.

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Fig. 33.1 Students participating in tree planting activities

33.4 Goals and Objectives

The goals and objectives of environmental education were first established by the Tblisi
Conference in 1977. The main goals of environmental education are:
• to foster clear awareness of, and concern about, economic, social, political, and
ecological interdependence in urban and rural areas;
• to provide every person with opportunities to acquire the knowledge, values,
attitudes, commitment, and skills needed to protect and improve the environment;
• to create new patterns of behavior of individuals, groups, and society as a whole
towards the environment.

The categories of environmental education objectives (slightly adapted) are:

• AWARENESS: to help learners acquire an awareness of, and sensitivity to,
the whole environment and its allied problems;
• KNOWELDGE: to help learners acquire a basic understanding of, the whole
environment and its associated problems, including the presence and role of
human beings in the environment;
• ATTITUDES: to help learners acquire a set of values and feelings of concern
for the environment and the motivation to participate actively in the
improvement and protection of the environment;
• SKILLS: to help learners acquire skills for identifying, investigating, and
solving environmental problems;
• PARTICIPATION: to provide learners with an opportunity to be actively
involved at all levels in working toward resolution of environmental problems.

These goals and objectives were set forth for curriculum developers to translate into
effective curriculum development goals in their respective regions, nations, and
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cultures. The goals allow the curriculum developer to use those issues/problems
which are important to the immediate area in which the curriculum is to be used.

33.5 Approaches and Methodologies

Environmental education has not been developed as a mere transfer of information about the
environment but as a pedagogical process which seeks to actively involve the learner in the
subject matter. Affective (i.e., attitudinal and awareness) approaches to environmental
education are stressed in particular in early years of education over cognitive (i.e.,
knowledge-based) elements in part because humans need to respond to the environmental
crisis with their whole beings, not just their heads.

The three main methodologies, or strategies, in environmental education are infusion,

integration, and separate subject. The infusion approach inserts environmental topics into the
existing curricula. This involves enriching and expanding existing syllabi and course
materials. Through this approach the content of the core subjects remains the same while the
substance of the examples changes. This is the most widespread approach adopted by the
countries in the Asia-Pacific.

The integration approach breaks down the barriers of the subjects or disciplines. It entails a
systematic incorporation of relevant environmental materials into the syllabi. The curriculum
is revised or overhauled to allow for the incorporation of relevant environmental ideas and
concepts. This ensures full integration of environmental content in the curriculum, making it
an integral part of a core subject.

In the third or subject approach, environmental education is taught as a separate identifiable

subject. This approach tends to be used mainly in universities in the Asia-Pacific and
elsewhere.

The methods used in teaching environmental education in primary and secondary education
vary from country to country. A general method which has found acceptance is applying what
is referred to as “experience-based learning.” Students and people in general learn better and
more by doing and the actively participating in the learning process than by listening to
someone lecture. Environmental education pedagogy is based on a view of teaching as a
creative and dynamic learning process in which students and teachers are engaged together in
a search for understanding and solutions to environmental problems. Such a general
methodology involves, for example:
• the active investigation of real problems, rather than abstract and distant concerns,
with an emphasis on problem-solving and decision-making;
• first-hand experiences in natural and human environments;
• close interaction between schools, teachers, students, and the wider community;
• the development of a sense of pleasure, wonder, curiosity, and excitement in learning;
• empowerment of students and teachers to work together with their communities to
help improve their environment and quality of life.

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Some methods in the form of learning activities which are used in environmental education
are:
• Concept Formation – initially through attitude-building and awareness-raising, later
through skills acquisition and assimilation of knowledge;
• Case Studies – real life situations are studied and analysed;
• Out-of-Classroom Learning – direct learning encounters with the environment
(natural, human, cultural);
• Role Playing – students play characters in a simulated exercise;
• Problem Solving – students and teachers identify and investigate an environmental
problem in their community and seek solutions to solve the problem.

A non-formal approach to environmental education is sometimes referred to as

“environmental awareness.” In urban areas, the print and broadcast medias are used to
sensitize and heighten the concern of the public about environmental problems and issues
such as protection. In rural areas, awareness is developed through, for example, community
study groups using illustrated materials such as posters, leaflets, and pamphlets as well as
through such mediums as community theatre.

33.6 Environmental Education in Cambodia

Environmental education in the Kingdom of Cambodia began with the establishment of the
Ministry of Environment and the Inter-Ministerial Steering Committee for Environmental
Education (IMSCEE) in 1993. One of the six departments in the Ministry is the Department
of Education and Communications, whose director serves as chairman of IMSCEE. The
Steering Committee is responsible for all environmental education programs for primary,
secondary, and monk education – the formal education sector. Technical and financial
assistance has been provided for environmental education since 1993 from the United
Nations. Other international organizations have also been assisting directly or indirectly with
environmental education activities in Cambodia. Some of the main activities in Cambodia
include:

⇒ In 1993-95, IMSCEE members, Ministry of Environment and other ministerial staff were
beneficiaries of training seminars and capacity-building workshops on environmental
concepts and issues, including environmental education.
⇒ In 1996, IMSCEE organized a two-week national workshop on environmental education
in Sihanoukville for 50 educators and educational/environmental administrators. The
workshop introduced these leaders to the concept of the environment and environmental
education and advanced the preparation of a manual on environmental education for
primary school teachers.
⇒ In 1997, IMSCEE introduced primary school teacher supervisors working through the
cluster school system to environmental concepts/issues and environmental education with
regional workshops held in May-June in Kandal, Takeo, Battambang, Siemreap, Stung
Treng, and Sihanoukville. The six workshops invited representatives of 113 school
clusters in all provinces and municipalities in the country. The revised manual was

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prepared for field-testing by approximately 2,000 teachers in more than 700 primary
schools during the 1997-98 school year.
⇒ In 1998, IMSCEE planned the distribution of the final version of the manual to all
primary schools in Cambodia for the 1998-99 school year. At the same time, new
environmental education programmes were begun for secondary school teacher educators
and for monk teachers.

Fig. 33.2 ETAP Environmental Education Workshop

In addition to the initiatives in the formal education sector, international organizations (IOs)
and international and local NGOs (non-governmental organizations) have carried out
environmental education activities in the non-formal education sector. Non-formal education
(NFE) consists of educational activities conducted outside the formal state education system.
NFE is usually conducted at the grassroots or community level and may involve literacy or
vocational skills training. In Cambodia, a non-formal education programme on “integrated
pest management” (IPM) has been conducted with assistance from the Food and Agricultural
Organization (FAO). Also, a programme for monks was initiated in 1998 by an NGO working
group under the leadership for Ven. Nhem Kim Teng, one of Cambodia’s leading “ecology
monks.” With support from UNDP and UNESCO, the programme aims to promote
community-based environmental learning and activities through the Buddhist wat
communities in the country.

References

A Guide to Curriculum Planning in Environmental Education. Madison, WI/USA:

Wisconsin Department of Public Instruction, 1985 (1991).

“Environmental Education, Communication, and Awareness,” in State of the

Environment in Asia and the Pacific 1990. Bangkok: Economic and Social
Commission for Asia and the Pacific, (1992).

Environmental Education for Primary Schools in Cambodia. Phnom Penh: UNDP’s

Environmental Technical Advisory Programme (ETAP), 1997.

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Learning for a Sustainable Environment: An Agenda for Teacher Education in Asia

and the Pacific. By John Fien and Daniel Tilbury. Bangkok: UNESCO Principal
Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 1996. (Asia-Pacific Programme of
Educational Innovation for Development).

New Frontiers for Designing and Implementing Environmental Education

Programmes. Bangkok: UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the
Pacific, 1992. (Report of a roundtable in Colombo, Sri Lanka 2-6 August 1992
under the auspices of the Asia and Pacific Programme of Educational Innovation
for Development, APEID).

Primary School Teachers’ Manual on Environmental Education. Phnom Penh: Inter-

Ministerial Steering Committee for Environmental Education (IMSCEE), 1997.
(In Khmer with English translation)

Procedures for Developing an Environmental Education Curriculum. Paris,

UNESCO, 1986. (Unesco-UNEP International Environmental Education
Programme, EE Series 22)

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Chapter 34

Data Collection and Analysis

34.1 Introduction
Data collection involves a range of activities, from the person in a library extracting
information from hundreds of books to a team of thousands collecting information on every
individual member of a population. Collection of data on ecological resources, physical
resources, environmental quality, and social and economic activities is an extremely
important aspect of environmental work. This chapter will focus on low-cost techniques for
collecting social and economic information in project areas and is summarized from “Social
Survey Methods - A Fieldguide for development Workers” - Development Guidelines, No. 6,
published by Oxfam 1991. Techniques used for collecting data on ecological resources,
physical resources and environmental quality are beyond the scope of this chapter.

As we saw in Chapter 29, public participation is very important in development projects.

Planners need to collect information describing the community: beliefs, viewpoints,
community resources, skills, and abilities, incomes, etc. As well as collecting descriptive data,
planners also need tools to evaluate existing methods and practices, and to decide if they need
improvement or change. Information also needs to be collected to monitor on-going projects
and to review the effectiveness of the project.

34.1.1 Data Collection Techniques

Data collection for social research can take an informal or formal approach. The informal
approach could involve the following methods:
• observing community members who are to participate in some project;
• case studies;
• use of key people in the community to provide information;
• group discussions;
• individual interviews.
Formal social research methods include surveys, studies based on observations of behavior,
and controlled experiments.

34.1.2 Informal Techniques

34.1.2.1 Observing Community Members

To observe members of a small community the researcher usually lives in the community for
a number of weeks or months and participates as fully as possible in community life, taking
detailed notes of what they hear, see, and feel about the people under study. This approach
combines observation, discussion and informal interviews.

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34.1.2.2 Case Studies

A case study looks in depth at a typical example of the subject in question. In a study of water
problems for village communities, then one village would be studied in detail. If the subject is
fuel wood use, then the case study might focus on a number of families and their roles in
wood collection, distribution and use. The case study will not give generalized statistical data,
it can help the researcher gain a good understanding what is being studied.

34.1.2.3 Use of Key People in the Community

Researchers often collect information from a few members of the community who are
particularly knowledgeable and well informed about certain matters. Examples of resource
people or key informants include village chiefs, school teachers and agricultural extension
workers. This method of information collection is useful for collecting factual information,
but is not sufficient for collecting opinions from the community.

34.1.2.4 Group discussions

In group discussion (sometimes called ‘focus groups’) the researcher leads a conversation
among a small group of six to ten members of the community. These are “semi-structured”,
since the interviewer introduces the topic and encourages participants to freely give their
opinions and concerns. Such group discussions should be repeated with a number of small
groups to ensure that the views expressed are representative of the community.

34.1.2.5 Individual Interviews

Individual in-depth interviews differ from those interviews with key informants because the
discussions here can be far more open-ended or less focused. The participant has an
opportunity to voice their opinions and concerns, and to direct the conversation. The
interviewer has prepared a set of topics to be discussed but not a set of questions.

34.1.3 Formal Techniques

34.1.3.1 Controlled Observations and Experiments

In some situations the easiest way to collect the necessary information is to go and look.
Forms can be prepared for recording the data observed. Examples might be counting the tree
species in home gardens, latrine types, or fish on sale at local markets. Controlled observation
can be part of a larger study and can be an important part of controlled experiments. An
extremely important term used in data collection is “sample”. A sample is a selection of units,
chosen to represent the target population (a selection of people from the entire human
population in the area of interest, a selection of the families from all the families living in the
area of interest, a selection of trees from all the trees in the forest or garden of interest to the
researchers).

If you want to design an experiment to compare the efficiency of two types of stove - (wood
burners), you can have the stoves tested by a number of families from the same community.
The researcher should try to ensure that the families are cooking for similar numbers of
people and have similar incomes. Also wood used in the stoves should come from the same or
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similar tree type: i.e. the families are chosen at random from within the same social and
economic state, so that it is possible to compare like with like. Recording how much wood the
family uses to cook the average family meal may enable the researcher to compare the
efficiency of the stoves.

34.1.3.2 Structured Surveys

Structured surveys use specially designed interview forms. In a large structured survey, the
range of possible answers to each question is known in advance and often listed on the form,
so that the person answering the survey questions just chooses the appropriate answer. In a
small community, it may be possible to survey all the families. In larger communities, a
sample of families must be selected for survey. This sample must represent all types of people
in the community.

To prepare a good survey, the researcher must have detailed knowledge of the subject being
studied. Therefore, structured surveys are not appropriate if the researcher is working in a new
area or working on a new kind of development project.

34.1.4 Choosing the Technique

The technique used to collect information will depend on the purpose of the research. The
researcher begins by knowing what information is wanted, then develops a set of specific
questions which need answers. The technique chosen is influenced by the time and money
available for data collection, and the amount of information needed.

Informal methods (e.g. rapid rural appraisal and participatory rural appraisal) are useful when
time and money are limited but they are also important for obtaining opinions and priorities of
community members. Formal methods are appropriate when precise statistical information is
needed. Statistical methods give quantitative information and can check the reliability of data.

For any project a variety of research methods should be used if possible as it will allow the
cross-checking of information collected in different ways. The informal research techniques
will provide information, which can be used to improve the effectiveness of the formal
techniques.

34.2 Designing the Study

The aim of a good study design is to get the best results possible with the resources available.
There is a list of tasks that have to be completed for any social survey and this should be
prepared in advance, with the budget and timetable, before deciding on an particular research
strategy. The check-list will assist the preparation of a suitable timetable. The checklist
contains four distinct components of any social research project.

1. Planning and Design

• Discussion and information review
• Preparing a short paper listing research questions
• Comparing alternative strategies - information / data collection strategies and techniques
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• preparing a study program and budget

• Obtaining official permission
• Mapping or listing the target population
• Drafting forms or questionnaires, checklists, etc.
• Initial discussion and modification of draft form
• Planning the staff training program
• Field testing of draft forms and working procedures
• Preparing the final form
• Typing and printing the forms and instruction materials for the team

2. Field Work
• Assembling the fieldwork team
• Training the team
• Undertaking the field work
• Supervision of field work teams
• Checking and filing returned forms

3. Data Analysis
• Staff training
• Checking forms. Editing and coding work
• Transferring data to summary data sheets or computer database
• preparing tables
• Calculating summary statistics, preparing charts and graphs, and other data analysis
• Studying tables and making conclusions from the data

4. Present Findings
• Planning the report
• Drafting the report
• Discussing and finalizing the report
• Printing and distributing the report
• Organizing seminars, workshops, and discussions with project managers
• Public and media presentations

34.3 Planning and Design

One of the most important steps of the planning and design stage is to find out and review
what is already known about the general research questions as it makes sure that our research
does not repeat work completed by another team. All available relevant information should be
collected and reviewed. Once this review has been completed, the researcher is then in a
position to write a short paper outlining the problem area, discussing previous attempts to
solve the problem and listing clear research questions that need to be answered. It is important
that the answers to the research questions will provide information that will assist or improve
the project.

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Once the research questions have been prepared, a strategy must be developed. The researcher
must make a number of choices about the information that is to be collected. These include
whether the information should be:
• very precise or just a rough estimate;
• gathered by observation or by interviews;
• collected over time to observe changes or a one-off answer;
• gathered from a cross-section of the community or one particular group.

The study program is very useful for budget preparation. The researcher must think about
what funds are available, and the staff, transport and other resources needed to undertake the
research.

34.4 The Field Work

34.4.1 The Team

All survey projects will need a field work team. Time and effort should be put into recruiting
good field workers and training them thoroughly. The training should use practical exercises
where possible. It is important that the field workers understand the purpose of the research,
how to select the sample, and how to use the form and carry out interviews. Supervisors must
be trained to deal with practical field work problems.

34.4.2 Form Contents

A form is a document used to record data during the fieldwork. The aim is to collect
information in a uniform way. Types of form include:
• A sheet recording a standard set of observations;
• A checklist of information to be collected;
• An exact list of questions for personal interviews.

Descriptive, factual information can be collected by direct observation. To record

observations, design a form setting out clear details on how to classify each observed variable.
When interviewing, it may be possible to record fact ( numerical or one-word answers)
directly into prepared tables. It is sometimes more difficult to collect reliable data on attitudes
than on factual matters. In-depth case studies and structured interviews are appropriate
methods of collecting information on attitudes.

Scaling is a technique used to prepare an ordered list of opinions and attitudes. Respondents
select the statement they agree with:
For example a question to villagers about water supply might read:
Overall, are you satisfied with existing water supply?
Interviewer reads out Very Satisfied
Fairly satisfied
Not Satisfied
Don’t know

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If such scales are being used in Khmer, it is very important that an appropriate translation of
satisfied is used. It is also important that interviewers always ask the questions in the same
way.

Similar techniques include the use of time scales, and lists. A time scale might be used to ask
villagers how often they go to collect fuel wood. The possible answers prepared on the survey
might be:
• Twice a day
• Once a day
• One day per week
• One day every two weeks
• One day per month
• Other

Structured surveys use closed questions as much as possible, but open questions are very
useful in preliminary research and pre-testing work, when you want to find out a full range of
possible answers.
Example of a closed question:
Do you collect the eggs of waterbirds? Yes or No

Example of an open question

What are the main problems affecting natural resources in your community?

34.4.3 Form Layout

Before asking any questions, the field workers should introduce themselves and explain what
organization is undertaking the survey and how the results will be used. The first question
should be easy to answer and should be related to the purpose of the survey. Specific
questions should be asked at the beginning and more general questions left to the end. Any
one interview should not take more than forty-five minutes or people may loose interest.
Consideration also needs to be given to the actual layout of the survey in order to make it easy
for field workers to use.

34.4.4 Coding
Coding means giving a number or letter to each possible answer. Codes are a useful way of
summarizing large amounts of information. They are essential when data is to be analyzed by
the computer. For large samples, questions with many possible answers, and open questions,
it is necessary to leave the coding until the forms are returned to the office. If we repeat the
question about water supply : Overall, are you satisfied with existing water supply?
Interviewer reads out Very Satisfied 1
Fairly satisfied 2
Not Satisfied 3
Don’t know 4
The codes for the answer given are the numbers 1, 2, 3 and 4. If the villager replied “Not
Satisfied” then the code to be entered in the computer would be “ 3 ”.

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34.4.5 Choosing the Sample

At an early stage of survey design, the researcher needs to exactly define the groups of people
to be researched. These are the target population. Normally, it is not possible to interview
everybody in the target population; therefore it is necessary to select a smaller group which is
similar to the total population. This group of representative people is called a sample. How
well the sample represents the target population depends on how it is selected. Sample size is
not a criterion of quality. Random methods of selection of the sample are the main criterion.

Before choosing a sample, the researcher must identify the target population. The target
population will depend on the purpose of the study and exactly who, or what the researcher
wants to find out. Once the target population is defined, the researcher must find out if there
are complete lists or maps of the people or villages to be surveyed. Such a list is called a
sampling frame. If it does not exist then it should be prepared.

34.4.6 Deciding on the Sample Size

Once a suitable sampling frame has been identified, the next step is to decide on the sample
size. Normally the bigger the sample the higher the cost. Therefore it is necessary to decide on
a sample size that can be surveyed using the time and funds available. Experience has shown
that field work takes up to as much as 50% of the total time available for the surveying in
Cambodia. The rest of the time is needed for study design, pre-testing, printing of materials,
data analysis and report preparation.

Small informal studies should include people from all relevant subgroups in the target
population; e.g. low, medium and upper income families. One important factor is the need to
look separately at the results for different sub-groups in the target population. Therefore the
sample size for each sub-group needs to be large enough to allow reliable comparisons.

There are many different ways of choosing a sample. Random sampling is selection based on
chance, where all units ( e.g. people, households or communities, etc.) of the target
population have an equal chance of being included in the sample. Types of random sampling
include:
• The simple random sample involves the selection of units by chance in its purest, simplest
form, e.g Putting all names into a box and taking out the required number of names out
of the box.
• The systematic sample involves choosing a random point on the list or map and then
selecting units spaced at regular intervals from the first one selected.
• The stratified random sample uses existing information to divide the sample into sub-
groups called strata, a random sample is then selected within each sub-group.
Using a random method is the most reliable way to reduce selection bias to a minimum level.

The alternative to random sampling is to use a non-random approach. Non-random methods

tend to be cheaper and quicker than random sampling and they can be useful for selecting a
small sample, where a rapid appraisal is to be carried out. Examples of non-random sampling
include:

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• selecting units which the researcher believes to be typical;

• field workers look for an agreed number of people or units of various ‘types”;
• field workers follow a pre-set route, interviewing households at regular intervals.
Non-random methods generally involve some judgment by the field worker, so the risk of
bias is increased.

34.5 Techniques for Data Analysis

The data collected from a survey can be analyzed in different ways.

34.5.1 Tables
Tables are useful ways of summarizing survey findings. A variable is a single characteristic of
the target population. Examples of variables include household size and household income.
Each variable has a single value for each unit in the target population. For example, the value
of the variable ‘household size’ for a particular unit is the number of people in the household.

A sample can be broken down using just one variable.

For example if 71 households are shown according to the number of rooms they rented:
Number of Rooms rented per Household
Number of Rooms Number of Households
1 43
2 19
3 or more 9
Total 71

By sorting households like this, our sample has been distributed according to one variable.
For any sample, the full set of sample values for a particular variable is called a distribution.
This kind of table is called a frequency distribution table.

A two-way table involves organizing the data in terms of two variables. This is called cross
tabulation. It is the basic tool used to look at the relationship between two variables.

For example: Rent Paid by Number of Rooms rented

Number of Rent Paid Monthly ($)
Rooms Rented
0-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 30+
1 14 22 6 1 0
2 2 1 6 8 2
3+ 0 1 0 5 3

This shows that 14 households paid between zero and nine dollars for renting one room,
six households paid between fifteen and nineteen dollars for renting two rooms. The 71
households are still represented, but this table shows the cost of the rooms they rented.

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34.5.2 Percentages
The percentage is a simple and widely understood statistic. If 16 households from a sample of
58 households have a monthly income between $0 -$49 then the percentage is 16/58 x 100 =
27.6.

34.5.3 Average, Mean and Median

In statistics there are two commonly used forms of average: the mean and the median. The
average is a measure of where the center, or middle, of a distribution lies. The mean is the
same as the average, and the median is the middle value when the data are arranged in order
of size. To illustrate both, look at the following numbers. They show the variable total
monthly household income from a sample of 10 households.

The values are arranged in order of size.

36, 41, 49, 53, 54, 55, 64, 71, 110, 160

The mean is the sum of the values of the variable divided by the sample size:
(36+41+49+53+54+55+64+71+110+160) ÷ 10 = 69.3

The median is the middle number. As there are an even number of households in the sample,
there is no single middle value. So the median is between the fifth ($54) and the sixth ($55)
values. The estimated median is
(54 + 55) ÷ 2 = 54.50.

34.5.4 Measure of Spread

The simplest measure of spread is the range. To find the range of a set of data, subtract the
lowest value from the highest value. In the above set of ten incomes, the range is 160 - 36 =
$124.

34.5.5 Standard Deviation

To deviate means to differ from the average. The standard deviation takes into
account all the observed values in the sample and it gives an indication of the
average amount that values in a particular sample deviate from the mean value. For
example, the deviation of 4 from 5 is one. A deviation from the mean is the size of
the difference between a value in a distribution and the mean of that distribution.

Sample 1 Deviatin Squared Sample 2 Deviation Squared deviation

from the deviation from the mean
mean
3 -8 - 8 x - 8 = 64 1 -10 - 10 x - 10 = 100
5 -6 - 6 x - 6 = 36 2 -9 - 9 x - 9 = 81
8 -3 -3x-3=9 4 -7 - 7 x - 7 = 49
10 -1 - 1 x -1 = 1 5 -6 - 6 x - 6 = 36
16 5 5 x 5 = 25 20 9 9 x 9 = 81
24 13 13 x 13 = 169 34 23 23 x 23 = 529
Mean = 11 Mean = 50.7 Mean = 11 Mean = 146

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Some deviations have a minus value, but we are only interested in the size of the deviation
and not the direction. To calculate the standard deviation, we square each deviation and then
take the mean of the summed squared deviations, which is called the variance. The square
root of the variance gives the standard deviation. {Column 3 and 6 of the above Table.}

For sample 1, the mean of the squared deviations is 50.67; for sample 2, the mean of the
squared deviation is 146. The square root of the variance gives the standard deviation. For
sample 1, the standard deviation is the square root of 50.67 = 7.12 and for sample 2 the
standard deviation is 12.08.

The standard deviation is an important commonly used summary figure. Using it together
with the mean gives a much clearer description of the data. The shared mean of these two
samples told us that they have the same center. The standard deviations now show that the
second distribution is spread far more widely around this center.

Standard deviations are used to give an idea of how reliable the sample averages and
percentages are, as statements about the target population. If there is a lot of spread in the
sample ( the standard deviation is large) you cannot make a very accurate statement about the
target population.

34.5.6 Graphs and Charts

Graphs are a useful way of exploring data. A bar chart is a graph where the length of each bar
varies with the data it represents. Bars can be drawn horizontally or vertically.

Fig. 34.1 Bar Graph

Histograms are used to illustrate data which is grouped. Histograms are similar to bar charts,
except that the bars will be touching and their areas give us information. In a circular graph
the data is represented as a portion of a circle.

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Fig. 34.2 Circula r Graph

A scatter diagram is useful if the relationship between two numerical variables which have
exact values is being studied. Each pair of sample values is plotted onto a graph. Where the
points seem to fall along a straight line a relationship between the two variables is suggested.
Statistical methods, such as correlation and regression analysis, have been developed to
measure the strength of relationship between such exact numerical variables.

34.5.7 Data Analysis

What we collect during survey field work is called data. Generally, data have little practical
value as it stands and there are four stages of processing and analysis to go through:
1. Checking the forms and correcting sampling errors
2. Coding ( if required)
3. Preparing data tables
4. Making sense of the data. This includes preparing summary measures and using them to
test ideas about the target population.

34.5.7.1 Checking and correcting raw data

The first task is to check the quality of the raw data. Some forms will be missing data and on
some forms answers will be illegible. Most of the checking should be done during field work
if possible or immediately afterwards.

34.5.7.2 Coding
Coding means giving a number or letter to each possible answer. There are no strict rules in
the development of codes. A code is given to each main answer type and a code is given to an
‘other’ category to deal with answers that don’t fit the main codes.

34.5.7.3 Preparing tables

When the field work form is being drafted during the survey design, a list of variables to be
studied should be drawn up along with the tables that are to be produced. This is called the

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tabulation plan. Take one research question at a time and work out all the tables that apply to
that question.

Where computers are available the survey process is greatly simplified. The implementer of
the survey needs to choose statistical packages to carryout the appropriate analysis. What are
the main programs being used in Phnom Penh at present?

34.6 Presenting the Findings

It is extremely important that the team make the findings of their research available to as wide
an audience as possible. The basic step is the preparation of a report but separate approaches
should then be used to reach different groups such as government staff, aid organizations,
donors and community groups. Such approaches may include seminars, workshops, television
or radio programs, and newspaper articles.

34.6.1 Planning a Report

A report should include:
• the reason why the research was carried out and how it was carried out;
• what was learnt about the study problems; and
• what the researchers think should be done to improve the situation.

These three main questions are answered in the three main parts of the report
• Introduction
• Presentation and Analysis of Data, and
• Conclusions and Recommendations

References

Oxfam, 1991. Social Survey Methods – A Field Guide for Development Workers-
Development Guidelines, No.6.

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Chapter 35

Environmental Impact Assessment

35.1 Introduction
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) is a process that involves the study and evaluation of
changes caused by the implementation of a project, i.e. construction of a factory, roadway,
development project or other activity. An EIA should study both the positive and negative
impacts of the project to ensure that the positive effects are maximized and that the negative
effects are prevented or minimized. The details of this chapter are taken from the IDRC report
“Environmental Planning and Impact Assessment in Cambodia - Manual”.

35.1.1 The Purpose of an EIA

The primary purpose of EIA is to ensure that the government and/or decision makers
are aware of the environmental consequences of a project. The more specific reasons
for undertaking an the EIA are to:
• show clearly any effects that the development project will have on the
environment and the people who use that environment;
• compare alternative options to the complete project, or to the way in which a
project will be implemented;
• inform all stakeholders of the findings of the assessment and help with decisions
on whether or not the project should be implemented;
• recommend improvements to a project to reduce impacts;
• help decision-makers learn from experience to make better decisions on future
projects.

35.2 Who is responsible for the EIA

The responsibility of undertaking the EIA normally lies with the company or organization that
is responsible for the project or that owns or may eventually own the project (known as the
proponent of the project). In many western countries the proponent normally hires a team of
consultants to prepare the EIA. The Government must provide the proponent with a clear set
of guidelines for conducting the EIA. The Government is responsible for reviewing the EIA
once it is complete.

35.2.1 Who is responsible for EIAs in Cambodia?

The Royal Government of Cambodia is responsible for reviewing the EIA when it has been
completed. The Cambodian Development Council (CDC) is the decision maker, but the
Ministry of Environment and key Line Ministries play a very important role in the process,
particularly the EIA Department of the MoE which includes EIA reviewers from various
ministries and technical specialists.

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According to the 1997 report “Environmental/Social Impact Assessment and Public

Participation for Electricity Generation Projects” - Cambodia’s country paper for
UNDP/ESCAP PACE-E Workshop the RGC does not yet have a comprehensive EIA
process at the national or provincial level. There is still no legal requirement for any
EIA in Cambodia. However, the government has recognized the need for a national
EIA framework to ensure that investment projects do not negatively affect the
environment. ADB is supporting EIA capacity building and institutional
strengthening of government staff at the Ministry of Environment.

35.3 Involvement of Stakeholders in the EIA process

It is important that all the people and groups who hold an interest in the project, or in its
effects on the environment participate in all stages of the EIA. These people can include other
agencies of the government, the people and representatives from the local communities, and
special interest groups such as NGOs. Involving the stakeholders from the beginning of the
EIA process has many benefits. If the stakeholders are informed of the project they can
provide important information about aspects of the project or the environment, introduce
different viewpoints, identify the most important issues and very importantly build trust
among all the parties involved and help speed up the assessment. There are many techniques
and methods available for involving people in an EIA and the technique chosen should
depend on the issues in question. Examples of techniques are public meetings, workshops,
informal discussions and distribution of leaflets or newsletters.

35.4 The Main Stages of an EIA

EIA has six main stages that make up a structure for asking the right questions about a project
and its environmental implications. The diagrammatic representation of the six stages was
presented in the “Environmental Planning and Impact Assessment in Cambodia - Manual”
prepared by IDRC and is shown over the page.

35.4.1 The Timing of the EIA

The normal stages of a project are as follows:
• Project Concept
• Pre-Feasibility
• Feasibility
• Design and Engineering
• Construction and Operation
• Closure and/or abandonment
The EIA should take place as early as possible in the project cycle. Ideally, the EIA
should take place at the same time as the development of the project to ensure that
the environment is considered at all stages of the project, including the feasibility
phase.

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Stages and Steps in an EIA

Stages Steps
A. Screening the Project 1. Decide whether or not to do an IEE or EIA
B . Scoping and Identifying issues 2. Describe the project; identify and evaluate
directly connected to the project alternatives
or decision 3. Describe the environmental conditions
4. Characterize significant issues
5. Set boundaries on the assessment
6. Validate the scoping
C. Predicting impacts on the 7. Identify interactions between the project and the
biological and physical environment
environment and the directly 8. Characterize interactions
related social consequences and 9. Define indicators of magnitude and importance
evaluating their significance. 10. Identify and apply methods for analyzing
indicators
11. Rank the impacts
D. Planning to avoid, mitigate or 12. Identify and design mitigation measures
compensate for impacts 13. Design monitoring programs to measure the
success of mitigation measures as well as the
accuracy of the original impact predictions
14. Collect, compile and analyze monitoring results
and follow-up appropriately by designing and
implementing environmental management plans.
E. Making Recommendations and 15. Prepare and review the EIA
deciding on whether to abandon 16. Consult with the public
the project; proceed with the 17. Negotiate and award project approvals and
project as is; or proceed with conditions
modifications and/or certain other
conditions
F. Following up on the assessment 18. Evaluate the accuracy of impact prediction
19. Ensure commitments are met

35.4.2 Deciding if an EIA Necessary

The first stage in the EIA process of any project is to decide whether or not an EIA or an IEE
is necessary. This stage is known as screening. Screening of projects is necessary because it
gives an opportunity to distinguish projects which may have a serious impact on the
environment from those which may have less serious impacts. These projects which have less
serious impacts can be screened out (set aside) and those projects which have potentially
serious impacts should be screened in (assessed for the next level of EIA).

Different countries have different requirements for screening. Some require that all projects
be screened and others prepare lists of “types and size” of projects which should be screened
in and screened out. In Cambodia, it is recommended that all projects involving government
approval should submit a screening form. Examples of projects requiring EIAs in Thailand
are large dam, reservoir and irrigation projects, all developments of commercial airports,
major public transport systems and industrial estates.
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35.4.3 Proposed Process for Screening in Cambodia

The system proposed by the MoE in the draft legislation is a three-tiered environmental
review process: 1) categorical screening; 2) initial environmental impact assessment; 3) full-
scale environmental impact assessment. The first two tiers, categorical screening and initial
environmental impact assessment, would be used to determine whether proposed projects and
on-going activities should undergo a full-scale environmental impact assessment.

35.4.3.1 Categorical Screening Process

Under the categorical screening process, criteria such as the size and/or the type of
activity would be used to classify projects and activities into two categories:
1) those that generally are exempt from full-scale environmental impact assessment
because they are not anticipated to cause significant environmental impacts; and
2) those that directly should undergo a full-scale environmental impact assessment
because they are anticipated to cause significant environmental impacts.
Proposed projects that do not fall within either of the two categorical screening
classifications or those that involve special circumstances would have to undergo a
limited, initial environmental impact assessment.

35.4.3.2 Initial Environmental Impact Assessment

Like categorical screening, initial environmental impact assessments would be used to
determine whether a full-scale environmental impact assessment is necessary. Unlike
categorical screening, however, this determination would be based on the consideration of the
potential (or actual) impacts of individuals proposed projects and on-going activities, not their
mechanical classification into pre-established categories.

The first step of an initial environmental impact assessment would be to evaluate whether
there is potential for significant environmental impacts. If potentially significant impacts are
identified, it would be necessary to consider whether these impacts could be avoided, reduced
or otherwise mitigated. An initial assessment also would be required to discuss the need for
and design of follow-up programs to ensure that any agreed-on measures for responding to
significant environmental impacts are implemented. Finally, when appropriate, an initial
environmental impact assessment would be required to consider alternatives to a proposed
project or on-going activity. A full-scale environmental impact assessment would be required
only in those cases in which an initial assessment concludes that a proposed project or on-
going activity potentially will cause significant environmental impacts that can be eliminated
or reduced to a significant level.

35.4.4 Environmental Impact Assessment

Like and initial environmental impact assessment, full-scale assessments would focus on
potentially significant (and/or actual) environmental impacts. In addition, however, full-scale
assessments would have to address cultural and socio-economic impacts and consider ways to
prevent or limit any identified significant environmental impacts, and the need for and design
of follow-up programs to ensure the implementation of agreed-on measures to respond to the
identified impacts. A discussion of alternatives to a proposed project or on-going activities

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would also be required as part of full-scale assessments. The report of a full-scale assessment
would be prepared in two stages, draft and final. The public would have an opportunity to
comment on the daft report before it could be finalized, and the final version would be
required to respond to the issues raised by any comments received. Ultimately, however, it
would be up to the responsible government agency to determine whether a proposed project
should be permitted to go forward, or in the case of an on-going activity, to continue
operating as it always has.

35.5 Direct, Indirect and Cumulative Environmental Impacts

The range of environmental impacts that would be considered as part of initial and
full-scale environmental impact assessments includes not only direct impacts, but
also indirect, and cumulative impacts.
• Direct impacts are those caused by a project or activity that occur at the same
time and place, such as the damage to land, trees, wildlife, and people’s health
caused by building a factory, the pollution of a river once the factory begins
operation, diversion or reduction in the flow of a river and the need to relocate
local communities.
• Indirect impacts are those caused by a project or activity that are reasonably
foreseeable, but that are later in time, or farther removed in distance, such as air
pollution from increased vehicle traffic on the road to the factory, and the
damage to birds who eat fish contaminated over time by toxic substances
contained in the factory’s wastewater discharge.
• Cumulative impacts are those that result from the combination of the
incremental impact from the project or activity under review, and the impacts of
other past, present, and reasonably foreseeable future projects and activities.
Thus, for example, the water quality impact of wastewater discharges from a
large number of factories may be substantial. Construction of a dam on one
tributary of the Mekong or Tonle Sap Lake may not cause a significant reduction
in fish stocks, but construction of dams on a number of tributaries may have a
disastrous cumulative impact on fish stocks. To ensure consideration of the real
extent and nature of a project’s or activity’s environmental impacts, each project
or activity must be considered in the context of other existing activities and
projects that are expected to be implemented in the future.

35.6 What does an EIA Involve?

The EIA Team
Once it has been decided that an EIA is required, a team of specialists is assembled
to do the work. The team should include an aquatic scientist, biologist, fisheries
expert, atmospheric scientist, forester and socio-economist and other appropriate
specialists for the relevant project.

Scoping
Once it has been decided that a project should be assessed beyond the screening
stage, the next step is to scope the assessment that needs to be done. The purpose of

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scoping is to ensure that the IEE or EIA concentrates on the most important issues.
Scoping requires the identification of the biological, physical and social
environments that may be seriously affected by a project and to rank the importance
of these impacts. This will ensure that time and effort is given to the most
significant impacts and to ensure that the concerns of the people most directly
affected by a project are considered.

The basic steps of scoping are to:

• describe the project in detail and to include analysis of reasonable project
alternatives;
• describe the biological, physical and social environments of the project and the
interrelationship between these components;
• categorize important environmental impacts;
• set limits or boundaries on what is to be included in the assessment;
• validate the results of these steps with stakeholders.

The project description should include objectives of the project and the reasons for
the project, realistic alternatives to the project and within the project, a description
of all aspects of the project including benefits and drawbacks, and information on
the environmental planning, legal and institutional context for the project.

Collection of Baseline Information

To describe the biological, physical and social environments of the project it is
necessary to collect baseline information on the environment in which the project
will be implemented. Existing baseline information may be available but in many
cases it is necessary to collect new information. Important elements for which
baseline information should be collected are the atmosphere, site location,
hydrology, ecology, land use, demography, existing social services, important or
unique landmarks and features, and the jurisdictions involved.

Once the project and the baseline environmental conditions have been described, the
next step is to identify and describe all the important issues related to the project.
Various methods can then be used to group these issues and place them in
categories. For example impacts can be categorized according to an impact
associated with different stages of the project or an impact associated with different
parts of the environment.

When carrying out an assessment it is important to define geographical (spatial)

boundaries, temporal boundaries, jurisdictional boundaries. Setting boundaries
means setting limits on what is to be included in the assessment. Spatial boundaries
can be defined using geographical limits, temporal boundaries will depend on the
projected life-span of the anticipated impacts, and the jurisdictional boundaries can
be determined from political boundaries, acts and regulations.

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Predicting the Impacts of a Project

Predicting and evaluating the impacts is one of the most difficult aspects of an EIA.
Many methods ranging from simple checklists to computer models, are available for
predicting effects. It is recommended that the implementor of the EIA chose one
method, which answers the most important questions in the simplest and clearest
way.

Planning to Manage Impacts

The fourth stage of the EIA process involves planning to manage the impacts of the
project. Improving the project design can reduce major or minor impacts. The
actions that can be taken are known in the EIA process as mitigation measures. They
should try to:
• eliminate the impact altogether
• reduce the impact
• correct the damage caused by replacing or restoring the affected environment
• compensate for the impact.

Monitoring of the impacts of the project and of the effectiveness of the mitigation
measures should be undertaken during all phases of the project. Therefore a detailed
management plan should be included in the EIA. This management plan should
contain all the details on the mitigation measures, the monitoring programs, any
agreements the investor has made with stakeholders and the government regarding
the project, and how the investor will implement the management plan throughout
the life of the project. The investor is normally responsible for implementing the
environmental management plan but it is up to the government to ensure that the
terms of the plan are complied with.

Approval and Follow-UP

Once the EIA report is complete, it is submitted to the Government for review. In
Cambodia it is proposed that the appropriate line Ministry and the Ministry of the
Environment will lead the review of the EIA. The purpose of government review is
to ensure that the necessary environmental management measures are included in the
EIA and the feasibility study, and that the project can proceed without unacceptable
environmental damage.

EIA follow-up is normally the responsibility of the project proponent and the
government agencies responsible for regulating the project. It is important that the
findings of the EIA, the monitoring results and the implementation of the
management plan be reviewed from time to time during the project.

35.7 Problems With EIAs

EIAs are now a mandatory aspect of planning and in many countries donors will not consider
projects unless this process has been completed. However, there are many significant
differences between EIA in theory and EIA in practice. The report “Mekong People – The
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role of Local communities in Hydro-planning: Towards Public Participation in S/EIA,

Cambodia ” reported on inadequate attention given to timing, consultation, implementation,
presentation, transparency and accountability in the EIA process.

35.7.1 Timing and Consultation

Often EIAs are completed too late in the project cycle to actually influence the project design.
A study by the World Bank documented how 76% of Bank staff and 71% of government
borrowers thought that assessments were not completed in time to significantly influence
project design. One example given is the case of the Nam Theun Hinbourn hydro-dam in Lao
PDR where construction began before all EIA studies were complete. A similar situation
occurred at Nam Theun 2 hydro-dam site where logging of the reservoir site began before the
EIA was complete.

The late timing of the EIA in the project development was also seen to prevent meaningful
consultation with local communities or reviews of alternative project designs. Time and /or
resources often limit the involvement of local people in the EIA process.

35.7.2 Objective and Content

The real objective of an EIA is sometimes forgotten by individuals and organizations who
regard EIAs as merely a procedural requirement, instead of an opportunity to assess the
impacts of the projects, evaluate project alternatives and consult the stakeholders involved in
order to assist them to make an informed decision.

Often EIAs generate large amounts of information, which is not focused enough. For projects
involving natural resources, the true social and environmental impacts can only be predicted if
baseline studies of existing livelihoods and resource use are carried out with the involvement
of affected communities.

35.7.3 Responsibility of company who carries out EIA

The procedure of hiring consultancy companies to carryout EIAs may lead to a conflict of
interests in some cases. If the company carrying out the EIA is also bidding on the
implementation phase of the project then there may be pressure on the team to give a positive
assessment. Such conflicts of interest have resulted in overestimation of project benefits and
the underestimation of costs, as well as the loss of public confidence in the findings.

35.7.4 Transparency
Although a key objective of EIA is to communicate the research findings to all stakeholders,
this rarely takes place. The failure to disclose crucial project documents to the public or to
affected communities (or in an appropriate format e.g. Khmer language documents for
communities in Cambodia) means that community representatives, people’s organizations,
academics or NGOs are unable to comment on projects or evaluate the alternatives.

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35.7.5 Accountability
The final issue with regard to problems associated with EIAs is that of accountability. Who
will be held responsible for negative impacts that a project will have on local communities?
Is it the company that carried out the EIA but who failed to consult the local communities, or
the ministry who approved the EIA even though it was obvious that the EIA process had not
given due consideration to local people or is it the funder of the project.

References and Recommended Further Reading

Esler, E. and Johnston, P. 1997. Overview of Proposed Environmental Impact Assessment

Procedures for Cambodia.

NGO Forum, 1997. Mekong People The role of Local Communities in Hydro-Planning –
Towards Public Participation in South S/EIA, Cambodia.

Wright, D. 1996. Environmental Planning and Impact Assessment in Cambodia – Manual

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Chapter 36

Information Management through Geographic Information

Systems and Remote Sensing

Compiled by: Dirk Vanderstighelen, Information Management Specialist, ETAP

36.1 Information Management

Any effective activity involving policy formulation, management, research or decision
making requires the availability of accurate and up-to-date information. This information is
acquired from the rational interpretation of data that are already available or from new data
that must be specifically generated. Data are recorded observations or measurements of
properties of real world objects or situations. They are a representation of facts, concepts or
instructions in a formalized manner, suitable for communication, interpretation or processing.
In practice, the distinction between data and information is often difficult to maintain. Data
become information when used in the context of making a specific decision or when applied
to the solution of a particular problem. Thus, the definition depends on how the data are used,
rather than on inherent properties of the data. As a result, it is common to use the terms data
and information interchangeably. Common methods of collecting and/or generating data
include remote sensing (RS, see section 36.2), the recording of experimental observations,
and carrying out surveys on the ground.

After data acquisition, the data are usually stored in a database1 and further processed to
become useful information. The complete process of information management (IM) which
includes data acquisition, data management, data manipulation/processing, and generation of
information is accomplished by some organizational unit or units within the public service or
business structure – generally referred to as the information system. Nowadays, nearly all
formal information systems require computers and are therefore called computer based
information systems (CBIS). The type of data processing and the type of information required
determines the computer application used within the CBIS. Four types of CBIS computer
applications which have evolved since the 1960s can be distinguished: transaction processing
systems, management information systems, decision support systems, and knowledge based
systems.

• Transaction Processing System (TPS): this system processes transactions. A

transaction is a sequence of steps that constitutes some well-defined business
activity. Examples of transactions are: "admit patient in the hospital", "enter
passenger on airplane", and "transfer 10000$ from account of Mr. X to Mr. Y".
Hence, TP systems emphasize recording and storage of data. They evolved from
the more primitive Electronic Data Processing (EDP) system, the first
commercial computer application.

1
Any set of data brought together in a structured format.
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• Management Information System (MIS): the objective of MIS is to provide

problem-solving information to a group of managers in a general way. This
application originated during the 1960s. Since the goals (to provide
management information to a group of managers) were often too diffuse and
ambitious, many of the systems failed to operate efficiently. The concept of
MIS evolved into the concept of Decision Support System (DSS).

• Decision Support System (DSS): DSS is an information-producing system aimed

at a particular problem which is to be solved. Hence it emphasizes simulation
and forecasting, both of which are involved in the manipulation, analysis and
modeling of situations for the purposes of decision makers (company managers,
politicians, government officials, etc.). DSS is used in tactical warfare, market
analysis, scientific research, environmental management, etc.

• Knowledge Based System (KBS): KBS are designed to represent and provide
knowledge about a certain domain of expertise. Knowledge is considered to be
information, which contributes to the human mind; information, on the other
hand, is data placed in a particular context). More sophisticated forms of KBS
are the ‘expert systems’ (ES) which provide sound expertise in the form of
diagnosis, instruction, prediction, advice and so on. They may also be used as
training tools applicable within medicine, the military, science, law and
engineering.

36.2 Remote Sensing

Two important methods for data collection to support environmental management are
collecting data on the ground (using questionnaires, taking of samples, measuring certain
environmental parameters like concentration of chemicals in the air etc.), and remote sensing.

Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an object, area, or
phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device not in contact with the object,
area, or phenomenon under investigation. The term remote sensing is used in this paper in a
restricted sense to refer to the collection of information about the earth’s surface and lower
atmosphere from a distance above the ground by aircraft or satellites.

Remote sensing is achieved using a sensor mechanism fixed to a platform at some height
above ground to detect and record radiation, which has been reflected or emitted from the
earth’s surface. The two most commonly used platforms are aircraft and satellites. The sensor
mechanisms used in remote sensing are very variable. Each has a distinct set of
characteristics.

36.2.1 Aerial Photography and Satellite Imagery

Ground-based techniques to collect data are generally more expensive (labor intensive) but
provide a great deal of detail. Aerial surveys are cheaper and quicker than satellites but the
information they produce is less detailed. The use of satellite information is becoming

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progressively more important, and the cost involved and the detail supplied are becoming
increasingly competitive with other techniques. Although aerial photography is simple in
principle, it is actually a complicated method in practice. Security clearance is generally
needed to fly over sensitive areas and considerable flight planning preparation is required.
Aerial photography requires good weather; it is usually impossible to arrange photographs of
the same areas at the same local time on different dates. Therefore, it is difficult to get useful
time-series data from aerial photos.

In contrast, satellites allow regular, rapid and repetitive coverage. The analysis of satellite
data for the same area over a period of time (days, weeks, or years) enables experts to note
rapidly-changing phenomena, a capability which is especially useful in estimating flooded
areas, rates of forest clearing etc. Routine monitoring of large or critical areas for detecting
environmental changes is possible with satellites. However, aerial imaging continues to have
an important role, despite the emergence of satellites for remote sensing missions, especially
if the target area is small or where high image resolutions 2 are required. In addition, the
applications for aerial photography are continuing to expand in parallel with satellite
techniques as cameras and optics advance technically. Usually, both satellite imagery and
aerial photographs are excellent complementary methods to collect data.

36.2.2 Satellites
In the past twenty years, a number of satellites have been launched to generate data which is
applicable to resource management, environmental monitoring and planning, and disaster
warning and damage assessment. Among others, LANDSAT, NOAA and SPOT have
significantly contributed to the assessment of resources in many practical applications.

Since 1972 the American LANDSAT series of satellites have been widely used in a wide
range of applications including analysis of land use, development of vegetation maps, soil
study, geological exploration etc. While high-resolution LANDSAT images are useful for
several detailed resource investigations, there is a less expensive source of some satellite data
of lower resolution. The US National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) has
designed satellites primarily for meteorological applications. However, the advanced
technology of NOAA satellites can be useful for land cover analysis (e.g. the global
vegetation index is the most popular data product of NOAA which helps to determine the
vegetation biomass). The French have launched a satellite remote sensing service and have
provided assurance of continuing the program for a long time. Called SPOT (Systeme Pour
l’Observation de la Terre), the first such satellite was launched in 1986. SPOT data are used
for the same applications as the LANDSAT data.

2
Resolution: minimum spatial separation between two measurements (features) required for a sensor
(photographic camera, scanner) to discriminate between them.
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36.2.3 Resolution of Satellite Images

With satellite remote sensing, the resolution is largely determined by pixel size – the ground
area that corresponds to a single 'picture element' or item of recorded data. Table 36.1
provides the pixel sizes for the satellite data most commonly used for earth resources.

Satellite Sensor/data type Ground area covered by one pixel

Landsat Multispectral scanner 79 m x 79 m

Thematic mapper 30 m x 30 m

SPOT High resolution

visible:
Panchromatic mode 10 m x 10 m
Multispectral mode 20 m x 20 m

NOAA Advanced very high Global area coverage 5 km x 3 km

resolution radiometer Local area coverage 1.1 km x 1.1 km

Table 36.1 Nominal resolution of some satellite sensors and their spectral sensitivities

The highest resolution for earth resources satellite data at present is 10 metres. Thus, they all
have poorer resolution than air photographs (which is 3 metres at 1:25 000) 3 . In fact, surface
features must usually be several times larger than a single pixel to show up at all.

36.2.4 Choosing Satellite Imagery or Aerial Photography

Although the use of air photos is a considerable time saver in comparison to most field data
collection methods, when it becomes necessary to interpret hundreds of photographs, the
process becomes cumbersome and tedious. Nevertheless, most national topographic map
series were derived originally from air photos as they were the most appropriate and efficient
method available. Since satellite data have become more commonly available, aerial
photographs have also been widely used as a source of 'ground' truth for data verification,
thereby saving actual physical field visits. Obviously, different scale photographs will be
appropriate for different purposes. A commercial farmer, for instance, is likely to find very
large scale photographs (e.g. 1:5000) most suitable for farming applications whereas a
national mapping program is more likely to use photographs of 1:30 000 scale or smaller.

Satellites provide more synoptic (broad), lower resolution coverage. This is better suited to
applications where a general overview of a situation over a large area is required. The global
coverage by earth resources satellites means that their data can provide information up to
global level. Nevertheless, there are numerous examples of satellite data being used to tackle
local area problems as well.

3
The recent (1990s) available aerial photographs of Cambodia are all nominally 1:25 000.
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In comparison, mounting an airborne remote sensing operation is also a fairly complex, costly
procedure and one which must be repeated to obtain each new cover. This is a major reason
why, more often than not, obtaining airborne data is a one-off event and it may be several
years before new cover is acquired for routine purposes. In contrast, although the initial
preparations for satellite remote sensing are much more costly and complex, once the system
is operational it is relatively straightforward to acquire repeat cover at regular intervals. In
this respect satellite data are ideal for environmental monitoring over time.

36.2.5 Examples of remote sensing applications

• Land use survey: land use maps in several developing countries (Cambodia,
People’s Republic of China, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, India,
Indonesia, Pakistan, Viet Nam) have been updated on the basis of satellite data.
Initially, most satellite studies were based on the earlier LANDSAT data, which
were not particularly relevant to small-scale, traditional farming practices in
Asia. In recent years, imageries which have better resolution have been used
successfully.

• Crop estimates: vegetation mapping through the use of satellite data creates the
possibility to develop a database showing areas capable of growing rice.
Effective agricultural assessment methods have been developed, subject to the
availability of cloud-free imagery. It is possible to detect crop stress due to
disease, lack of water and soil deficiency. It became clear that aerial
photographs could not bring out the full range of subtle variations seen in the
satellite-derived imagery. Such efforts have been made in Australia, Bangladesh,
Pakistan, Malaysia and Sri Lanka.

• Human settlements: conventional survey methods cannot cope with expanding

urban sprawls in Asia. In monitoring human settlements and conducting quick
urban surveys, airborne photography and satellite remote sensing have become
useful. Both India and the People’s Republic of China have relevant experiences
with this application.

• Soil study: soil erosion is a serious problem in the Asian region. Satellite images
and aerial photographs are useful in the production of better quality soil maps
that form the basis for soil conservation measures. Remote sensing data about
soil are used in PRC, India, Thailand, Pakistan.

• Forest management: tropical forests play a key role in global ecological balance.
For many years satellites have been used to detect deforestation caused by
logging, land clearing, mining, disease and fires. Higher resolution imagery is
useful in monitoring small-scale changes in the forests. Regular inventory,
assessment and monitoring through remote sensing provides timely and accurate
information for management activities in many, if not most, Asian countries.

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• Drought surveillance: desertification is a world-wide phenomenon. Satellites can

identify the spread of desert-like conditions before it becomes too late for
remedial measures. Again, India is one of the nations with considerable
experience in using satellite data for this type of application.

• Monitoring of water resources: remote sensing is useful in several water-related

applications which include sediment transport analysis, pollution control, status
appraisal of water bodies, watershed management, monitoring of drainage
patterns and irrigation, fisheries development, coastal zone studies, and
mangrove preservation.

• Mineral exploration: remote sensing has been found useful in the exploration of
metallic and nonmetallic mineral resources and hydrocarbon deposits. It is
useful for detecting the composition of rocks, measuring the gravity and
magnetic forces in selected areas and for investigating vegetation and soil in
potential mineral deposits.

• Disaster appraisal: since satellite data became available, no major typhoon or

cyclone has gone unnoticed. Remote sensing plays a major role in quickly
assessing the damage caused by natural disasters such as typhoons, flooding and
earthquakes.

36.3 Geographic Information Systems

Geographic information is simply information derived from data related to a specific
location on earth, often data on natural phenomena or human and cultural resources.
Another commonly-used term for geographic is ‘spatially referenced’. Spatially
referenced data can include two types of data. The first type is the explicit
geographic (spatial, locational) data which represent the location and geometry of
visual or non-visual distinguished objects or geographic entities such as
administrative borders, cadastral borders, etc. (which are often non-visual
distinguished entities), and rivers or roads, etc. (which are visual distinguished
entities). Both are used in maps to provide a geographical reference for the second
type of data, the attribute (thematic, descriptive, statistical) data which are coupled
to the geographic entities. Attribute data do not explicitly specify the location of an
object but represent some characteristic of the object such as water quality data,
description of soil types, description of ecotopes, description of land use
classifications, etc. The first category of data (explicit geographic data) is often
assumed to function as the base map to generate the thematic maps which represent
specific themes (subjects) depending on the attribute data.

A computer-based information system which processes data according to its

locational reference in order to then produce geographic information is generally
referred to as a ‘geographic information system’ or GIS. A GIS is defined as an
organized collection of all facilities, including computer hardware and its

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peripherals, software, geographic data and personnel, to efficiently capture, store,

update, manipulate, analyze, and display all forms of geographically referenced
data and information.

The computers used for GIS require specific hardware and software components to
process the spatially referenced data. A GIS can be designed and established
specifically to function as any of the following three types of computer applications:
a management information system, a decision support system, or a knowledge based
system. According to the applications on which they focus, geographic information
systems also have more distinct terminology and functions such as cadastral4
information systems, land information systems, land decision systems, natural
resource management systems, soil information systems, river information systems,
or urban information systems, etc.

Since information about the environment (e.g. information on natural resources,

infrastructure, population, pollution, biodiversity etc.) is related to particular
locations on earth, it is geographic information. In order to provide accurate and
useful information to decision-makers for the management of the environment, the
application of remote sensing and of geographic information systems has become
almost universal; Asian countries including Bangladesh, the People’s Republic of
China, India, Indonesia, Thailand, Nepal and Pakistan all have a nationally-
coordinated institutional framework that focuses on the use of both RS and GIS to
support the monitoring, analysis and management of resources that are crucial to the
nation’s development.

36.3.1 GIS Computer Programs

To store spatial features, a GIS software can use two data models5 . Therefore, GIS
computer programs are classified according to the general data model the programs
use. According to the model, raster or vector data model (see Figure 3.1), which
they use to represent locational data, two types of GIS computer programs are
distinguished: raster and vector based programs:

• In the raster (grid) method, the GIS computer program models each data
layer (map layer) as an assemblage of cells or pixels (picture elements).
There are no coordinates stored because they are implied by the position
of each cell in the sequence. Hence, a raster system stores data as strings
in which each character represents a location. A map is represented as an
array of rectangular or square cells. The advantages of raster based

4
“Cadastral” refers to a public record, survey, or map of the value, extent, and ownership of land
used as a basis of taxation.
5
A data model is an abstraction of the real world which incorporates only those properties thought
to be relevant to the application, usually a human conceptualization of the reality.
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systems are the easy processing of data and the less complex algorithms 6
which are needed to build the program. However, the storage
requirements are larger and the cell size chosen determines the
resolution. Raster based systems also have very poor facilities to store
attribute data in tables. Examples of raster based GIS computer programs
are Tydac Spans and Idrisi;

• In the vector method, the GIS computer program uses a data-model that
describes the features of a map through sets of coordinate pairs representing the
point, line or polygon features. The map features are built by line segments or
vectors. Advantages of vector based systems are that they indicate thematic
maps more precisely and that they need less storage space than raster systems.
Examples are Arc/Info (which is commonly used in Cambodia) and Genamap.

Fig. 36.1 Raster versus vector data models (from: Remote Sensing and Image
Interpretation, T.M. Lillesand & R.W. Kiefer, 1994, John Wiley & Sons)

It is possible to change data layers from the vector based format to the raster based one and
vice versa. Although a vector based GIS is a precise tool, it offers no practical advantage if
the features are difficult to measure.

36.3.2 Storing Maps in Computers

To store maps in computers, all map features under consideration are divided into
map layers or map themes. Breaking down a map of the real world into map layers is
based on:

• grouping features of the same theme within one layer (thematic grouping); this
means rivers with rivers, roads with roads, etc. Figure 36.2 presents an example
of the division into themes (subjects, topics) of the real world.

6
An algorithm is simply a step-by-step problem-solving procedure, especially an established, recursive
computational procedure for solving a problem in a finite number of steps.
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• grouping features of the same type within one layer; this means point, line, and
polygon map layers. Vector maps can contain three types of features (or map
objects) point, line and polygon features (see Figure 363):
1. A point feature is a discrete coordinate indicating the location of a
geographic entity whose boundary or shape is too small to be shown as a line
or area. Mountain peaks, locations of houses, sampling points etc. can be
examples of point features.

2. A line feature is a set of ordered coordinates that, when connected, represent

the location of a geographic entity whose shape is too narrow to display it as
a polygon. Or, it could be a feature that has no width, such as a contour line.
Examples of line features are: roads, rivers, contour lines showing elevation
above sea level, etc.

Fig. 36.2: Division of the real world into map themes (Source: Self-study workbook,
Un derstanding GIS, The Arc/Info Method, ESRI 1990 )

3. A polygon feature is a set of coordinates that, when connected, represent the

location of a geographic entity whose shape is a closed figure representing a
homogeneous area. Examples are states, land uses, soil units, etc.

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Maps convey information by presenting features through their graphical

representation and the description of the features. As explained at the beginning of
this chapter, spatially referenced data can include two types of data. Therefore, there
are two basic types of map information in a GIS:

• spatial information, which describes the location and the shape of the
geographic entities and their spatial relationships to other features; and,

• descriptive information about the features.

Fig. 36.3 Breaking down a map into map layers according to the type of feature (points,
lines, polygons) Source: Self-study workbook, Understanding GIS, The Arc/Info Method,
ESRI 1990

These two types of information constitute the basis for digital map databases. The
computer stores a series of files that contain either the spatial or the descriptive
information about the map features. The power of GIS lies in its ability to link these
two types of data and maintain the spatial relationships between the map features.
The spatial data are stored in map layers; the descriptive data are stored in tables. In
vector maps, the tables are linked to the map layers by a one-to-one relationship
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through the primary attribute (also called label, tag, user_ID) of the map features.
All other attributes are called secondary attributes. Such linkage provides many
possibilities to combine different types of data and information layers in building
models, and to analyze real-world situations.

36.4 The power of GIS for data and information processing

The spatially-referenced data used to generate geographic information are collected
from maps or remote sensing imagery often supplemented by field surveys. As
explained in Section 36.3, in a GIS, these data are organized thematically into
different layers (map layers, data layers). The power of a GIS is its ability to
integrate these layers to generate higher order information. This integration of data
layers, or overlaying, is possible because a GIS uses location as a common key.
Therefore a GIS provides possibilities to combine different types of data and
information layers into models which can be used to analyze real-world situations.
In brief, a GIS allows investigation of basic questions of the following type:
• Location: What is at ......... ?
• Condition: Where is it .........?
• Trends: What has changed since .....?
• Pattern: What spatial patterns exist between certain data layers?
• Modeling: What if ........?

Hence, a significant application of GIS is the construction of models of the real

world based on digital data. Modeling can analyze trends, identify factors that are
causing them, reveal alternative paths for solving a given problem and indicate the
implications or consequences of decisions. Some of the standard GIS applications
include:
• integrating maps made at different scales into a single more useful map;
• overlaying different themes to generate new information (e.g. geographical areas
most suitable for growing rice); and
• identifying the locations near roads or rivers required for various purposes such
as adequate drainage for flood prevention, building restrictions, etc.

If used appropriately, a GIS can be a powerful management tool. In many countries,

a national GIS creates and manages spatially referenced data sets which are of
national interest to governmental agencies. Very often, however, a GIS is mainly
used to design and produce hard copies (e.g. paper copies) of maps of spatially
referenced data sets without taking into consideration the power mentioned above to
generate higher order information. This is common in Cambodia. Most GIS
computer software is not designed for hard copy map production as the main task;
this is more efficiently accomplished by other specific software.

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Although GIS applications can be of great value, it should be clear that the degree
of success in using GIS depends highly on the quantity, relevance, timeliness,
coverage and accuracy of the data provided as inputs. In most developing countries,
both the collection of data and its later processing are inadequate, notwithstanding
the increasing use of satellite data. To repeat: GIS applications are limited by the
quantity, quality and coverage of data that are fed into the system. Support for
ongoing adequate data collection and processing should be assured before GIS is
introduced on a large scale.

36.5 Examples of GIS applications

36.5.1 Case study: potential soil erosion analysis

One of the most important benefits of a GIS is the ability to spatially interrelate
multiple types of data/information. This concept is illustrated in Figure 36.5, where
it is assumed that a hydrologist wishes to use a GIS to study soil erosion in a
watershed. As shown, the system contains data from a range of source maps (a) that
have been geocoded on a cell-by-cell basis to form series of land data map layers
(b). The analyst can then manipulate and overlay the information contained in, or
derived from, the various layers.

Figure 36.4 GIS analysis procedure for studying potential soil erosion (from: Remote
Sensing and Image Interpretation, T.M. Lillesand & R.W. Kiefer, 1994, John Wiley & Sons)

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In this example, we assume that assessing the potential for soil erosion throughout
the watershed involves the simultaneous, cell-by-cell, consideration of three types
of data derived from the original data: slope, soil erodibility, and surface runoff
potential. The slope information can be computed from the elevations in the
topography map. The erodibility, which is an attribute associated with each soil
type, can be extracted from a relational database management system incorporated
in the GIS. Similarly, the runoff potential is an attribute associated with each land
cover type (land cover data can be obtained through interpretation of aerial
photographs or satellite images). The analyst can use the system to interrelate these
three sources of derived data (c) in each grid cell and use the result to locate,
display, and/or record areas where combinations of site characteristics indicate high
soil erosion potential (i.e. steep slopes and highly erodible soil/cover combinations.
This example illustrates the GIS analysis function commonly referred to as overlay
analysis.

36.5.2 Case study: identifying locations that meet specified criteria to grow
rice

Fig. 36.5 Identifying locations that meet given criteria to grow rice

Once data are entered into the GIS, users can define criteria in order to investigate
the existence of necessary circumstances for specific events (e.g. growing rice). As
presented in Fg 36.4 a GIS (storing information on soil, geology, and climate) can
be used to answer queries like: show the locations where we have: 1) soil = basic
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lithosols, 2) geology = quaternary sediments, 3) soil acidity > = 8.0, and 4) where
the annual average temperature > 28 degrees C.

References and Recommended Further Reading

ESCAP, 1996. Asian –Pacific Remote Sensing and GIS Journal Vol. 8, No.2.

Kunneke, T., 1997. Development of the Cambodia Land Use & Cover Classifications System.

UN, 1995. Remote Sensing for Tropical Ecosystem Management – Proceedings of the
Regional Remote Sensing Seminar on Tropical Ecosystem Management Subic, Philippines,
4-9 September 1995.

Vanderyighelen, D. and Kunneke, T., 1997. Introduction to Information Management

Through Geographic Information Systems and Remote Sensing.

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Chapter 37

PLANNING

Written by: Sue Le Mesurier, Planning Advisor, Carere Rattanakiri.

37.1 Introduction
The purpose of this paper is to explain the planning process and provide a framework for
using planning as an environmental management tool with a particular emphasis on the
Cambodian situation.

Some Definitions:
Firstly, in order to understand our subject we need to clearly understand the terms
being used.

Planning put simply is ‘how to achieve a goal (s)’ which have been determined by
policy. In more detail it is the process or method of looking at where we have been,
where we are now and where we would like to be in the future and how we intend to
get there. The process may relate to a large number of different issues (both internal
and external), various time periods (short and long term) and various types of large
and small scale projects and plans.

The process also involves the following steps. Analyzing what the present problems
are (strengths and weaknesses), gathering information on the subject area, analyzing
what the opportunities might be based on this information, deciding on goals and
objectives, and preparing various strategies (or scenarios) for the future. These
strategies then form the basis of the development (or action) plan.

Policy is a course of action adopted (e.g. by a national government, a government

department, a political party, a business, etc.) which is intended to influence and
determine decisions, actions, and plans. Policies refer to overall objectives, are
political in nature ( and therefore involve compromises), and should help to
anticipate problems before they occur or worsen.

Goal - What is it that you want to achieve, what is the aim of the plan or project,
and what will the final result be at the end?. This aim or course of action will
provide the framework for the plan - especially in defining who will participate and
who will ultimately benefit.

Management is the process of controlling and influencing the output of an

organization through leadership and planning. Management by objectives is
focusing the organization on what you want to accomplish (goals and objectives)
and directing the energies of the team or staff of the organization in achieving these
targets.
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Tools are the methods which are going to be used to both prepare, manage and
implement the planning process. Planning is an environmental management tool in
that it provides the framework for defining the various complex issues, time frame,
personnel, financial means and realistic strategies.

The planning process also uses a number of different tools for identifying problems
and possible solutions. Some of these are GIS Mapping, Cost-benefit analysis,
Environmental and Social Impact assessment studies, Log frame analysis, Objective
Oriented Project Planning and SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and
threats).

37.1.1 Environment and Planning

Environment is all encompassing. It includes not just the natural resources but also
the social and economic resources and the interrelationships between these.
Environmental tools for analyzing our environment include environmental profiles,
environmental impact assessment and participatory rural appraisal approaches.
These tools through data gathering, data analyzing and actual planning of
development activities form the basis of sustainable development and resource
management.

To summarize:
In brief, policies refer to the overall objectives of the Ministry of the Environment
which provide guidance for its actions; plans set out how to implement these
policies within a given budget, with given staff constraints and within a given time
frame. In addition, plans often include programs or sets of related activities or
projects within a specified functional area. Projects are usually discrete activities
within a programme area, i.e. projects are often implemented within a programme
which is in turn an expression of a policy. Conceptually then, policies, programs and
projects are nested together but the distinction is often unclear and policies tend to
be vague, implicit and/or open-ended.

37.2 PLANNING- APPLYING LOGIC TO CHAOS

Planning as a development tool is a means for creating a logical order of a
complicated real life situation. In order to be able to change or improve the way
planning will be done, and make decisions on appropriate courses of action, it is
necessary to be able to refer to some framework which distills order out of chaos.
Ansoff and Brandenburg (1969: 355-7) distinguish 11 steps: (note; comments in
brackets are added for clarification)

1. The setting of objectives. (The broader development objective and mission

statement)

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2. Perception of problems and opportunities. (OOPP approach to brainstorming on

situation)

3. Diagnosis of problems and opportunities. (Problem analysis - causes, effects,

and possible solutions)

4. The generation of alternative courses of action for solving problems or

exploiting the opportunity. (Data collection and information gathering which
supports various alternatives, and choices by different stakeholders)

5. Analysis of probable consequences of each course of action. (Participatory

planning meetings and representations of all the 1 stakeholders).

6. Selection of the preferred course(s) of action. (The strategic plan defining the
action, target group and time frame - who, what and when?)

7. Translation of what should be done into how to do it. (Detailed workplan of

specific, measurable, and realistic activities which are represented through the
Log frame Analysis matrix).

8. Transmitting the programme to organizational participants, ensuring that they

understand it and motivating them to ensure that the desired action takes place -
i.e. extending leadership through communication. (Participatory planning
meetings to review the strategic plan and log-frame).

9. Measurement of performance in relation to objectives, and forecasting expected

outputs. (On-going monitoring and evaluation of the planning process and
implementation of the project).

10. Assessment of trends and significant changes, both inside and outside the
organization. (Participatory meetings, interviews, inspections and reports shared
with all stakeholders for comment).

11. Review of achievements and re addressing questions 1-10. (Participatory

meetings and plan adaptation where necessary).

37.2.1 The Cambodian Context

The Royal Government of Cambodia in the 1997 Socio-economic Development
Plan, states that “environmental considerations are critical if the country is to
prevent the types of degradation that have occurred in neighboring countries as a
result of natural resource exploitation to drive economic development”.

1
Stakeholder(s) - The many different people who are affected/ involved in the planning process. These
people have various different backgrounds, needs and expectations, whether they are politicians,
government administrators, land owners/ occupiers, or community representatives.
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 Planning

One of the key Development Objectives (immediate goals) of the Royal Government
of Cambodia, spelt out in this Socio-economic Development Plan is to-‘ensure that
the pattern of development is sustainable socially, politically, fiscally and
environmentally’.

The planning strategy for achieving this development objective is described as

follows:
‘ensuring sustainable utilization of the natural resource base by strengthening the
enforcement of environmental legislation; supervising and monitoring conservation
management; and developing sustainable resource use strategies’.

In order for the Ministry of the Environment to effectively implement this planning
strategy it is essential to develop a planning framework and be clear about the roles
and responsibilities of the respective departments involved. Cambodia has ample
intact resources, yet there is still a lack of coherent management structures needed
for their sustainable use. The challenge to the Royal Government involves the
development of longer term resource use strategies. Such strategies should be
proceeded by a better understanding of existing conditions; identification of priority
problems and critical concerns; specification of causal factors; and provision of
overall plans for corrective and preventative actions that are rooted in policy and
institutional response.

Regardless of the specific environmental focus, the planning approach needed over
the long term should emphasize institutional strengthening, inter-agency
cooperation, and strategic planning between all the agencies involved in improving
resource management. This will involve specifically the need to improve their
abilities for baseline data collection and evaluation, essential skills training,
increased public awareness on environmental issues, identifying resource
development scenarios, incorporating public involvement at all levels in decision
making, development of appropriate policy and implementation documents, and the
identification of funding in support of projects which have been prioritized by the
planning process.

37.3 Planning and Problem Solving

In the complexity of modern day life the planner is often faced with problem solving, and
environmental planners even more so. Internationally it has been proven that rural poverty
and environmental degradation are related. Yet the linkages between development and the
protection of the natural environment are much more complex than what is often admitted.
The processes, policies and institutions generating poverty and environmental decay interact
at all levels - from individual families and households in the village through to major
international companies such as forestry companies.

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The role of the planner is to, through the planning process, provide a framework in which to
understand these complex interrelationships. This may involve looking systematically at the
range of institutions and policies determining the interactions between development and the
environment.
For example at the local village level, using social survey techniques and preparing baseline
data tables, the planner can assess production patterns, existing farming systems, population
dynamics, social and cultural forces and formal and informal land tenure arrangements.

Any attempts to promote development and reduce poverty while improving the environment
must therefore take into account an extremely complex set of interacting social, economic and
political forces. Various problem solving tools are available to planners in their assessment of
possible development alternatives. These are discussed in turn below.

37.3.1 Objective Oriented Project Planning

The OOPP Approach is a problem solving planning tool, which serves to:
• agree on unambiguous definitions and to come to a common understanding about
the problems a project shall help to overcome.
• define realistic and clear objectives and to describe precisely the ways to reach
them.
• establish a common and binding working basis by clarifying the scope of
responsibility of the project team.
• improve communication and cooperation among the participants (project partner,
project target groups, and advisory /planning team) through joint planning and
documentation of all planning steps.
• create a common understanding for building a basis for project implementation,
monitoring and evaluation.
OOPP Steps involve problem analysis, objectives analysis, alternatives analysis, and
participants analysis.

Problem analysis is the procedure to analyze the existing situation and identify the
current problems. This can be done by brain storming with the study team the
various existing problems (which may differ for each of the representatives), and
eventually identifying by agreement the basic underlying core problem which the
project should address. Secondly, the team identifies the many underlying causes of
the problem, and thirdly the various short term and longer term effects of the
problem. The causes and effects can then be matched together to form a hierarchy of
problems - which can then be presented visually as a tree of problems called the
‘problem hierarchy’.

Objectives Analysis is a methodological step that describes the future situation that
will be achieved if the problems are solved, and identifies possible alternatives for
the Project. This is achieved by rephrasing the negative statements of the problem
hierarchy into positive statements that are appealing and realistically achievable.
These then become the realistic objectives that can be achieved in the context of the
proposed project.
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Alternatives Analysis will require looking at various scenarios or choices of action

available to the team, and what is going to be most beneficial to achieving the main
development objective. This may require doing a simple cost-benefit analysis of the
project, as well as a preliminary social and environmental impact assessments. After
completing the objectives analysis there may be objectives that are not relevant or
desirable to pursue at this time, specific components of the project may take priority
over others, and an appropriate strategic plan should be apparent at the end of the
exercise.

Participants analysis identifies the key players (groups, persons, institutions, or

organizations) that are related to or likely to be influenced by the project. From this
list we can identify categories of participants. The Target groups/ beneficiaries,
project team, implementing agencies, cooperating agencies, national, provincial and
local institutions etc. It is important to not only to identify each group but also
analyze them in terms of their involvement, and impact (on or by) the proposed
project, and ensure their active participation in the planning process. Based on this
analysis and involvement at the project preparation problem analysis phase the
project may have to be amended accordingly.

37.3.2 Logical Framework Analysis

In the Logical Framework Approach a development project or plan is seen as a set
of steps or events which are all linked together to make a whole. The plan is the
longer term view encompassing broad development objectives, whereas the
development project is just one small part of the plan. Many projects from different
sectors, and encompassing a range of time periods will be an integral part of the
overall plan. The expectation is that the development project will induce change
whose results are desired within the project environment. We therefore assume that
all the stakeholders agree that the situation can and will be improved as a result of
the project or planning scenario. This then makes it possible for all the stakeholders
to agree upon the immediately achievable objective and the broader overall
development objective of the project.

No development project or development plan exists in a social vacuum. It is

important that the desired future situation is described in such a way that it is
possible to check at a later stage to what extent the project has been successful in
relation to its objectives and that of the target groups. This is important for follow-
up monitoring and evaluation of the project.

A development project is based on its input of resources, the implementation of

certain activities, and will result in a number of outputs which are expected to
contribute to the desired objectives.

These aspects of the plan (inputs, activities, outputs, immediate objective and
development objective), form the development planning framework and are then all

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summarized in the project matrix. This Project Planning 2 Matrix should therefore be
able to address the following essential questions:
Why the project is to be carried out?
What the project wants to achieve?
How the project wants to achieve these results?
Which external factors are important for the Project’s success?
How the project’s success can be measured?
Where one can find the data to measure this success?
How much the project will cost?

The extent to which a project is going to succeed or not depends both upon a number
of factors that can be controlled by the project management team, as well as upon a
number of external factors. During planning and implementation it is extremely
important to identify, monitor and analyze external factors, since they may cause the
project to fail even if it is implemented as planned.

37.3.3 Project Cycle Management: Monitoring and Evaluation

It must be remembered that the project or plan is not an end in itself, but should
form part of a broader development objective. In the step by step process of
planning, from problem analysis to project formulation and implementation, we
need to be flexible and able to review
progress on a regular basis. This may
then require amending the project
document and the inputs, activities
and outputs over time.

Fig 37.1 on the left explains the

Project cycle procedure.

Fig 37.1 Project cycle Procedure

2
Matrix: A tool for putting a large amount of information into a table format which can be easily
understood. The Logframe Analysis Matrix is a series of steps describing the project or plan. Step one
starts with the broad Development Objective (WHY), then the more detailed and specific Development
Goal (WHAT). This is then followed by an analysis of the Outputs and Activities (HOW) required to
achieve to goal, and the verifiable indicators for ensuring that the goal has been achieved satisfactorily.
Finally, a list of inputs is prepared and a budget finalized.
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 Planning

37.4 Strategic Planning and Environment

Strategies are very similar to goals and objectives. They describe the way that the
objectives and goals can be achieved. The process for achieving the objective rather
than the final product. Following on from our problem solving approach to planning
a Strategic planning approach points out the route that the organization or
community will take to solve the problem(s) that have been identified.

The Strategic plan also enables the organization to clarify their mission or role. A
mission statement is the purpose of the organization, and its main focus. This may
also be the broader development objective of the organization.

For example an overall development objective of the United Nations Environmental

Technical Advisory Programme is stated as follows:

“ to increase environmental awareness of the population and to improve the capacity

for sustainable natural resource management in implementing Government bodies
and decision makers”,

The programme’s general strategy for achieving this objective has stressed
institutional capacity building and strengthening of skills of government
counterparts through the provision of technical advice and equipment/ materials.

The strategy and the development objective were a direct outcome of the analysis of
the key problems facing the Cambodian Government in addressing environmental
management issues. Namely, lack of effective capacity at all levels, and a lack of
environmental education and awareness.

In order for the MOE to develop a clear sense of its mission and a set of objectives a
strategic planning process was established. This strategic planning process can be
applied to all sectors but in the case of environment, four stages of activities have
been identified.

1. Implementation of training programmes concerning management and planning

theory.

2. Development of the mission statement, and general long range goals and
strategies.

3. Implementation of a training course on development of a mission statement,

long range goals, strategies and 12 month workplans for all staff members.
Workplans include detailed descriptions of projects, steps to be taken for
accomplishment, schedule, and resources required. (Inputs, Activities and
Outputs)

4. Meetings to review and modify the strategic plan and develop monitoring and
evaluation process.

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The Strategic Planning Process therefore follows on from the OOPP’s and Logframe
Analysis approaches outlined above. The process is managed in a logical way, and
enables participation from the different levels in the organisation, and forms the
basis of agreed action plans.

37.5 Bottom-Up Planning (or sometimes known as “grassroots planning”)

It has become apparent in recent years that in order for planning and development
projects to be more sensitive to local needs, and at the same time understood and
subsequently owned by the local community or organization, that a decentralized,
local level, participatory approach is required. This is the bottom-up approach to
planning and decision making. The key indicators to the effectiveness of this
philosophy are as follows:

• Communities conduct organized discussions on matters affecting their lives.

• Special interest groups participate actively in the planning system.

• Rural people voice their desires and opinions before the planning organization.

• Rural people are aware of the forces that impinge on the quality of their life and
understand how and why those forces operate.

• As a result of participating in development planning rural people obtain greater

control over their environment.

• Officials assume the role of consultant, reviewer, recorder, coordinator or

moderator in the planning process.

37.6 Information and Planning

While all planning requires information for a process of rational decision making,
the nature of the plan focus and approach determine the nature of the information
needed to formulate the plan. Development planning focusing on environmental
management therefore has special demands for different types of information
depending on the approach. Once the information needs are identified, data can be
gathered and processed to generate the information required to both formulate and
support the plans.

In a multi-disciplinary field of development the main users of information are policy

makers, and planners. Information needs also vary depending on:
• the nature of the problem
• objectives of the plan
• level of institutions to be dealt with, and
• time limits within which objectives are to be achieved.

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 Planning

If the focus of environmental planning, management and education is going to target

a bottom-up approach which will serve the majority of people at the micro- level.
(i.e. household, village, commune) then this will facilitate the understanding of and
allocation of local resources. The purpose of such a micro-level approach to
planning is as explained above, to involve people in the decision making process for
their development. This requires a wide range of information to make a rational
choice among the different alternatives. The kinds of information required will
include knowledge about the people in the community, their living conditions,
socio-economic activities, access to a range of social amenities, transport services
and other infrastructure. To meet these information needs, establishing a
decentralized information gathering system is necessary. This is especially the case
in which planning aims to incorporate local knowledge as a source of information to
manage environmental resources and in the long term alleviate poverty at the village
level.

37.7 Conclusions
With the increasing realization that planning is about people rather than places and
things, and more importantly the complex interrelationship between people and their
environment, planners need a framework in which to analyze the problems, and
substantive information on what the problems are. This process is the start of
creating order out of chaos and generating solutions that are acceptable to all the
stakeholders involved.

The Ministry of Environment broad mandate is to protect the natural resources of

the country and to prevent environmental degradation - but how does this relate to
people and planning? Basically, in order to achieve this mandate capacity building
of MOE staff and environmental education of all Cambodians will form the
foundation of any successful planning strategy in the future.

Through protection and conservation of natural resources, not only will local
people’s well-being be improved, but traditional culture and local and national
identity will be given importance. Further more strong environmental strategies and
objectives, which are supported by Government will contribute to the socio-
economic development of Cambodia and ultimately reduce poverty - especially in
the rural areas.

Education at all levels (non-formal and formal) is a critical tool for ensuring
planning processes and decisions are clearly understood and communicated through
to the local population. MOE and other agencies working in the area of
environmental management therefore have a responsibility to develop educational
programmes , disseminate information, and increase awareness on environmental
issues and strategies.

Given Cambodia’s large numbers of untrained and unmotivated public service staff,
low salaries, weak environmental legislation and the lack of a functional judiciary

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system, one must therefore address the question as to how can effective planning be
carried out? This is a serious problem needing to be faced by the MOE senior staff,
Politicians and the aid donors.

One solution I argue is that in order to ensure effective, sustainable management of

the environment the planning process must be grass-roots oriented and participatory.
For planning to be participatory it must therefore be based on clear understanding of
the issues by all involved, and people oriented.

Only then can planners be optimistic that some order and reason will be created
from the world of illogical chaos which we live in, and critical environmental issues
addressed.

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 Planning

APPENDICES

CMhansMxan;
an²; kñúgkarksagEpnkar
MAIN STEPS IN PLANNING
1> etIeBlbc©bú ,nñeyIgkMBugenARtg;
enARtg;kEnøgNa ? WHERE ARE WE NOW?
♦viPaKsßanPaBbc©úb,nñ SITUATION ANALYSIS
♦karkMNt;skþanuBlPaB cMnucexSay nigkarraMgsÞH IDENTIFY
POTENTIALS, WEAKNESSES AND OBSTACLES.
2> etIeyIgcg;
cg;eFVIdMeNIreTATINa ? WHERE DO WE WANT TO GO?
♦karkMNt;eKaledA nigeKalbMNgsMrab;kic©GPivDÆn_
♦ IDENTIFY DEVELOPMENT GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
3> etIeyIgRtÚveFVIdUcemþc edIm,IeTAdl;
TAdl;TIenaH ? HOW CAN WE GET THERE?
♦ karkMNt;yuT§sa®sþ nigGaTIPaBsMrab;kic©GPivDÆn_
♦ IDENTIFY STRATEGY AND DEVELOPMENT PRIORITIES

♦ kMNt;lT§pl/ skmµPaB nigTuncaM)ac;sMrab;karGnuvtþþKMeragkmµviFI

♦ INDENTIFY OUTPUTS, ACTIVITIES AND INPUTS.
4> kareTAdl;
kareTAdl;TIedA ? WHEN WE GET THERE?
♦karyl;RBmelIKMerag PROJECT AGREEMENT
♦karGnuvtþnK_ merag PROJECT IMPLEMENTATION
♦karRtÜtBinitü nigvaytMélkñúgeBlGnuvtþKMerag MONITORING AND
EVALUATION
5> etIeyIg)aneFV
)aneFVIGVIxøH ehIy)anlT§
)anlT§plya:gdUcemþc ?
WHAT HAVE WE ACHIEVED?
♦ karBinitüsareLIgvijnUvkarGnuvtþn_Kmerag REVIEW PROJECT
IMPLEMENTATION
♦ karvaytMélcugbBa©b; FINAL EVALUATION

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Environment: ETAP Reference Guide Book

düaRkameKalbMNgénkarksagEpnkarGPivDÆn_
DEVELOPMENT PLANNING OBJECTIVE DIAGRAM

eKalbMNgGPivDÆn_
DÆn_fñak;Cati
NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVE

eKalbMNgGPivDÆn_
DÆn_rbs;RksYg b¤vis½ynimYy²
MINISTRY/ SECTORAL DEVELOPMENT
OBJECTIVE

kmµ
kmµvifI
nigKMeragfñak;Cati
NATIONAL PROJECTS/
PROGRAMMES
eKalbMNgGPivDÆn_
DÆn_rbs;extþ
PROVINCIAL DEVELOPMENT
OBJECTIVE

eKalbMNgGPivDÆn_
DÆn_rbs;mnÞIrCMnajnimYy²
DEPARTMENT DEVELOPMENT OBJECTIVE

kmµ
kmµviFI
nigKMeragfñak;extþ
PROVINCIAL
PROJECTS
AND
PROGRAMMES
464 Chapter 37
 Planning

vdþ
vdþénkarksagEpnkar
PLANNING CYCLE

karviPaKsßanPaBbc©
nPaBbc©úb,nñ
EXISTING SITUATION ANALYSIS

kMNt;»kas/ ktþaraMgsÞH nigbBaða

INDENTIFY OPPORTUNITIES,
OBSTACLES AND PROBLEMS

karRtÜtBinitüeLIgvij
nigkarvaytMélcugbBa©
bBa©b; karkMNt;eKaledA
nigeKalbMNg
FINAL MONITORING AND IDENTIFY GOALS AND OBJECTIVES
EVALUATION

karGnuvtþtþn_ nigRtÜtBinitü karkMNt;yuT§sa®sþ nigGaTiPaB

vaytMélkñúgeBlGnuvtþtþ lT§pl/ skmµPaB
igTuncaM)ac;sMrab;KMerag IMPLEMENTATION IDENTIFY STRATEGY,
PRIORITIES, AND MONITORING AND OUTPUTS, ACTIVITIES AND INPUTS
EVALUATION

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

Ansoff, H. Igor, and Richard G. Brandenburg (1969) “A Language for Organisation Design”
in Perspectives of Planning, Proceedings of the OECD Working
Symposium on Long-Range Forecasting and Planning, Bellagio, Italy,
27 October - 2 November 1968, Paris, OECD pp. 350-393.

Colm, Sara (1997) Options for Land Security Among Indigenous Communities, Ratanakiri,
Cambodia, NTFP Project, Cambodia, May 1997.

Dias, Hiran and Lokendra Poudyal, (1992), Information Systems for Sub-national Level
Planning, some conceptual and pragmatic considerations. SPRING-
Center Working Paper No. 6.

Esler, Eric and Peter Johnston (1997) Overview of Proposed Environmental Impact
assessment Procedures for Cambodia. UNDP/ETAP Project August
1997.

Garratt, Kieth et al. (1997) Environment Technical Advisory Programme (ETAP) -

Independent Evaluation for UNDP/ETAP, October 1997.

Krimmel, Thomas and Oung Tivea (1997) Training Session on Objectives Oriented Project
Planning/ Logical Framework, for CARERE staff in January 1997.

Leonard, Bob. ( 1996) A Quality Approach to Management and Planning - The Cambodian
Way. Selected writings for a workshop held in Ratanakiri Province, May
1996.

Neefjes, Koos (1993) Participatory Environmental Assessment and Planning for Development
- Report on a workshop in Cambodia, Nov-Dec. 1992 (Oxfam,
Environment and Development)

NORAD (1992) The Logical Framework Approach (LFA) - Handbook for Objectives-
Oriented Planning ( Second Edition). Norwegian Ministry of Foreign
Affairs.

Prins, A.F. (1997) Environmental Land and Natural Resource Management, Ratanakiri
Province, Report and Recommendations. July 1997.

Ratanakiri Provincial Department of Environment (1997) Strategic Plan of Ratanakiri

Provincial Department of Environment for 1998, prepared by Strategy
Planning Group.

Robertson, Alan and Yem Sokhan (1996) Strategy for Ratanakiri Province Conservation
based on CEMP Field Assessment August 1996. Final report for CEMP
project.

466 Chapter 37
 Planning

Royal Government of Cambodia (1997) First Five Year Socio-Economic Development Plan
1996-2000, Kingdom of Cambodia, January 1997.

Taylor, Alan (1996) Capacity Building for Participatory Planning- What to Aim at and What
to Measure. First Draft, Designers for Development Limited, Sri Lanka,
April 1996.

Vollans, Garry (1997) Functional Analysis and Organisational Design, Paper prepared for the
Ministry of the Environment, Kingdom of Cambodia, November 1997.

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Chapter 38

Resource Economics

38.1 Introduction

Each day, decisions are made that either add to or reduce the Earth’s environmental problems.
Most of these decisions are economic ones, driven not by concern for the environment, but by
the demands of individuals, businesses and governments in the economic marketplace. If we
are to preserve our environment, we must take into account the future costs of the harm being
done to the world ecosystem in the name of economic development.

As seen in parts two and three of this book, the human population’s demand for
natural resources has had a serious impact on the Earth’s environment. The
challenge of our time is how our world with its rapidly increasing population and
bias towards industrialization can continue to develop in a sustainable way. The
concept of sustainable development suggests that development and conservation are
equally necessary for our survival and that they are not mutually exclusive. i.e. that
the two can exist together.

In 1987 a major study by the World Commission on Environment and Development, The
Bruntland Report, concluded that it is possible to achieve a path of sustainable development
for the global economy, i.e. one which meets the needs of the present generation without
compromising the chances of future generations to meet theirs. The prescription is to leave
future generations a wealth of inheritance - a stock of knowledge and understanding, a stock
of technology, a stock of man made capital and a stock of environmental assets - no less than
inherited by the current generations.

This chapter explains why thinking economically about the environment is essential to
meeting the goal of sustainable development.

38.2 What is Economics?

An economic good is any material item or service that gives people satisfaction.
Some of these goods are material items such as food, motorbikes, and televisions.
Others are services such education, health care, and roads.

An economy is a system of production, distribution and consumption of economic

goods.

The things used in an economy to produce material goods and services are called
economic resources. These are usually divided into two groups:
1. Natural resources: minerals, soil, wild animals and plants, water, air, and
nature’s waste disposal services.
2. Capital Costs which has two components
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Fixed Costs such as factory buildings, transportation and machinery.

Variable Costs: Workers, managers, and other variable factors of production.

Economics is the study of:

• the kind of economic resources that people need;
• how people, (individuals and groups) make decisions about what to do with
economic resources in order to meet their needs and wants; and
• which groups in society use particular economic resources.
Economics is about choice. The choice relates to situations in which we want to
chose certain things but in which we cannot chose everything we like because of
limited income. Very simply, given limited resources the rational thing to do is to
chose between our preferences in the effort to get the most satisfaction - or 'welfare',
to use the economist's term.

The reality is therefore that choices have to be made in the context of scarce
resources. Money or prices have developed as the measure for deciding how these
choices should be made. The price mechanism is therefore used to reflect
preferences. It signals to buyers what the cost of producing a particular product is,
and to sellers how consumers value competing goods and services. This is the
elegance and virtue of the free market which economists have generally found so
attractive.

38.3 Economics and the Environment

Fundamental to the understanding of sustainable development is the fact that the

economy is not separate from the environment in which we live. There is an
interdependence because:
1. the way we manage the economy impacts upon the environment; and
2. environmental quality impacts on the performance of the economy.

Economic systems impact on the environment by:

• using up resources, e.g. tropical forests, water, fossil fuels;
• emitting waste products into the environment, e.g. industries release harmful
gases into the air and rivers and coastal waters are used to clean sewage;
• changing the aesthetic functions, or the beauty, of natural and built
environments; and
• altering the global life support systems on which we all depend, through the
effects of climate change and the depletion of the ozone layer.

The risks of treating economic management and environmental quality as if they are
separate, non-interacting elements have now become apparent. The destruction of
the tropical rain-forests in many countries, has negatively impacted the livelihood of
many people in developing countries. The use of Chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) was
and still is affecting the ozone layer. In turn damage to the ozone layer affects

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human health and economic productivity. As each year passes the link between
global warming and greenhouse gases becomes more evident. Our use of fossil
fuels is driven by the goals of economic change, and that process will affect the
global climate. In turn, climate warming and sea level rise will affect the
performance of the economy. The two way interaction is absolutely fundamental to
sustainable development thinking. Economics affects environments. Environments
affect Economics.

38.4 Valuing the Environment

One of the central themes of environmental economics is the need to place proper
values on the services provided by the natural environment. The central problem is
that many of these services are provided free. They have a zero price simply because
no market place exists in which their true values can be revealed through the acts of
buying and selling.

Examples include:
• the oxygen that people breath;
• a pleasant place to go for a picnic, e.g Tonle Battee;
• the water purification and storm protection functions of coastal wetlands;
• the biological diversity within a tropical forest.

The basic theory of supply and demand tells us that if something is provided at a
zero price, more of it will be demanded than if there was a positive price. Very
simply the cheaper it will be, the more will be demanded. The problem is that the
greater level of demand will not be related to the capacity of the natural
environment to meet the demand. For example, by treating the ozone layer as a
resource with a zero price there was never any incentive to protect it. Its value to
human populations and to the global environment in general did not show up
anywhere in the balance sheet of profit and loss, or of cost and benefits.

The important principle is that resources and environments serve economic

functions and have positive economic values. To treat them as if they had zero value
is to seriously risk overusing the resource. Environmental degradation has partly
resulted from the fact that the environment is treated as a zero priced resource. This
reasoning underlines the importance of valuing the environment correctly and
integrating those correct values into economic policy. Environmental improvements
may show up in the form of effects which have direct money values.

For example:
• protecting a tropical forest or a wetland area can increase the number of visitors
and, if the area has entrance charges, the revenue from those charges will
increase;
• reducing air pollution can improve the growth and quality of agricultural crops
with obviously direct monetary gains;

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• reducing sulfur emissions may lower the rate at which acid rain corrodes
buildings or metal structures. The direct market value of such reduced
corrosion can be estimated by looking at the extended life of the structures and
at the reduced cost of protecting or replacing them;
• reductions in respiratory disease from reducing air pollution, will show up in a
reduced demand for health care, thus saving on health care costs, and in less
days lost from work due to illness.

The above examples indicate some ways that we can approach the monetary
evaluation environmental improvements. But many gains will not show up in a such
a fashion. For example, an improved wilderness area is not subject to entrance
charges but because of the improvements more people visit it. There is no apparent
market in the environmental improvement because the gain is not bought or sold by
any one.

It is important to realize that, while the absence of markets or indirect markets

makes the process of economic valuation more difficult, it does not make it
impossible. Even more important, the absence of a market or indirect market does
not mean that economic gains are not present. These gains have to be measured. In
order to ensure a better allocation of resources, it is important to have some idea of
what the environment is 'worth'. Indeed, the importance of a proper valuation of the
environment is crucial to achieving sustainable development.

38.4.1 The Importance of Placing Monetary Values on the Environment

There are many reasons why it is important to place monetary values on
environmental gains and loses, some of which are listed as follows:
• If a resource is under-priced it will be overused. To value environmental goods
and services at zero promotes over-exploitation and degradation.
• A monetary value will show how much people care about the particular
environmental resource in question.
• If the monetary values placed on environmental quality are sufficiently large,
they offer an argument for preserving environmental quality. The usefulness of
such arguments in turn arises from the fact that voters, politicians and civil
servants are readily used to the meaning of gains and losses that are expressed
in dollars.
• A monetary valuation of the environment allows a comparison with other
monetary benefits arising from alternative uses of funds.

38.4.2 The Economic Value of Ecosystems / Tropical Forests

To evaluate the total economic value of a natural resource, all of the values and
benefits of the resource have to be taken into account. Natural resources typically
have two main types of values, use value and non-use value. The use value has
direct use values, indirect use values, and option value.

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Use Values Non Use Value

(1) (2) (3)

Direct value Indirect Value Option Value
Sustainable Timber Watershed Protection Future use as Existence Value
per (1) and
(2)
Non-Timber Forest Nutrient Cycling Cultural heritage
Products
Recreation and Air Pollution Biodiversity
Tourism reduction
Medicine Micro-climate
functions
Plant genetics Carbon store
Education Biodiversity
Human Habitat
Table 38.1 A classification of the total economic value of a tropical forest

Direct Use Values are the resources and 'services' provided directly by the forest.
Indirect Use Values are essentially the environmental functions of the forest, which
indirectly support economic activity and human welfare. Option value refers to the
option to use the environment in the future.

A problem in trying to measure the total economic value of a tropical forest is that
many values have no market price (e.g. biodiversity and watershed protection
services) and have as a result been generally ignored in conventional analysis and
land use decisions. However, many environmental goods and services provided by
tropical forests are often highly significant, and methods do exist for estimating
their monetary value. If these values are not accounted for in the land use
assessment process, it is possible that the choice of land use will wrongly favor uses
with marked outputs, eg. commercial timber exploitation and agriculture. This could
mean too much conversion and over exploitation of forest and too little
preservation, conservation or natural management of forest land (IIED 1994).

38.5 Valuation Techniques

The values of tropical forests shown in table 2.1 can be estimated using a wide
variety of techniques.

38.5.1 Direct Use Values

Direct use values such as timber production normally have market values, which can be used
in the valuation process. If the good is traded internationally, the market price will generally
reflect the world price for the good or service. This is the most accurate measure to use.
Where the good is not traded internationally, local market prices are the relevant staring point.

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38.5.2 Indirect Use Values

'Non-market valuation' techniques have to be used where market prices do not exist. As
environmental functions (such as watershed protection) are rarely exchanged in the markets
the use of direct market prices has to be replaced by non-market techniques. Methodologies
available for measuring indirect use values include: damage done approach, cost of
replacement approach, damage avoided approach, changes in productivity approach.
How might we value the removal of a tropical forest that protects a watershed and the
removal of which will result in soil erosion, downstream sedimentation, and increased floods?

38.5.2.1 Damage Done Approach

If damage occurs, the expenditure on reconstructing or repair of affected areas would be a
measure of the protection function.

38.5.2.2 Cost of Replacement Approach

If the damage cannot be repaired, it may be necessary to invest in replacing the protection
function. This is the replacement cost approach.

38.5.2.3 Damage Avoided Approach

The damage done would then be a measure of the value of the watershed protection function
since such damage would be avoided by conserving the forest. Alternatively, the value of
watershed protection function of forests can be based on the expected damage sedimentation,
soil erosion and increased floods are thought to have at a market price.

Example of the Damage Avoided Approach

By conserving a mature forest in which the carbon content is constant, we avoid the
carbon release associated with an alternative land use, and therefore the damage
associated with that carbon release is avoided. We can speak of the forest as having
a 'carbon credit' equal to the avoided damage. By clearing the forest for agriculture,
deforestation occurs and carbon (and other pollutants) are released. The damage
associated with the carbon release is therefore a 'carbon debit' to that particular
forest land use.

Carbon dioxide makes up about half (50%) of the total GHG. If tropical
deforestation contributes about 25% of CO2 emissions, it would therefore contribute
10-13% (half of 25%) of all GHG emissions. In line with the 'damage avoided'
approach to valuation, a tropical forest should be credited with the value of global
warming damage avoided by its conservation.

Some estimates of global warming damage exist, and they suggest that the damage
done, mainly in terms of sea level rise, could be approximately $13 per ton of
carbon. Studies have estimated that, on average, deforestation of one hectare of land
contributes 100 tons of carbon to the atmosphere in a single year. At some $13 per
ton damage, it follows that deforestation causes damage at a rate of $1300 per
hectare. In reality the damage is higher then this because of the fact that the carbon
releases continues after one year.

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38.5.2.4 Change in Productivity Approach

It is likely that increased sedimentation will impact on fish irrigation and spawning
resulting in the loss of fish production. The economic value of the lost fish
production which can be measured as the change in fish productivity multiplied by
the market price of fish. This is the change in productivity approach.

It is worth noting that applications of these other techniques often rely in the end on
market prices for goods and services.

38.6 Cost Benefit Analysis (CBA) / Project Appraisal

To make informed decisions on whether to develop or conserve, it is necessary to

identify all the impacts of the project concerned including the environmental effects
and to incorporate correctly the valuation of their benefits and costs within the
project analysis.

Cost benefit analysis (CBA) is the best known technique for assessing large
financial investments or projects, such as the building of a road or of an airport,
reforesting an area of land and so on. In CBA decisions are based on weighing up
the advantages and disadvantages, benefits and costs of an action. The cost of a
project are therefore compared to the benefits. If benefits exceed the costs, the
project is, in principle acceptable. If costs exceed benefits, it is not.

The basic formula for accepting a project is then:

[B-C]>0
Where:
B = the benefits of the project
C = the costs of the project
To develop CBA a step further, we include the economic value that is lost by taking
a particular course of action.

If :
Bd = the benefits of development
Cd = the cots of development
Bp = the benefits of preserving the environment by not developing the area, i.e.
total value of the asset left as a natural environment
the basic rule can be written as:
a) (Bd - Cd - Bp) > 0
proceed with the project if the benefits of development are greater than the costs of
the project plus the benefits of preserving the environment; and

b) (Bd - Cd - Bp) < 0

do not proceed with development if the benefits of the project are less than the cost
of the project plus the benefits of preserving the environment by not developing the
area.

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38.6.1 CBA and Forestry Development

Calculation of total economic value of the forest is important for assessing the costs
and benefits of different forest land use options and/or management practices. It is
therefore crucial for accurate project appraisal.
Tropical land use options include:
• preservation - out right non-use of the forest resource;
• sustainable conservation management - involves limited use of the forest which
leaves the original natural forest and ecosystem broadly intact;
• complete development - (conversion), e.g. clear cutting forest and converting
the land to some alternative, agricultural use.

Tropical deforestation is an economic problem because important values are lost,

some perhaps irreversibly, when natural forests are opened up or cleared. Each
choice or land use option for the forest has implications in terms of values gained or
lost. The decision as to what land use option to pursue for a given tropical forest
area, and ultimately whether current rates of deforestation are excessive, can only be
made if these gains and losses are properly analyzed and evaluated. This requires
that all values that are gained and lost with each land use option are carefully
considered.

38.6.1.1 Costs Associated With Preserving a Tropical Forest

Preserving a tropical forest involves direct costs of preservation, in terms of setting
up a protected area, paying forest guards and rangers to protect and maintain the
area and perhaps the cost of establishing a 'buffer zone' for surrounding local
communities. Other indirect costs associated with the preservation option are the
lost development options, such as the use of forest for commercial timber
exportation and the converted forest land and resources for agriculture, mining and
hydroelectricity which are sacrificed if preservation is chosen.

38.6.1.2 Costs Associated With Developing a Tropical Forest

Developing the tropical forest for agriculture must consider the direct costs of
conversion (e.g. the direct cost of clearing and burning the forest, establishing
crops) which must be included as part of the costs of this land use option. The
foregone values of the forest that has been converted must also be included as
indirect costs. The foregone values may include both the loss of important
environmental functions (e.g. watershed protection, micro-climate maintenance),
resources, (e.g. commercial hardwoods, non-timber products, wildlife), and lost
opportunity and management costs associated with human activity in tropical forest
protection . Another cost to be considered in this option is the damage caused by
pollution from the fires which are lit to clear the forests.

38.6.1.3 The Problem of No Market Values in CBA

Only by carefully comparing the full costs and benefits of different options is it possible to
determine which development option should take place. As many component values in total

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economic value of the forest have no market value the actual choice of land use has typically
been biased heavily in favor of land uses that do have marketed outputs, e.g. development
options such as ranching, timber exploitation, agriculture, mining and hydroelectricity. The
basic reason for this imbalance is that non-market values of the natural/managed
systems/forests are NOT automatically reflected in the price of forested land. For example,
the market value of land converted to agriculture fails to reflect the lost environmental
benefits, such as watershed protection. The result is too much conversion and over
exploitation of forest and too little natural management of forest land.

38.6.1.4 Comparing Land Use Options in CBA

In all approaches, the basic cost benefit analysis rule for any pair of land use
options, A and B, is to compare the net benefits of each. If we choose option A , we
forego the benefits of B, therefore it is not sufficient for the benefits of A to be
positive. The benefits of A (Ba) must exceed the foregone benefits of B (Bb):
Ba - Bb > 0
For example, if the forest is to be cleared for agriculture (option A), not only should
the direct costs of conversion (e.g. clearing and burning the forest, establishing
crops) be included as part of the costs of this land use option but so too must the
foregone values of the forest that have been converted from its natural state (option
B). This may include the loss of important environmental functions (e.g. watershed
protection, micro-climatic maintenance) and resources (e.g. commercial hardwoods,
non timber products, wildlife) that comprise important use and non -use values.

38.7An Economic Analysis of Tapean Tropical Forest Land Use Options

In 1996, the Economy and Environment Program for South East Asia (EEPSEA)
undertook a project to analyze the economic benefits of using Tapean forest,
Rattanakiri, for traditional uses as compared to commercial timber extraction, and to
highlight the degree of dependence of local communities on the forest.

Tapean forest is used extensively for the collection of NTFPs, contains timber of
commercial value, is an important habitat for malva nuts, acts as an important
watershed and has potential as an ecotourism site.The results of the land use
analysis of the 1824 hectares area by IRIC are shown in Table 38.2.

Description Hectare (ha)

Shrubland (0-2m) 7.068
Bushland (2-6m) 3.997
Forest Cover ( 6 -10m) 496.525
Broadleaf evergreen 1270.752
Broadleaf deciduous 23.183
Mixed deciduous/evergreen 12.861
Bamboo Forest 9.558
Total 1823.944
Table 38.2 Land Use Analysis of Tapean Forest
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A forestry inventory identified 189 types of trees and 320 species of ground flora.
One hundred of the trees are used by the villages for a range of purposes and 201of
the ground flora have traditional uses. Surveys of 5 villages that use the forest found
that the most important forest resources for local people were wildlife, fish,
fuelwood, and materials for house construction. Benefits of NTFP per village ranged
from US$180,564 to US$30,088 per year. Annual benefits per village were
discounted over a 90 year time horizon to illustrate the present value (PV) of forest
benefits to local communities. Two discount rates were used - 6% and 10%. At 6%
discount rate the present value of NTFP benefits range between US$3,005,917 and
US$510,167. The opportunity cost of labor was taken as zero in these calculations
because of the extremely limited opportunity for paid employment in the area .

Tapean forest also provides important services: watershed benefits, biodiversity,

carbon storage, micro climate functions, option and existence values, and benefits:
recreation and tourism and research benefits. The study did not place monetary
values on these services but some results from previous studies were included in the
report as shown in Table 38.3.

Tapean forest contains timber of commercial value and analysis of potential returns
from commercial logging were carried out in order to compare it with the benefits of
traditional use of the forest by local communities.

Forest Service Value/hectare

Watershed Functions
Flood Control US$2.3
Soil fertility US$8.00
Biodiversity
Land for medicinal plants US$0.01 - 21
Captural benefit for ecologically important US$30/year
and diverse ecosystems such as tropical
forests
Carbon Storage
‘Carbon credit` estimate based on damage Primary forest -> agriculture
costs of forest land conversion per hectare US$4,000 - 4,400
One time ‘opportunity cost` US$1,300/ha
Table 38.3 Monetary Value for Various forest Benefits

The sustainable timber extraction of 10 cubic meters per hectare and unsustainable
50 cubic meters per hectare used to analyze returns for timber are those proposed in
the 1996 World bank report. The value per cubic meter was $74. Based over a 90
year period, benefits from timber harvesting were calculated to be $24/ha/yr for
sustainable logging and $122/ha/yr for unsustainable logging. The comparison of
alternative land use benefits is presented in Table 38.4

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Sustainable Sustainable Collection Sustainable Unsustainable

collection of of timber timber
NTFP NTFP (malva nuts, production production
rattan, and bamboo)
per inventory
Annual 17 (NTFP) 366 (NTFP) 24 (timber) 122 (timber)
value + 35 (env benefit) + 35 (env benefit) 17 (env benefit) -35 ( env benefit)
= 52 = 401 = 7 = 87
6% 1,291 4,514 151 1,101
10% 772 2,950 75 812
Table 38.4 Comparison of alternative land use benefits

In the context of this chapter, the importance of the report is as an example of an economic
analysis of a tropical forest. The report concluded that forest products have a value that may
be as high as US$3,922 per hectare of forest. If the forest were to be harvested for timber it
would have a value of less than this; no more than US$1,697 per hectare. When the other
environmental functions that would be lost from timber harvesting - functions such as
watershed, biodiversity and cultural importance - then the net benefits from harvesting timber
are even lower.

38.8. Conclusion

Sustainable development requires a shift in the way economic progress is pursued. The
economic profile of the environment must be raised if development is to be really sustainable,
such that environmental concerns must be properly integrated into economic policy at every
level. The concept of total economic value offers a comprehensive framework within which to
value tropical forests.

There is some evidence that the many use values of the forest favor conservation:
• alternative uses to timber, based on minor forest products, appear to give higher
financial rates of return than timber in some areas;
• the recreational use of tropical forests is only now being realized;
• although little effort as yet has been made to value the indirect functions of the
forest. There is no question that deforestation followed by unsuitable land use
causes significant damage;
• additionally, tropical forests should be given 'carbon credits' for their role in
containing the greenhouse effect. For existing forests that credit would relate
to avoided damage by not developing, i.e. the benefit of conservation.

The prime requirement for project appraisal improvement is the integration of

environmental values into cost benefit analysis, and there is evidence that
environmental benefit estimation is increasingly being integrated into public sector
decision making. It is important that the implications of the valuation procedure are
understood. These are:
• by at least trying to put money values on some aspects of environmental quality
we are drawing attention to the fact that environmental services are not free.
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They do have values in the same sense as marketed goods and services have
values. The absence of markets must not be allowed to disguise this important
fact;
• by trying to value environmental services we are forced in to a rational
decision-making frame of mind. Quite simply, we are forced to think about the
gains and the losses, the benefits and the costs of what we do. If nothing else,
economic valuation has made great advances in this respect.

Misguided economics can degrade the environment and better economic policy can
act as a major force to improve the environment.

References and Recommended Further Reading

Bann, C. 1997. An Economic Analysis of Tropical Forest Land Use Options, Rattanakiri
Province, Cambodia.

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Chapter 39

Economic Instruments to Preserve Environmental Quality

39.1 Introduction

Environmental controls are needed to prevent economic actors, (individuals, firms and
government), from making decisions on their level of production, consumption and
investment without considering the impact of their activities on the environment. In the
absence of an environmental policy, the investor is likely to be concerned only with the costs
and benefits to themselves from their activities, these are termed 'private costs'. The other
costs, such as the costs of pollution and environmental degradation, which the investor will
have ignored, are termed 'social costs'.

Consider an industry, which discharges waste, which uses up oxygen into the river. The
oxygen reduction may kill fish in the river, and this means that those who depend on the fish
for their livelihood will loose out financially. If there are no controls on the amount of waste
the industry can discharge into the river, the industry will continue its activities to the
detriment of the livelihoods of river communities. The industry will have taken into account
it's private costs, e.g. the cost of labor, equipment and materials, and of building maintenance,
but not the wider social costs associated with it's activities, e.g. water pollution. Economic
actors are likely to disregard such environmental social costs, even if they are aware of them
as so long as there is no environmental policy.

The fact that environmental social costs are normally omitted from investment / development
decisions is a very strong argument for installing social institutions responsible for the
development, implementation and monitoring of environmental policy. The objective of such
a policy is the protection of environmental quality, i.e. the quality of air, water and soil as
well as the availability and quality of natural resources, landscape and scenery.

39.2 Approaches to Pollution Control

There are two main approaches to environmental protection:

• the setting of standards (the command and control approach);
• the application of economic instruments / market based instruments.

39.2.1. Standards / Regulations

Up to recent times most pollution control efforts have involved what economists call “
command and control approach” which is the passing of laws which impose rules and
regulations and set limits and standards of pollution. They are aimed at directly influencing
the behavior of the polluters by:
• regulating processes or products used, e.g. regulations stating what type of control
equipment must be used;
• prohibiting or limiting the discharge of certain pollutants;
• restricting activities to certain times or areas;

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• establishing a particular level of environmental concentration for the pollutant. For

example setting the percentage of dissolved oxygen in water in order to control water
quality

The main feature of a standard is that there is no other choice left to the polluter: he has to
comply(obey) with the standard, or face monetary fines or imprisonment. Standards are
normally set with reference to some health-related criteria. For example in the control of
water quality the level of contaminants permitted in the water supply will not exceed the level
required for the water to be safe to drink, and in relation to air quality the concentration of
sulfur dioxide and particulate matter allowed will be consistent with avoiding respiratory
illness.

An advantage to the command and control approach is that it provides regulators with a
reasonable degree of predictability on how much pollution levels will be reached. However,
this approach is expensive to implement and provides no incentive for improvements beyond
the standard set.

39.2.2 Economic Instruments / Incentives

39.2.2.1 What are Economic Incentives / Market Based Incentives?

Economic instruments are a tool that is widely used in the field of environmental policy.
They are largely applied in relation to pollution problems : air and water quality control, soil
protection, waste management and noise control. Economic instruments provide monetary
incentives for voluntary / non-coerced action by polluters in order to improve the
environment.

The simplest form of a market based incentive is the pollution charge or tax. A charge is set
on the product, or the inputs used to make the product, so as to raise the cost of making the
product. The tax should bear some relation to the value of the environmental service used in
production, (i.e. it should be related to the cost of damage that will be caused by its use).

In a strict definition only those financial incentives which encourage more appropriate
environmental behavior can be categorized as economic instruments. Charges which only
raise revenue for the government are not economic instruments. Economic instruments should
primarily be used to provide incentives for polluters to abate pollution, i.e. to change the
behavior of polluters in a manner which benefits the environment.

The price indicates to consumers what the cost of producing a particular product is, and to
producers the price indicates what consumers relative valuations are. Economic instruments
use prices to change the behavior of consumers and producers. Financial burdens are put on
polluters, and in some cases these costs are so large that they provide an incentive to reduce
pollution. An alternative approach is to offer financial incentives to polluters to modify the
environmental impacts of their activities.

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Common components of environmental economic instruments are therefore:

• the existence of a financial incentive;
• the possibility of voluntary action;
• the involvement of government related authorities;
• the intention of (directly or indirectly) maintaining or improving environmental.
•
39.2.2.2 Advantages of Environmental Econom ic Instruments
Economists favor economic instruments because they are expected to provide environmental
policy-makers with flexible, effective and efficient options in realizing its objectives. They
were also expected to lead to on-going pressure to further reduce emissions and to develop
cleaner technologies.

Economists are critical of the command and control approach even though it is favored by
governments and their regulatory agencies worldwide.

Economic Efficiency
The aim of society should be to achieve environmental quality objectives at minimum cost.
This is consistent with the idea of sustainable development since it ensures that acceptable
environmental standards are achieved and avoids wasting resources on more expensive
approaches. From the point of view of economics, market incentive policy instruments, e.g.
effluent charges and rights, can be shown to be the most effective way of controlling
pollution.

Charges have the following advantages over command and control techniques.
Charges enable polluters to choose how to adjust to the environmental quality standard.

Polluters with high cost of abating pollution will prefer to pay the charge.
Polluters with low costs of abatement will prefer to install abatement equipment. By making
abatement something that 'low cost' polluters do rather than 'high cost' ones, charges tend to
cut down on the total costs of compliance, (compliance costs are the costs that polluters bear
in meeting the standard).

The charging mechanism does not reduce the environmental quality standard. It is the same
standard that would be achieved by command and control. The charge simply introduces
flexibility into the compliance mechanism. Command and control because of its rigidity
does not do this. The standard is set and polluters are legally obliged to honor it however
best they see fit.

A tax adjusts market prices to reflect the use of environmental services which are otherwise
incorrectly treated as being free. Command and control polices adopt a regulatory stance
which ignores the efficiencies of the market mechanism.

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Dynamic Efficiency
Environmental economic instruments provide incentives for innovation/technological change.
With standards, the polluter has no incentive to abate pollution until the defined level is
reached. There is no penalty for wastes emitted up to the regulated amount. However, it is
more desirable to encourage polluters to search continually for lower cost technologies for
reducing pollution. Under the control and command approach this incentive does no exist.
With a tax however, the polluter still pays a tax on all pollution even if it is below the
regulated amount - and hence has a continuing incentive to reduce pollution.

39.3 Classification of Economic Instruments

39.3.1 Charges
Charges, to some extent, may be considered as a price to be paid for pollution. Polluters
have to pay for their use of environmental services. With a charge, use of the environment
enters, in some part, into private cost-benefit calculations.

Charges may have several impacts that are relevant from a policy perspective:
- an incentive impact and
- a redistribution impact.
The incentive impact of charges depends on the cost and price changes brought about by the
charge. In the majority of cases, charges will mainly have a redistributive effect, since they
are too low to have an incentive impact and the revenues are intended for collective treatment,
for research on new abatement technologies or for subsidizing new investment.
There are various types of charges:

39.3.1.1 Effluent Charges

Charges to be paid on discharges into the environment, based on the quantity and/or quality of
the effluent.
• Incentive effluent charges: revenue collected via the charge is not returned to the polluter.
• Distributive effluent charges: revenue collected via the charge is returned to the polluter
in the form of subsidies for new pollution controlled equipment.

39.3.1.2 User Charges

Payments for the costs of collection or public treatment of effluent. Tariffs may be uniform
or may differ according to the amount of effluent treated. E.g. collection of solid waste in
Phnom Penh.

39.3.1.3 Product Charges

Additions to the price of products which are polluting or difficult to dispose of. Product
charges can be based on some product characteristic, (e.g. charge on sulfur content in mineral
oil) or on the product itself, (mineral oil charge). They have a revenue raising feature. The
majority of product charges are applied to cover environmental expenditures relating to the
potentially harmful products involved.

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39.3.1.4 Administrative Charges

Control and authorization fees, such as payments for services provided by the authorities, for
instance for registration of certain chemicals or implementation and enforcement of
regulations.

39.3.1.5 Tax Differentiation

Leads to a lower price for environmental-friendly products, and a higher price for
environmental-damaging products. Tax differentiation is similar to a product charge except
the sole purpose of tax differentiation is its incentive impact, while product charges also have
a revenue-raising goal.

In a number of countries, tax is applied to car fuels to encourage the consumption of

unleaded petrol. Tax differentiation seems to be one of the more successful economic
instruments which may be used to protect the environment.

39.3.2 Subsidies
'Subsidies' is a general term for various forms of financial assistance, which act as an
incentive for polluters to alter their behavior or which are given to firms facing problems in
complying with those standards.
There are several types of financial assistance:
• grants: non-repayable forms of financial assistance, provided if certain measures are
taken by polluters to reduce their future levels of pollution;
• soft-loans : loans where by the interest rate is set below the market rate, (the interest rate
is the cost of borrowing money). Such loans are provided to the polluters if they take
certain anti-pollution measures;
• tax allowances: favor actors by means of allowing accelerated depreciation or other
forms of tax or charge exemptions or rebates if certain anti-pollution measures are taken.
Tax allowances directly influence income or profits, while tax differentiation works via
product prices.

Many countries have substantial practices of applying subsidies as instrument in realizing

their environmental policy objectives. Subsidies are generally aimed at inducing polluters to
engage in more responsible environmental behavior. In general, the acceptability of using
subsidies is greater, when the related environmental problems are felt to be more severe. In
the majority of cases, financial assistance appears to serve a mainly economic goal, namely
financially supporting firms that are severely affected by imposed direct regulations.
Subsidies for the development of clean technology might have the function of speeding up the
compliance with policy objectives and, therefore, ease the introduction of new regulations or
the enforcement of existing ones. Examples are water pollution treatment, restoration of
hazardous waste sites and control of sulfur dioxide emissions from fuel combustion.

Subsidies, therefore, can speed up plant renewal, solve economic problems encountered in the
process of policy implementation and contribute to development and introduction of clean

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technologies. Therefore, with a few exceptions, subsidy systems are considered as a vital
counterpart to direct regulations.

39.3.3 Deposit-Refund Systems

In deposit refund systems a surcharge, additional charge, is laid on the price of potentially
polluting products. When pollution is avoided by returning these products or its residual to a
collection system, a refund or as surcharge follows. In effect consumers are charged a
certain amount of money as an ex ante payment for the pollution they might bring about.
These systems are widely applied with respect to beverage bottles. The environmental
effectiveness of deposit refund systems depends on the percentages of returns. In practice,
deposit refunds appear to be more effective than voluntary return systems.

39.3.4 Market creation

Artificial markets can be created where actors might buy 'rights' for actual or potential
pollution or where they can sell their 'pollution rights' or their process residual (recycled
materials).

One form of market creation is emissions trading. The use of emissions trading is an
alternative to, and in many ways a substitute for, the use of pollution charges. Under this
approach, dischargers have the same type of emissions limits as under normal pollution
control programmes. However, if a discharger releases less pollution than its limit allows,
the firm can sell or trade the differences between its actual discharges and its allowable
discharges to another firm which then has the right to release more than its limit allows.
Under different approaches, these trades can take place within a plant within a firm or among
different firms.

The way of doing this is to establish a pre-ordained environmental standard and then issue
permits for the polluters. A market is then established in the permits, i.e. they are allowed to
be bought and sold. Such an idea strikes many as immoral, but it is exactly what happens with
the command and control system anyway. Polluters are permitted to pollute up to a certain
level and then no more. the idea of a pollution permit therefore should not create undue
concern unless assuming the ability of authorities to set acceptable standards - and that exists
whatever method of control is sought.

The rationale is the same as that underlying the pollution charges approach: polluter with
high abatement costs will prefer to buy permits, while low abatement cost polluters will sell
permits in favor of abating pollution. Once again the overall standard is not threatened, for
that is set by the authorities and they set the number of permits accordingly. Moreover, if
they wish to tighten standards they can buy in permits themselves, thus reducing the permitted
amount of pollution.

Therefore, marketable permits offer a further market based incentive system to meet pre-
ordained environmental quality standards a lower costs.

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39.4 Examples of Economic Instruments for Environmental

Protection

39.4.1 A Carbon Tax

A tax on carbon fuels is widely discussed as a means of combating global warming through
the release of greenhouse gases. A carbon tax would be graduated according to the carbon
content of the fuels. Thus coal would attract a higher tax than oil which in turn would attract
a higher tax than natural gas. Electricity would not be taxed directly but would pay the taxes
on the carbon fuels used to generate it. In this way the electricity sector would alter its fuel
mix to a less carbon polluting form. Any tax on such an input such as fuel will be partly borne
by producers, partly by consumers.

A carbon tax would encourage:

• a switch in the fuel mix of the industrial and electricity sector;
• a switch in the fuel mix of the household sector;
• energy conservation in all energy using sectors.

39.4.2 Marketable Permits

There is some experience of pollution permit trading in the U.S. Basically this operates
through an emissions reduction credit. Suppose a source controls emissions more than it is
required to do under the standard set. Then it can secure a credit for the excess reduction.
The credit could then be traded in several ways.

The first is through a policy of offsets . These allow new sources of emissions to be
established within the region, and which thus add to emissions, provided there is a credit
somewhere else in the region. The new source effectively buys the credits from the existing
sources, the overall pollution level is not increased, and new industry is not unduly deterred
from setting up a new business in a region that would otherwise suffer a loss of income and
employment.

The second way is through a bubble policy. A bubble is best thought of as an imaginary
glass dome covering several different sources of pollution, either several points within one
plant, or several different plants. The aim is not to let the overall emissions from the
imaginary bubble exceed the level required by the standard setting procedure. If any one
point exceeds the standard, for example, it can be compensated by securing emission
reduction credits elsewhere within the bubble.

The third procedure utilizes netting where sources can store up emission reducing credits for
use later in a netting, bubble or offset context.

The results of the marketable permits approach are as follows:

• This trading has tended to result in betted air quality.
• There appear to have been significant cost savings.

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• The offset policy has assisted regions which would otherwise have suffered economically
because of firms being unable to set up non-attainment regions.
• Administrative costs have been high.
• It is probable that abatement technology introduction has been stimulated by the policy.

Emissions trading, as applied in the US air pollution context, does seem to have worked in
terms of stimulating economic efficiency, although it's environmental effectiveness is less
apparent. Substantial cost savings by polluters have been reported and emissions trading has
facilitated continuous economic growth in non-attainment, poor air quality areas.
Administrative costs have also been high.

39.4.3 Regulating Hazardous Wastes: An innovative approach in

Thailand
To control hazardous waste from industrial sources, the Thailand Development Research
Institute has proposed the creation of an autonomous Industrial Environment Fund. In line
with the 'polluter pays principal', the fund would be financed from waste charges that would
first be estimated for each industry and later verified by industrial auditing. The charge
would be set at a level that covers the cost of transport, treatment, and disposal of hazardous
waste and provides a margin for running the program.

A charge of 1,000 baht per ton on the 600,000 tons of industrial wastes projected for 1991
would raise 600 million baht. This is only 0.3% of the GDP originating in the 17,000
industrial plants in Thailand that generate hazardous waste, or 1.5% of net profits.

The proceeds would be used to establish and operate central treatment and disposal facilities
for hazardous wastes collected from factories . Plants that attained lower waste per nit of
output, as verified by accredited private environmental auditing firms, would then be eligible
for rebates. The operation of the treatment and disposal facilities would be contracted out to
private waste management firm through competitive bidding.

The main message of this initiative is that pollution control costs can be minimized if the
incentives are right. The more efficient an industry's production process the less waste it
generates and the less it pays for waste treatment and disposal. The scheme would thus give
industry an incentive to reduce wastes and would encourage the development of business
opportunities in hazardous waste management.

39.5 Trends in Pollution Control

An increased use of economic instruments in respect to standards as a means of

environmental protection is anticipated. This shift is expected to occur as a consequence of
the actual changes in the economic and policy context. In many countries in the last decade,
one or more of the current trends have become manifest:
• a move towards reduced direct government intervention in society, both in financial
(privatization and the enterprise culture) and regulatory sense ('deregulation');

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• a move towards policy integration and practically integrated pollution control, combined
with a growing recognition of the need for increased cost-effectiveness of control;
• a gradual transition away from end of-the-pipe pollution abatement to preventative
measures such as process control and a greater emphasis on the precautionary'
(anticipatory) approach. (i.e. a gradual transition form curative to preventative
environmental policies).
The combined effect of all these tendencies has led some countries to reassess existing
economic instruments, (e.g. revenue raising charges) that have so far played a relatively minor
role in pollution control, and to at least consider the virtues of new types of economic
instruments.

In 1985 the OECD member countries all adopted an environmental declaration which
included a re-affirmation of the Polluter Pays Principle, (PPP). The PPP means that the
polluter should bear the expenses of carrying out pollution prevention and control measures
decided by the public authorities to ensure that the environment is in an acceptable state.
Countries agreed to seek to introduce more flexible, efficient and cost effective pollution
control measures through consistent application of the PPP and economic instruments.

A review of the charging mechanisms used in the OECD countries was undertaken in 1989.
It covered 150 cases spread over 150 countries. This study found that:
• charges are made on effluents in a number of countries; on noise nuisance in some
instances in quite a number of countries;
• in the collection and disposal of waste water in virtually all countries studied;
• on products, such as bottle deposit systems, in quite a number of countries;
• and differential taxes are used in few countries.

39.6 Evaluation of Alternative Pollution Control Options

A selection of instruments can be evaluated in terms of the following criteria:

• environmental effectiveness, i.e. the impact on the environmental quality, either through
pollution abatement by target groups, or collective / public actions;
• economic efficiency - more strictly, cost effectiveness, i.e. the achievement of policy
objectives at minimum cost;
• administrative efficiency and practicability - information requirements, management costs
and propensity to induce opposition, compatibility with institutional framework - in
particular with the 'polluter pays principle'.

39.7 Summary and Conclusions

The principle advantage of market based approaches is that through greater flexibility and by
using price or costs as signals on pollution, individual decision makers can determine what is
best for their own circumstances. This can be shown to result in the least cost solution to
pollution control.

In reality pollution control strategies that have evolved and continue to be adapted reflect
choices not between regulations and one or more economic instrument, but between various

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combinations of regulations and incentives. The rationale for such combined packages
encompasses the need for revenue to finance environmental protection, the incentive provided
by economic instruments to better implement associated regulations and the potential
stimulatory impact on technical change.

It seems to be the case that only a limited number of economic instruments, e.g. emission
trading, are explicitly designed to achieve an economically efficient solution. The financial
generating capacity of economic instruments is more important especially in light of general
public expenditure constraint problems.

Therefore while the de-regulation trends in mix economies could lead to a stronger role for
economic incentive instruments that is most likely to be because of their revenue raising
properties rather than their economic properties per se. The shift in pollution control
philosophy away from remedial end-of-the pipe measures towards a more precautionary /
anticipatory approach may result in more applications of product charges, subsidies aimed at
process charges and deposit refund systems. Most economic instruments operate as adjuncts
to the primary direct regulations and this is unlikely to change in the foreseeable future.

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Chapter 40

Environmental Legislation in Cambodia and The Structure of

The Ministry of Environment

Abstracted from the Ministry of Environment Strategic Plan for 1998-2000

40.1 Current Situation of the Ministry of Environment

40.1.1 Policy and legal framework

The Ministry of Environment (MoE) was created in July 1993 following a proposal by His
Majesty, King Norodom Sihanouk and the RGC. Article 58 of the Constitution of the
Kingdom of Cambodia states that natural resources are state properties, and that the control,
use, and management of state properties shall be determined by law. Article 59 emphasizes
that the state shall protect the environment and the balance of abundant natural resources, and
prepare a plan for the management of those natural resources. Since its inception, the MoE
has developed and strengthened a policy system and legal framework pertaining to
environmental protection and natural resources conservation.

• Royal Decree on the Creation and Designation of Protected Areas

The Royal Decree on the Creation of Protected Areas was promulgated by His Majesty, King
Norodom Sihanouk on 1 November 1993. It consists of six articles:

Article 1: Responsibility for a national protected area system

Article 2: Designation of protected area

Article 3: Amendments

Article 4: Precedence

Article 5: Authority, and

Article 6: Implementation.

This Royal Decree indicates that His Majesty the King is concerned about environmental
protection in the country and provides encouragement for the MoE to fulfill its mandate. The
Royal Decree delegates to the Ministry of Environment responsibility for management,
planning and development of the national protected area system, which includes protecting
the environment, land, forest, wetlands, and the coastal zones. The Royal Decree established
23 protected areas in the Kingdom of Cambodia with a total area of 3,273,200 ha, accounting
for approximately 18% of the country’s surface area.

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• The Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resources Management

The first Law on Environmental Protection and Natural Resources Management was prepared
by the MoE from 1993 to 1995 and was passed by the National Assembly on 24 December
1996. In the legal hierarchy, the law is the supreme legal instrument governing environmental
protection and natural resources management. The law is divided into 11 chapters which
include: General Provisions; National and Regional Environmental Action Plans;
Environmental Impact Assessment; Natural Resources Management; Environmental
Protection; Monitoring, Record Keeping, and Inspections; Public Participation and
Information Collection, Environmental Endowment Fund, Penalties, Interim Provisions, and
Final Provisions. The passage of this law was the manifestation of the initiatives and efforts
deployed by the RGC in promoting environmental protection and natural resources
management aimed at ensuring sustainable development of the country.

• International Conventions

As of the beginning of 1998, the Kingdom of Cambodia acceded to 5 international

conventions related to the environment. These conventions are:

• The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance (the RAMSAR Convention) on

22 October 1996;

• The Biodiversity Convention in 1996;

• The Convention on Climate Change in 1996;

• The Convention on Marine Pollution: MARPOL 73/78 in 1996; and

• The United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS).

Apart from the five international conventions, the Kingdom of Cambodia is preparing policy
procedures to accede to the Basel Convention on toxic and hazardous waste, the Montreal
Protocol on ozone depleting chemicals and the Desertification Convention.

• National Environmental Action Plan

The first Cambodian National Environmental Action Plan (NEAP), which was initiated by the
MoE with support from the World Bank, was designed to develop and implement guidelines
to assist policy makers, the private sector and the public sector to integrate environmental
considerations into national and local development policies, economic decision-making and
investment planning. The NEAP was prepared through a participatory process involving a
variety of government and non-government stakeholders. The first NEAP covers the 5 years
(1998-2002) and focused on the following six priority themes:
• Forest policy;

• Fisheries and floodplain agriculture in the Tonle Sap region;

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• Coastal fisheries management;

• Biodiversity and protected areas;

• Energy development and the environment; and

• Urban waste management.

The NEAP process in Cambodia is iterative; therefore, the priorities and strategies on
environment and natural resource management in the first NEAP document are expected to be
reviewed.

• Sub-Decree on the Organization and Functions of the Ministry of Environment

The Sub-decree No. 57 on the Organization and Function of the Ministry of Environment,
adopted by the Council of Ministers on 25 September 1997, comprises 9 chapters and 20
articles, describing the mission, organizational structure, role and responsibilities of the MoE.
Pursuant to this sub-decree, the MoE consists of a General Technical Directorate with
responsibility for liaison, coordination and management of six line departments. The Office of
Inspection; Department of Administration, Finance, and Personnel; and the Minister’s
Cabinet are responsible for the inspection of the MoE's line departments, administration,
financial management and assisting the Minister. The provincial environmental departments
and district environmental offices are responsible for the implementation and coordination of
the MoE’s activities.

• Draft Sub-Decree on Environmental Impact Assessment

The first Draft Sub-Decree on Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) was prepared with
technical support from UNEP in 1995. This draft was reviewed and revised in July 1997 by
ETAP/UNDP in close collaboration with the MoE. The second Draft Sub-Decree on EIA was
comprised of two important parts: the first part gave a summary of basic theories on EIA and
EIA procedures in general; and the second part of the Draft Sub-Decree described specific
procedures for EIA in Cambodia. Since 1997, the draft sub-decree has been redrafted by the
ADB EIA project.

• Draft Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control

The Sub-Decree on Water Pollution Control was drafted by the Office of Water and Soil
Quality Management of the Department of Pollution Control in late 1997. The draft Sub-
Decree which is comprised of six chapters is under review by the Council of Ministers. The
six chapters are as follows:

• General Provisions;

• Planning and Strategies for Water Quality Protection;

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• Provisions for Waste Water Disposal;

• Water Pollution Monitoring;

• Inspection and Water Pollution Sample Analysis;

• Penalties and Final Provisions.

In addition, the MoE is preparing other sub-decrees and legal instruments such as:

• Draft Sub-Decree on Solid Waste, Garbage, and Industrial Toxic Substances Management
( submitted to the Council of Ministers);

• Draft Sub-Decree on Protected Area Management (submitted to the Council of

Ministers);

• Draft Sub-Decree on Inspection Procedures;

• Draft Sub-Decree on Public Participation; and

• Draft Sub-Decree on Information Collection.

40.1.2 Organizational Structure of the Ministry of Environment

The organizational structure of the Ministry of Environment is determined by the Sub-Decree
on the Organization and Functions of the Ministry of Environment, which was passed by the
Council of Ministers on 25 September, 1997. Pursuant to this sub-decree, the MoE is
comprised of a General Technical Directorate with responsibility for liaison, coordination and
management of six line departments:

• Department of Planning and Legal Affairs;

• Department of Nature Conservation and Protection;

• Department of Pollution Control;

• Department of Natural Resources Assessment and Environmental Data Management;

• Department of Environmental Education and Communications; and

• Department of Environmental Impact Assessment.

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• Organization Structure of the Ministry of Environment

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Organization Structure of the General Technical Directorate

DIRECTOR GENERAL

Department of Planning Department of Natural Resources Assessment

& Legal Affairs & Environmental Data Management

Office of Administration Office of Administration

Office of Legal Affairs Office of Cartography & Geographic Information Systems

Office of Environmental Policy & Planning Office of Natural Resource Assessment

Office of Strategic Planning Office of Socio-Economic Resource Assessment

Office of Donor Coordination

Department of Nature Conservation Department of Environmental Education

& Protection & Communications

Office of Administration Office of Administration

Office of Planning & Statistics Office of Education & Training

Office of Protected Areas Office Communications

Office of Wetlands, Watersheds & Coastal Zones Office of Research & Documentation

Office of Community Forestry & Buffer Zones

Department of Pollution Control Department of Environmental Impact Assessment Review

Office of Administration Office of Administration

Office of Planning & Statistics Office of Planning & Statistics

Office of Solid Waste & Toxic Substances Management Office of Project Review

Office of Air Quality, Noise & Vibration Management Office of Project Monitoring

Office of Water & Soil Quality Management

Laboratory

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